08 The Cell

Cellular Basis of Life
opyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
A Closer Look at Cells The cell

Is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life
Figure 1.5
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
25 m
The Cells Heritable Information Cells contain chromosomes made partly of DNA, the substance of genes
Which program the cells production of proteins and transmit information from parents to offspring
Sperm cell Nuclei containing DNA Fertilized egg with DNA from both parents Embyros cells with copies of inherited DNA
Egg cell
Figure 1.6
Offspring with traits inherited from both parents
Discovery of the Cell Robert Hooke (1665)

English scientist, first described and named cells.
Observed in a slice a cork and saw that the compartments / tiny boxes or cells were unique to cork.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)

Dutchman who first saw live cells using grains of sand polished into magnifying glasses.
Saw a microbial world in droplets of pond water and also observed blood cells and sperm cells of animals.
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann (1839)

German biologists, reached a generalization based on many concurring observations reaching a generalization that all living things consists of cells.
Rudolph Virchow (1858)

German doctor, concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells based on his study on how cells reproduce.
Cell Theory (Classic) 1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. A cell is the smallest unit with the properties of life. 3. Each new cell arises from division of another, preexisting cell.
4. Each cell passes hereditary material to its offspring.
To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry
Microscopy Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too small to see with the naked eye
Light microscopes (LMs)

Pass visible light through a specimen
Magnify cellular structures with lenses
Can be used to visualize different sized cellular structures

10 m Light microscope Electron microscope 1m
Human height Length of some nerve and muscle cells Chicken egg
0.1 m 1 cm
Frog egg
1 mm 100 m 10 m 1m 100 nm 10 nm
Smallest bacteria Viruses

Ribosomes Proteins
Electron microscope
Nucleus Most bacteria Mitochondrion
Unaided eye
Different types of microscopes
Most plant and Animal cells
1 nm
Lipids
Small molecules
Figure 6.2
0.1 nm
Atoms
Measurements 1 centimeter (cm) = 102 meter (m) = 0.4 inch 1 millimeter (mm) = 103 m 1 micrometer (m) = 103 mm = 106 m 1 nanometer (nm) = 103 mm = 109 m
Use different methods for enhancing visualization of cellular structures

TECHNIQUE RESULT
(a) Brightfield (unstained specimen).

Passes light directly through specimen. Unless cell is naturally pigmented or artificially stained, image has little contrast. [Parts (a)(d) show a human cheek epithelial cell.]
50 m
(b) Brightfield (stained specimen). Staining with various dyes enhances contrast, but most staining procedures require that cells be fixed (preserved).
(c) Phase-contrast. Enhances contrast in unstained cells by amplifying variations in density within specimen; especially useful for examining living, unpigmented cells.
Figure 6.3
(d) Differential-interference-contrast (Nomarski). Like phase-contrast microscopy, it uses optical modifications to exaggerate differences in density, making the image appear almost 3D. (e) Fluorescence. Shows the locations of specific molecules in the cell by tagging the molecules with fluorescent dyes or antibodies. These fluorescent substances absorb ultraviolet radiation and emit visible light, as shown here in a cell from an artery.
50 m
(f) Confocal. Uses lasers and special optics for optical sectioning of fluorescently-stained specimens. Only a single plane of focus is illuminated; out-of-focus fluorescence above and below the plane is subtracted by a computer. A sharp image results, as seen in stained nervous tissue (top), where nerve cells are green, support cells are red, and regions of overlap are yellow. A standard fluorescence micrograph (bottom) of this relatively thick tissue is blurry.
50 m
Electron microscopes (EMs)

Focus a beam of electrons through a specimen (TEM) or onto its surface (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Provides for detailed study of the surface of a specimen
TECHNIQUE
(a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Micrographs taken with a scanning electron microscope show a 3D image of the surface of a specimen. This SEM shows the surface of a cell from a rabbit trachea (windpipe) covered with motile organelles called cilia. Beating of the cilia helps move inhaled debris upward toward the throat.
RESULTS
1 m
Cilia
Figure 6.4 (a)

The transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Provides for detailed study of the internal ultrastructure of cells
Longitudinal section of cilium (b) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A transmission electron microscope profiles a thin section of a specimen. Here we see a section through a tracheal cell, revealing its ultrastructure. In preparing the TEM, some cilia were cut along their lengths, creating longitudinal sections, while other cilia were cut straight across, creating cross sections. Cross section of cilium
1 m
Figure 6.4 (b)

Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions Two types of cells make up every organism
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells All cells have several basic features in common
They are bounded by a plasma membrane
They contain a semifluid substance called the cytosol They contain chromosomes They all have ribosomes
Prokaryotic cells
Do not contain a nucleus
Have their DNA located in a region called the nucleoid
Pili: attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes Nucleoid: region where the cells DNA is located (not enclosed by a membrane) Ribosomes: organelles that synthesize proteins Plasma membrane: membrane enclosing the cytoplasm Cell wall: rigid structure outside the plasma membrane Capsule: jelly-like outer coating of many prokaryotes 0.5 m Flagella: locomotion organelles of some bacteria
Bacterial chromosome (a) A typical rod-shaped bacterium
(b) A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM)
Figure 6.6 A, B
Eukaryotic cells
Contain a true nucleus, bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
Are generally quite a bit bigger than prokaryotic cells
The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on the size of cells
A smaller cell
Has a higher surface to volume ratio, which facilitates the exchange of materials into and out of the cell
Surface area increases while total volume remains constant
5 1
1
Total surface area (height width number of sides number of boxes) Total volume (height width length number of boxes)
150
750
125
125
Surface-to-volume ratio (surface area volume)
12
Figure 6.7
The plasma membrane

Functions as a selective barrier
Allows sufficient passage of nutrients and waste
Outside of cell Carbohydrate side chain
Hydrophilic region Inside of cell
0.1 m
Hydrophobic region
Figure 6.8 A, B
(a) TEM of a plasma membrane. The plasma membrane, here in a red blood cell, appears as a pair of dark bands separated by a light band.
Hydrophilic region
Phospholipid
Proteins
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cells

Have extensive and elaborately arranged internal membranes, which form organelles
Plant and animal cells

Have most of the same organelles
A animal cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin
Rough ER Flagelium Centrosome
Smooth ER
NUCLEUS
Plasma membrane
CYTOSKELETON Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Microvilli Golgi apparatus Peroxisome Figure 6.9 Mitochondrion Lysosome
In animal cells but not plant cells: Lysosomes Centrioles Flagella (in some plant sperm)
Ribosomes
A plant cell
NUCLEUS
Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Centrosome
Ribosomes (small brwon dots)
Central vacuole Tonoplast Golgi apparatus Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
CYTOSKELETON
Mitochondrion Peroxisome Plasma membrane Chloroplast Cell wall Plasmodesmata Wall of adjacent cell
In plant cells but not animal cells: Chloroplasts Central vacuole and tonoplast Cell wall Plasmodesmata
Figure 6.9
The eukaryotic cells genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell The nucleus

Contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell
The nuclear envelope

Encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm
Nucleus 1 m
Nucleolus Chromatin
Nuclear envelope: Inner membrane Outer membrane
Nucleus
Nuclear pore Pore complex Rough ER Surface of nuclear envelope.

0.25 m
Ribosome Close-up of nuclear envelope
1 m
Figure 6.10
Pore complexes (TEM).
Nuclear lamina (TEM).
Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell Ribosomes

Are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
Carry out protein synthesis

Ribosomes ER Cytosol Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes Large subunit Small subunit

Diagram of a ribosome
0.5 m
TEM showing ER and ribosomes
Figure 6.11
The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell The endomembrane system
Includes many different structures
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Accounts for more than half the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
The ER membrane
Is continuous with the nuclear envelope
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Nuclear envelope
ER lumen Cisternae Ribosomes Transitional ER Transport vesicle Smooth ER Rough ER 200 m
Figure 6.12
There are two distinct regions of ER

Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
Rough ER, which contains ribosomes
Functions of Smooth ER The smooth ER

Synthesizes lipids
Metabolizes carbohydrates
Stores calcium
Detoxifies poison
Functions of Rough ER The rough ER

Has bound ribosomes
Produces proteins and membranes, which are distributed by transport vesicles
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center The Golgi apparatus
Receives many of the transport vesicles produced in the rough ER Consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
Functions of the Golgi apparatus include

Modification of the products of the rough ER
Manufacture of certain macromolecules
Functions of the Golgi apparatus

Golgi apparatus cis face (receiving side of Golgi apparatus)
1 Vesicles move 6 Vesicles also from ER to Golgi transport certain proteins back to ER
2 Vesicles coalesce to form new cis Golgi cisternae

Cisternae 3 Cisternal maturation: Golgi cisternae move in a cisto-trans direction 4 Vesicles form and leave Golgi, carrying specific proteins to other locations or to the plasma membrane for secretion
0.1 0 m
Figure 6.13
5 Vesicles transport specific proteins backward to newer Golgi cisternae
trans face (shipping side of Golgi apparatus)
TEM of Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments A lysosome

Is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
Can digest all kinds of macromolecules
Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion by

Phagocytosis
Nucleus 1 m
Lysosome
Lysosome contains active hydrolytic enzymes
Food vacuole fuses with lysosome Digestive enzymes
Hydrolytic enzymes digest food particles
Lysosome Plasma membrane Digestion Food vacuole
Figure 6.14 A
(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
Autophagy
Lysosome containing two damaged organelles 1m
Mitochondrion fragment
Peroxisome fragment
Lysosome fuses with vesicle containing damaged organelle
Hydrolytic enzymes digest organelle components
Lysosome
Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion
Digestion
Figure 6.14 B
(b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments A plant or fungal cell

May have one or several vacuoles
Food vacuoles
Are formed by phagocytosis
Contractile vacuoles
Pump excess water out of protist cells
Central vacuoles
Are found in plant cells
Hold reserves of important organic compounds and water
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Tonoplast
Nucleus Cell wall Chloroplast

Figure 6.15
Central vacuole
5 m
The Endomembrane System: A Review The endomembrane system

Is a complex and dynamic player in the cells compartmental organization
Relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system

1 Nuclear envelope is connected to rough ER, which is also continuous with smooth ER
Nucleus
Rough ER
Membranes and proteins produced by the ER flow in the form of transport vesicles to the Golgi
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Nuclear envelop
Golgi pinches off transport Vesicles and other vesicles that give rise to lysosomes and Vacuoles
trans Golgi
Plasma membrane
4 Figure 6.16
Lysosome available for fusion with another vesicle for digestion
5 Transport vesicle carries 6

proteins to plasma membrane for secretion
Plasma membrane expands by fusion of vesicles; proteins are secreted from cell
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another Mitochondria
Are the sites of cellular respiration
Chloroplasts
Found only in plants, are the sites of photosynthesis
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion Mitochondria

Are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
Mitochondria are enclosed by two membranes

A smooth outer membrane
An inner membrane folded into cristae
Mitochondrion
Intermembrane space
Outer membrane
Free ribosomes in the mitochondrial matrix
Inner membrane
Cristae Matrix Mitochondrial DNA
Figure 6.17
100 m
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy The chloroplast

Is a specialized member of a family of closely related plant organelles called plastids
Contains chlorophyll
Chloroplasts
Are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae
Chloroplast
Ribosomes Chloroplast DNA Stroma Inner and outer membranes Granum 1 m Figure 6.18 Thylakoid
Chloroplast structure includes

Thylakoids, membranous sacs
Stroma, the internal fluid
Peroxisomes: Oxidation Peroxisomes

Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
Chloroplast Peroxisome Mitochondrion
Figure 6.19
1 m
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell
The cytoskeleton
Is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
Microtubule
Figure 6.20
0.25 m
Microfilaments
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
The cytoskeleton
Gives mechanical support to the cell
Is involved in cell motility, which utilizes motor proteins

ATP
Vesicle Receptor for motor protein
Motor protein Microtubule (ATP powered) of cytoskeleton (a) Motor proteins that attach to receptors on organelles can walk the organelles along microtubules or, in some cases, microfilaments. Vesicles Microtubule 0.25 m
Figure 6.21 A, B
(b) Vesicles containing neurotransmitters migrate to the tips of nerve cell axons via the mechanism in (a). In this SEM of a squid giant axon, two vesicles can be seen moving along a microtubule. (A separate part of the experiment provided the evidence that they were in fact moving.)
Components of the Cytoskeleton There are three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton
Table 6.1
Microtubules Microtubules
Shape the cell
Guide movement of organelles
Help separate the chromosome copies in dividing cells
Centrosomes and Centrioles The centrosome

Is considered to be a microtubule-organizing center
Contains a pair of centrioles

Centrosome
Microtubule Centrioles 0.25 m
Figure 6.22
Longitudinal section of one centriole
Microtubules
Cross section of the other centriole
Cilia and Flagella Cilia and flagella

Contain specialized arrangements of microtubules
Are locomotor appendages of some cells
Flagella beating pattern
(a) Motion of flagella. A flagellum usually undulates, its snakelike motion driving a cell in the same direction as the axis of the flagellum. Propulsion of a human sperm cell is an example of flagellatelocomotion (LM).
Direction of swimming
Figure 6.23 A
1 m
Ciliary motion
(b) Motion of cilia. Cilia have a backand-forth motion that moves the cell in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the cilium. A dense nap of cilia, beating at a rate of about 40 to 60 strokes a second, covers this Colpidium, a freshwater protozoan (SEM).
Figure 6.23 B
15 m
Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure

0.1 m Outer microtubule doublet Dynein arms Central microtubule Outer doublets cross-linking proteins inside Radial spoke Plasma membrane
Microtubules Plasma membrane Basal body
(b)
0.5 m
(a)
0.1 m
Triplet
(c)
Figure 6.24 A-C

Cross section of basal body
Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities
Cell Walls of Plants The cell wall

Is an extracellular structure of plant cells that distinguishes them from animal cells
Plant cell walls

Are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
May have multiple layers
Central vacuole of cell Plasma membrane Secondary cell wall Primary cell wall Middle lamella
Central vacuole of cell 1 m Central vacuole
Cytosol Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Figure 6.28
Plasmodesmata
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells Animal cells

Lack cell walls
Are covered by an elaborate matrix, the ECM
The ECM
Is made up of glycoproteins and other macromolecules
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Collagen A proteoglycan complex Polysaccharide molecule Carbohydrates Core protein Fibronectin
Plasma membrane
Integrins
Proteoglycan molecule
Integrin
Microfilaments
CYTOPLASM
Figure 6.29
Functions of the ECM include

Support
Adhesion
Movement
Regulation
Intercellular Junctions
Plants: Plasmodesmata Plasmodesmata

Are channels that perforate plant cell walls
Cell walls
Interior of cell
Interior of cell
Figure 6.30
0.5 m
Plasmodesmata
Plasma membranes
Animals: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions
In animals, there are three types of intercellular junctions

Tight junctions Desmosomes Gap junctions
Types of intercellular junctions in animals

TIGHT JUNCTIONS
Tight junctions prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells Tight junction At tight junctions, the membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly pressed against each other, bound together by specific proteins (purple). Forming continuous seals around the cells, tight junctions prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across A layer of epithelial cells.
0.5 m
DESMOSOMES Tight junctions Intermediate filaments Desmosome Gap junctions

1 m Desmosomes (also called anchoring junctions) function like rivets, fastening cells Together into strong sheets. Intermediate Filaments made of sturdy keratin proteins Anchor desmosomes in the cytoplasm.
GAP JUNCTIONS
Gap junctions (also called communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell. Gap junctions consist of special membrane proteins that surround a pore through which ions, sugars, amino acids, and other small molecules may pass. Gap junctions are necessary for communication between cells in many types of tissues, including heart muscle and animal embryos.
Space between Plasma membranes cells of adjacent cells
Extracellular matrix Gap junction
Figure 6.31
0.1 m
The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts
Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to function

5 m
Figure 6.32

08 The Cell

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08 The Cell

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Cellular Basis of Life

opyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A Closer Look at Cells The cell

Offspring with traits inherited from both parents

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Discovery of the Cell Robert Hooke (1665)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann (1839)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Rudolph Virchow (1858)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Cell Theory (Classic) 1. All living things are composed of cells.

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Light microscopes (LMs)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Can be used to visualize different sized cellular structures

Smallest bacteria Viruses

Nucleus Most bacteria Mitochondrion

Different types of microscopes

Most plant and Animal cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Use different methods for enhancing visualization of cellular structures

(a) Brightfield (unstained specimen).

Electron microscopes (EMs)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Figure 6.4 (a)

The transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Figure 6.4 (b)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Bacterial chromosome (a) A typical rod-shaped bacterium

(b) A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Surface-to-volume ratio (surface area volume)

The plasma membrane

Hydrophilic region Inside of cell

(b) Structure of the plasma membrane

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Plant and animal cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin

Rough ER Flagelium Centrosome

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ribosomes (small brwon dots)

Central vacuole Tonoplast Golgi apparatus Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell The nucleus

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The nuclear envelope

Nuclear pore Pore complex Rough ER Surface of nuclear envelope.

Ribosome Close-up of nuclear envelope