Korea and Japan

1910 to 1945- Korea was under the control of Imperial Japan Japan wanted to industrialize and modernize Korea, but their rule was harsh and repressive Japan built factories, roads, hospitals, and schools, improved sanitation and medicine, and transformed the Korean economy Korean workers were exploited, peasants came under control of Japanese landlords Korean laws and customs were banned Korean newspapers were suppressed Japan turned Korea into a Japanese province called Chosen

Korea and Japan

A national liberation movement developed during the Japanese occupation 1919- Korean intellectuals drafted a Proclamation of Independence and held popular demonstrations (based on Wilsons idea of national self-determination- Treaty of Versailles)
Brutally repressed by the Japanese and ignored by the West as Japan was their ally during WWI

Korea and Japan

Hundreds of Korean patriots fled the nation
China- at Shanghai (provisional Korean government in exile) US- at Hawaii (hoping to seek US aid in their battle for independence from the Japanese) USSR Not happy with the West, many young Koreans studied in Russia and were instrumental in forming the Korean Communist party in 1925

Korea and Japan

1930s- Japan moves into Manchuria and China
Caused the Koreans to give up hope of independence

World War II- Koreans hope for the defeat of Japan and their independence
Allied leaders Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek met in Cairo and declared that in due course Korea should become a free and independent state Stalin agreed later in Tehran

Yalta Conference- discussed possibility of Korea being under joint trusteeship

US, Britain, Nationalist China, and USSR

US attention on Japan did not allow them to make concrete plans about Korea

Post-WWII Korea
August 9, 1945- USSR invades Manchuria and Korea By Japans surrender on August 14, the Soviets occupied much of Manchuria and northern Korea US shocked at how quickly things were happening drafted Order No. 1 Surrender instructions to Japanese troops in which the US inserted a provision dividing Korea at the 38th parallel North of parallel- Japanese surrender to USSR South of parallel- Japanese surrender to US Stalin accepts this arrangement partly due to the fact that he still wanted other lands in the Far East Division was not to be permanent- both US and USSR wanted reunification, but were not sure how to go about it

Post-WWII Korea
North Korea Soviet-trained Korean Communists placed in charge

South Korea Japanese officials, who were then replaced by Americans until unification occurred

Unified rule never came

North and South Korea

Leader- Kim Il-song Communist-dominated provisional government Nationalized industry Confiscated land Soviet-backed Democratic Peoples Republic Capital- Pyongyang

US established a representative body and held elections Dominated by conservative and jingoistic forces (industrialists and landlords from the North) Leader- Syngman Rhee Republic of Korea Capital- Seoul

North and South Korea

North Korea
Kim Il-song eliminated his opponents and created a dictatorship Continued Soviet assistance Built up military forces Launched an industrialization drive

South Korea
Syngman Rhee executed martial law and brutal, authoritarian methods to quell internal dissent Recognized by the US and admitted to the UN

The Outbreak of Hostilities

North and South Korea began to prepare for all-out war as the Soviets and Americans left them to their own devices Syngman Rhee was losing control due to his heavy handed tactics and a spiraling economy The US was not prepared to fight for South Korea in the event of an attack by North Korea As evidenced by Dean Achesons speech at the National Press Club in January 1950 North Koreas army reached 130,000 troops Guerrilla troops sent to infiltrate the South Troops and tanks were at the ready on the 38th parallel US did not believe that North Korea would attack without direct Soviet military support (guessed that Korea was low on the priority list of the Soviet Union)

The Outbreak of Hostilities

June 25, 1950- North Korea launches an offensive across the 38th parallel US believed that the North Koreans were acting on Soviet directives
To test Americas resolve or to divert its attention from Eastern Europe

Historians believe that Stalin knew of the attack and that they hoped it would be a short, quick, decisive blow and defeat before the US could even think about getting involved

The Outbreak of Hostilities

USSR had just pulled out of the UN and was in no position to counter American maneuvering in the Security Council
Also underestimated Trumans ability to use the UN to mobilize world opinion and legitimize US military intervention

The Outbreak of Hostilities

US was rethinking overall Cold War strategy
National Security Council was reassessing US foreign policy due to Soviet atomic bomb testing NSC report- NSC-68 (April 1950)
Called for a massive military effort on the part of the US to counter this global threat Build up of its conventional and nuclear forces Prepare to respond to communist expansion anywhere in the world

Approved in September 1950 and impacted Trumans administrations response to Korea

The Outbreak of Hostilities

America responded to the crisis in Korea with great rapidity Truman and his administration agreed that they must do something to keep communism from spreading throughout Asia
After the debacle that was China, which had become communist in 1949

Special session of the UN Security Council was quickly arranged on June 25, 1950
Resolution called for an immediate end to the fighting and withdrawal of North Korean forces from South Korean territory General Douglas MacArthur (already in Japan) was ordered to send supplies and aid to South Korea Called on UN member nations to assist the South Koreans in resisting the invasion from the north

The Outbreak of Hostilities

Truman authorized the use of US naval and air power to slow the communist advance on the Korean Peninsula South Korea could not handle the assault Poorly trained and equipped troops June 28, 1950 (3 days into the war)- Seoul is captured by the North Korean army General MacArthur, upon observing the situation, reported that the South Koreans could not hold their own- that the US would have to intervene Truman and his administration believed that if they went to battle in Korea that Stalin would expand somewhere else on the globe Took the risk anyway and committed ground troops on June 30, 1950

The Outbreak of Hostilities

US thought- How would USSR react? Soviets had little room for diplomatic negotiations in the matter UN approval of US force June 29, 1950- denied any responsibility for the Korean War and blamed the whole situation on South Korea Also warned of international intervention into internal Korean affairs as they were staying out of it Push came to shove and the Soviets did not risk direct military conflict with the US

Widening of the War

Allegedly a UN-conducted war, but the US was the major player
Truman authorized military force before UN approval took the lead in organizing the war effort provided half of the ground troops and most of the air and sea power Douglas MacArthur was appointed as commander-in-chief of UN forces in Korea

Widening of the War

MacArthur assumes command in Korea South Koreans had already lost a string of battles
South Korean army was in disarray and could not mount a counterattack of any sort US air power was used to bomb strategic North Korean sites, but did not help in defending the South to begin with South Korean students and workers welcomed the invaders hoping that Syngman Rhee would be overthrown

Widening of the War

August 1950- North Koreans gained the entire Korean peninsula
Except for the Pusan Perimeter (Southeast corner of the peninsula)

North Korean army was overly extended End of August 1950- UN forces outnumbered North Korean army Early September 1950- North Korean offensive comes to an end
Quick and decisive victory proved elusive

Widening of the War

September 15, 1950- UN personnel landed at Inchon
Port city on the Yellow Sea located 20 miles from Seoul and 180 miles behind the North Korean lines

September 16- 1950- UN troops at the Pusan Perimeter go on the offensive as well Within two weeks, Seoul was recaptured and the Communist forces were in full retreat throughout the peninsula US decided to expand the original objective
Now wanted to move into the North and oust Kim Il-song and unite the entire peninsula under Syngman Rhee

Widening of the War

Late September 1950- Truman authorizes MacArthur to cross the 38th parallel as long as there was no immediate threat from Soviet or Chinese military intervention Early October 1950- South Korean army advanced past the 38th parallel while US was waiting for UN approval of their plans October 7, 1950- UN approved US plans and the army marches north October 19, 1950- UN forces under MacArthur captured Pyongyang Moved north to the Yalu River (separates Korea from Manchuria (China) MacArthur went beyond his original plan and angered the US government (Truman)

Widening of the War

Stalin was prepared to aid China in the defense of North Korea at this point China was fearful that MacArthur would not stop at the Yalu River and invade their land Chinese foreign minister Zhou Enlai threatened to join the war on the side of North Korea if non-Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel UN dismissed this threat as a bluff and invaded North Korea MacArthur promised Truman that the Chinese would be easily defeated by Christmas 1950

Widening of the War

Chinese mobilized and sent forces south across the Yalu River into North Korea Chinese volunteers aided the North Korean army Avoided an all-out declaration of war against the UN November 1950- Chinese volunteers and North Koreans routed the UN forces North Korea was firmly back under Communist control By Christmas 1950- UN forces retreated to the 38th parallel and dug in for a long war

Dismissal of MacArthur and Stalemate in Korea

Truman began to talk about using nuclear weaponry to halt the Communist advance in Korea US allies became fearful Brit PM Attlee flew to the US to make sure that the war remained limited By mid-December 1950- Truman was looking for a way to end the war and cut his losses MacArthur complained of intelligence leaks and restraints placed on him by his superiors Demanded the authority to widen the war by blockading communist China, bombing its industrial sites, and bringing in Nationalist Chinese troops to join the war

Dismissal of MacArthur and Stalemate in Korea

Truman administration had given up hope of unifying Korea and were looking for a way out MacArthur sat on his hands waiting for his superiors to give him the authority to do what he wanted March 24, 1951- MacArthur issued an ultimatum to the Chinese to surrender or run the risk of imminent military collapse
Against US and UN policy at the time

Dismissal of MacArthur and Stalemate in Korea

Truman regarded MacArthurs actions as insubordination A letter of MacArthurs was read in Congress which denounced the administrations limited war policy April 11, 1951- Truman dismissed MacArthur from his military command Ignited severe protest in the US where Trumans popularity sank to an all-time low MacArthur returned home to a huge heros welcome Europe applauded Trumans move as they deemed MacArthur dangerous and uncontrollable

Dismissal of MacArthur and Stalemate in Korea

War in Korea dragged on June 1951- UN forces had managed to halt the Communist advance, inflict severe casualties among Chinese and North Korean forces, and push them back beyond the 38th parallel US forces halted after pushing back the opposing forces and sought a diplomatic end to the war George Kennan was sent to discuss the matter with Jacob Malik (Soviet ambassador to the UN) Originally did not want to because they were not directly involved in the war June 23, 1951- Malik gave a speech calling for a cease-fire along the 38th parallel

Dismissal of MacArthur and Stalemate in Korea

July 10, 1951- discussions between communist and UN representatives took place in Kaesong (not far from the front) Talks bogged over certain issues as bloodshed continued Negotiations eventually resumed in Panmunjom Prisoner repatriation remained an obstacle to a cease-fire UN would not release captives who did not want to go back No real offensives at this point, just a defensive war in which each side maneuvered for position along the 38th parallel for the next two years (1953)

Changes in Leadership- US and USSR

US shift in voters towards the right (Republican) and elected the first Republican president since 1928 (Hoover) (Eisenhower)
Truman botched things for the Democrats by dismissing MacArthur and McCarthyism Republicans blasted Truman administration with the slogan Korea, Communism, and Corruption

Truman did not run for reelection and the Democratic candidate (Adlai Stevenson) shied away from the Truman administration

Changes in Leadership- US and USSR

Republicans called for an abandonment of the containment policy and wanted a new policy of liberation that would free the captive nations and roll back the iron curtain Eisenhower promised an early and honorable end to the Korean War With his platform and his incredible popularity as a WWII war hero he took the presidency in a landslide Eventually, Ike would come to play an increasingly visible and active role implementing his foreign policy Initially, he left the outward conduct of diplomatic affairs to Secretary of State John Foster Dulles

Changes in Leadership- US and USSR

Dulles sought to devise a new foreign policy based on an assertive and combative attitude toward the Soviets and the Red Chinese Claimed that the US should go to the brink of nuclear war to secure American interests and prevent communist gains Six weeks after Ikes inauguration (March 1953) Stalin died Last few years of his reign were filled with paranoia and a return to his purges to oust those who threatened his power Allies and enemies joined against him Boosted the careers of western anticommunists through his extreme suspicion and distrust

Changes in Leadership- US and USSR

October 1952- the Nineteenth Party Congress was convened in Moscow Keynote address was not given by Stalin, but Georgi M. Malenkov (current heir apparent to be the next boss) January 1953- Soviet police arrested Kremlin doctors and charged them with hastening the deaths of several high officials and conspiring with Western spies Resulted in a new and bloody purge Everything somewhat calmed down after Stalins death on March 5, 1953

Changes in Leadership- US and USSR

Stalins death also allowed for some of the tensions brought on by the Cold War to ease Western hopes of a debilitated and chaotic USSR did not happen A more moderate and flexible leadership began to emerge in the Kremlin Malenkov at first took over as head of both the Communist party and the Soviet government Soviet officials did not want a return to one-man rule Nikita Khrushchev was given the post of head of the Soviet government For two years the USSR was ruled by collective leadership

Changes in Leadership- US and USSR

Malenkov moved quickly to defuse Cold War tensions so that more energy could be placed on domestic issues
Abandoned Stalins claims upon territory in northeast Turkey, and sought to repair Soviet relations with Iran, Israel, Greece, and Yugoslavia Internally, he deemphasized heavy industry, increased production of consumer goods, and improved the standard of living Helped to pave the way for a cease-fire in Korea

The Armistice Agreement

1953- US and USSR were looking for a way out of war in Korea Eisenhower tried to break the stalemate by threatening to allow Chiang Kai-shek and his Nationalists of Taiwan to invade China Heightened anxieties, but no breakthrough Malenkov launched a peace offensive Zhou Enlai offered a major concession on the prisoner exchange issue Would allow for prisoners who did not want to return to be given to a neutral country

The Armistice Agreement

Peace talks reconvened in April 1953 US found the Chinese offer unacceptable May 1953- Secretary of State Dulles suggested that the US was about to widen the war effort and might even use nuclear weapons if no agreement were reached June 1953- South Koreans allowed 27,000 prisoners to escape in order to sabotage the peace talks July 1953- communists launched a successful offensive on Pork Chop Hill Talks proceeded anyway July 27, 1953- armistice was signed at Panmunjom Not exactly in good fashion as everyone involved was not happy about the outcome (silent and resigned)

The Armistice Agreement

International peace conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland in 1954
Purpose was to negotiate a peace treaty between North and South Korea Unsuccessful as the talks turned towards Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) Formal talks continued at Panmunjom for decades Korea was destined to be split and to remain bitter foes, heavily armed and hostile, for the rest of the Cold War

The Armistice Agreement

At least four million people, mostly Koreans, were killed in what was billed as a limited war Neither side claimed victory Final cease-fire line was not far from the 38th parallel South Koreans fared better because of their relationship to America Massive American aid allowed them to gain security and prosperity North Korea continued to struggle economically and politically under the regime of Kim Il-song for the remainder of the Cold War and beyond

The Armistice Agreement

America had expanded its global commitments under NSC-68
Containment policy became an anticommunist crusade US became the world police US began to spend more and more on military Drove Soviets and Chinese into a massive communist alliance in the East Acquired new, embarrassing friends in Syngman Rhee (South Korea) and Chiang Kai-shek

The Armistice Agreement

China gained substantial credibility as a military power by holding its own against the mighty US Found itself more dependent than ever upon Soviet assistance as they were shut out of the UN and Taiwan Soviets looked to improve its position in the world Results of Korean War was not exactly what it was looking for USSR was now threatened by industrial giants in West Germany and Japan (both of which were built up by the US on purpose to thwart Soviet expansion) Forced to engage in a long and bitter arms race with the wealthier US

The Armistice Agreement

Beneficiaries of the Korean War were Germany, Japan, and Nationalist China
West Germany and Japan became allies and partners to the US in an anticommunist cause West Germany was rearmed Japan signed a security treaty with the US in which the US agreed to defend Japan Treaty of San Francisco ended US occupation of Japan US defended Taiwan during the Korean War and began pouring in military and economic aid to support the regime there Taiwan retained their UN seat as the formal representatives of China 1954- US signs mutual defense treaty with Taiwan, but repeatedly refused to aid Chiang Kai-shek to reconquer the Chinese mainland