ecosystems

angelayoo

vegetation

woominlee hannahsteenson

futurechristchurch.camiayoung.jordonsaunders

GARDEN CITY OF TODAY When Sir Ebenezer Howard first envisioned the Garden city it was a reaction to the industrial revolution which began to change cities; combining both the economic potential brought by the industrial revolution along with the clean environment of the country. However, with cities continuing to change the notion of this industrial-country-city is becoming obsolete. Gardens have effectively become decorated walls of a city making the delineation between green-belt and city greater. What constitutes the green-belt is also becoming increasingly ambiguous. Is it supposed to be only parks and agricultural areas? The notion of the Garden-city has become increasingly obsolete in contemporary times; questioning what the green-belt could be. This research intends to look into ecosystems, centred on vegetation, as a possible source of breaking the boundary between city and green as separate habitations and green-space which performs to make a new mode of urban. ECO-SYSTEMS
CO2 of the atmosphere

RespirationR

espiration

RespirationR

espiration

Producers
green parts of the plants

Parasites

Herbivores Omnivores

Carnivores Carnivores II + III

Soil Respiration

Atmosphere

Waste

phloem stream

Consumers
(litter) Saprophages Roots Copro- and necrophages Parasites And Herbivore Carnivores

Pedosphere

Decomposers Short Cycle

Decomposers Long Cycle

The understanding of vegetation and nature stems from analysis of the flows and resources across ecosystems. We have attempted to identify the processes that drive and maintain ecosystems and recognise opportunities for regeneration. Streams of biotic interactions and mutualistic relationships between vegetation and the ecosystems it supports shows how every component of nature is co-dependent and related within a cycle. The loss of habitat and diversity of indigenous species can be largely attributed to the activity of humans that disrupt the cycle and do not conform as part of the ecosystem. Native species are usually adapted to support eachother and there is real opportunity in restoring native activity to its origins where it will strive.

Ground Formation
Canterbury was formed millions of years when the ice age came to an end and the great glaciers of the southern alps began to melt. Beforehand , the twin cones of present day banks peninusula rose from the sea forming an island approximately sixty five kilometres to the east of the sorthern alps. When the glaciers carved down the mountains they created huge valleys, scooped out lakes and tore apart rock spreading silts, clay and a rock flour. Rivers poured from glacier mouths bringing with them shingle, gravel, sand and clay. The shingle deposits fanned out as they entered the sea where they ultimately overlapped, and built up, forming the canterbury plains. As this process continued the shingle fans eventually reached the banks peninsula volcanoes uniting the island with the mainland. Due to the constantly changing coastline, the eastern edge of canterbury is littered with a series of ridges. Excluding the smoothed edges of volcanoes, forming the porthills, Christchurch sits on the one degree slope of the alluvial plain. Swamps and lagoons scattered across the plain cause localised variations in the primarily one degree slope of the land. These slight variations introduce a series of ecosystems within Canterbury.

Canterbury Ground Gradients

Flat Gradient <1 This lack of slope creates a very open landscape highly exposed to all climatic elements, especially wind. The warm, dry northwesterly wind sweeps over canterbury, after leaving behind its water in the alps, and stirs up dust from river beds and ploughed paddocks. This has led to the prominance of tussocks and grasses throughout this region.

Flat to Gently undulating Gradient 1-3 The coastal ridges provide a small amount of shelter causing marsh like hollows behind the sand dunes. This provides suitable conditions for small native trees and shrubs.

Gently Undulating Gradient 3-7 Within the flat slope of the alluvial plain small swamps and lagoons have formed due to flooding and soil erosion. These wet land areas are condusive to extensive numbers of native plants and birds.

Easy Rolling Gradient 7-12 Found around the base of the porthills. Covered with small tussocks and shrubs, more sheltered than other areas of the plain.

Strongly rolling Gradient 12 - 15 Due to the changing coastline and eastery winds sloped sand dunes have formed on the eastern edge. Amoungst the sand this area is suited to grasses and tussocks.

Hilly Gradient 15 - 25 Well sheltered western slopes of the port hills. Due to the many crests and valleys a diverse range of native vegetation is suited to the area from tall trees to ground cover plants.

Steep Gradient >25 cliff edges formed due to erosion and ground slip.

christchurch ecosystems
coastal plains

dry plains

wet plains

port hills

DRY PLAINS
The dry plains are part of the alluvial floodplain built up by braided rivers of Canterbury. Prior to European settlement the plains were covered with silver tussock grassland with localized woodland areas of Kowhai, Cabbage trees and Kanuka. Very few of these areas remain within the citys boundaries, with only a few shrubs, patches of kowhai and areas of grassland surviving. The grassland areas are cable of supporting an extensive number of indigenous plant, bird and insect species.

WET PLAINS
The Wet plains have changed drastically since human occupation and the effects of human activity has seen a severe loss of original plant and animal species. The Wet Plains historically supported expansive podocarp (Kahikatea), wetland and swamp forest. Riccarton bush is the only significant podocarp wetland forest currently remaining. The honey eaters, tui and bellbird were important species for pollination and were all abundant in Canterbury in the past.

COASTAL PLAINS
Coastal plains are divided into two broad ecosystems: the estuarine and the dunes. Estuaries contain complex ecological conditions due it being the point where freshwater meets the sea. Cycles of tides and freshwater inflow produce much variations of water levels and salinities which the vegetation must tolerate in order to survive. Dune vegetation similarly are exposed to varying salinities and water levels, but also to extended durations of drought of which Pingao has especially adapted to.

houhere ti kouka tussock kowhai

totara kahikatea te kakahi pukio

akeake pingao oioi

Tussock, Green Skink, Ti Kouka, Kowhai, Pipit, Mikimiki, Young Plains Ecosystems, Ti Kouka, Kotare, Kanuka, Houhere, Piwakawaka, Kohuhu, Mid Age Plains Ecosystems

Kahikatea, Kereru, Manatu, Lush, Totara, Bellbird, Matai, Older Plains Ecosystems, Pukio, Pukeko, Karamu, Peat Plains Ecosystem

Akeake, Riroriro, Ngaio,Old Dune Ecosystem, Pingao, Kuaka, Tauhinu, Young Dune Ecosystem, Oioi, Tuturiwhatu, Marsh Ribbonwood, Estuarine Ecosystem

tall trees small trees/shrub tussock/grass bird species other

dry plains ecosystem

TI KOUKA
mid age plains ecosystem droughty and shallow waimakariri soils

HOUHERE
mid age plains ecosystem moist and deep waimakariri soils

TUSSOCK
young plains ecosystem droughty and shallow selwyn soils

KOWHAI
young plains ecosystem moist and deep selwyn soils

Houhere Hoheria augustifolia

Tall trees or large shrubs endemic to NZ.

Kohuhu Pittosporum tenuifolium

Small evergreen tree with coloured foliage

Kanuka Kunzea ericodes

A tree or shrub native to NZ and SE Australia

The Cabbage tree is endemic to NZ and attracts many insects and birds

Ti Kouka Cordyline australis

Tree native to NZ growing throughout the country. Distinctive yellow

Kowhai Saphora microphylla

Thick leaved mikimiki Coprosma Crassifolia

Stiff bushy shrub

Mikimiki Coprosma propinqua

Small leaved shrub of tree common in scrub

Fantail
Small native insectivorous bird widely distributed in New Zealand.

Insects

Kakariki
Native small forest birds. Orange-fronted parakeet critically endangered

Silvereye
Native but not endemic bird of NZ which eats fruit of Karamu and disperses seed

Lizard
Native geckos and skinks endemic to NZ.

Insects
Caterpillars, aphids, leaf miners

Tui
Native but not endemic bird of NZ

Bellbird
Korimako Endemic passerine bird of NZ. Pollinators of many native plants

Keruru
Native but not endemic bird of NZ

Banded dotterel
Endemic bird protected in NZ. Breed in a variety of habitats

Lizard
Native geckos and skinks endemic to NZ.

Silvereye
Native but not endemic bird of NZ which eats fruit of Karamu and disperses seed

Native Fuchsia
Native tree found commonly throughout NZ with sweet berry

Insects
Caterpillars, aphids, leaf miners

Related Native Plants

Cabbage trees, miro, flax, kowhai, NZ fuchsia

Insects
Flies, moths

Related Native Plants

fuchsia, kowhai, flax Insect: Aphids

tall trees small trees/shrub tussock/grass bird species other

wet plains ecosystem

KAHIKATEA
older plains ecosystem wet taitapu soils

TOTARA
older plains ecosystem moist and deep kaiapoi soils

TE KAKAHI
dry or stoney wet taitapu soils

PUKIO
peat plains ecosystem wet and peaty waimairi and aranui soils

Totara Podocarpus totara

Tall, slow growing trees which provide fruit for native birds

Matai Prumnopitys taxifolia Endemic NZ tree dispersed by Keruru

Kahikatea Dacrycarpus dacrydioides

Tall native tree which provides fruit for native birds

Kanuka Kunzea ericodes

A tree or shrub native to NZ and SE Australia

Manuka Leptospermum scoparium

A small tree or shrub native to NZ and SE Australia

Pukio Carex secta

Tussock edge useful for reestablishing or enhancing wetland areas

Karamu Coprosma robusta

Bushy shrub/ small tree, widespread native species

Keruru
New Zealand pigeon. Endemic to NZ, play important ecological role

Tui
Endemic passerine bird of NZ. Main pollinators of many native plants

Bellbird
Korimako Endemic passerine bird of NZ. Pollinators of many native plants

Kakariki
Native small forest birds. Orange-fronted parakeet critically endangered

Grey Warbler
Riroriro is a common insectivorous bird endemic to NZ

Kuruwhengi
New Zealand Shoveler which eats primarily the seeds of aquatic plants

Silvereye
Native but not endemic bird of NZ which eats fruit of Karamu and disperses seed

Endemic birds of NZ which disperse the seeds of Karamu

Keruru, Tui, Bellbird

Fantail
Small native insectivorous bird widely distributed in New Zealand.

Common plum tree

The Keruru prefers to eat the leaves of the introduced plum tree plant.

Related Native Plants

Cabbage trees, miro, flax, kowhai, NZ fuchsia

Insects
Caterpillars, aphids, leaf miners

Related Native Plants

Beech, Manuka, Kanuka, flax seed, grass seed

Insects
Spiders, insects and their larvae

Related Native Plants

fuchsia, kowhai, flax Insect: Aphids

tall trees small trees/shrub tussock/grass bird species other

coastal plains ecosystem

AKEAKE PINGAO
young dune ecosystem droughty and raw kairaki soils

OIOI
esturine ecosystem wet and salty motukarara soils

old dune ecosystem droughty waikuku soils

Bracken Fern Pteridium esculentum

Bracken, ground cover

Ngaio Myoporum laetum

Native tree to NZ. Fast growing evergreen tree

Akeake Dodonaea viscosa

Widespread distribution. Wood is tough and durable

Nationally endangered native shrub located near coastal areas

Tauhinu Pomaderris ericifolia

A type of sand binding grass native to NZ.

Pingao Desmoschoenus spiralis

Native coastal groundcover with bright green foliage.

Remuremu Selliera Radicans

Shrub which is tolerant to salty conditions.

Marsh Ribbonwood Plagianthus divaricatus

OiOi Apodasmia similis

A tall reed growing on NZ salt marshes.

Grey Warbler
Riroriro is a common insectivorous bird endemic to NZ

Sand fescue Austrofestuca littoralis

A tussock which grows with Pingao.

Fernbird
Insectivorous bird native to NZ, prefering ground dwelling than flying.

Mingimingi Coprosma propinqua Grows alongside marsh ribbonwood.

Banded Dotterel
Native bird feeding on molluscs, crustaceans and insects

Inanga
Known more commonly as whitebait, it is a scale-less fish with a silvery belly.

Insects
The grey warbler will feed on spiders, insects and their larvae

A bird native to both NZ and Australia, it has a fondness for fruits.

Silver Eye bird

dry plains ecosystem - focus stream

HOUHERE

mid age plains ecosystem moist and deep waimakariri soils

Silt Sand Minor clay Sand Silt Greywacke stones Sand Greywacke stones

MANUKA
Leptospermum scorparium Manuka and kanuka were once common shrubland plants of the canterbury plains but numbers have significantly decreased as Christchurch city has developed. However, Maori and Pakeha settlement did cause a shortlived increase in their numbers. Manuka is a bushy shrub seldom growing taller than 5m. Its bark sheds in long papery strips ideal for many insect species, while after flowering it also produces small woody seeds. Historically the bark was used by Maori and European settlers as a poultice for colds, flus and stomache ache due to its antibiotic properties. Its small pointed leaves have also been used to make tea. Manuka flowers have an over represented pollen type that has a higher than normal conductivity about 4 times that of normal flower pollen. This high conductivity indicates the high mineral content of the pollen.

KAKARIKI
Orange-fronted, yellow-fronted and red-fronted Kakariki parrots have become increasingly rare in canterbury with the orange-crowned parakeet (exclusive to canterbury) now highly endangered with less than 200 remaining. They prefer tall unbroken forrest such as the lowfoot hill beech forrests of the southern alps and the dwindling podocarp forrests of Christchurch. However, they are know to fly great distances to reach manuka and kanuka trees for there antibiotic qualities. By using the bark and leaves of Manuka trees these rare parrots were able to rid themselves of parasites, and improve the condition of their feathers. They feed largely on berries such as fuchsia, mahoe and tutu, as well as the seeds of plants like karo, toe-toe and flax.

appropriate ecosystem

MANUKA HONEY
Manuka honey is produced in New Zealand from both manuka and kanuka flowers. The honey is dark coloured and strongly flavoured with a herb and woody characteristic. Manuka honeys antibacterial properties are almost exclusively caused by its hydrogen peroxide content.

BEES
Bees create honey from the pollen of the Manuka and Kanuka tree flowers

FUCHSIA
Kotukutuku Fuchsia is a tree native to New Zealand and part of the Onagraceae family. It is one of few deciduous trees native to New Zealand bush and is common in damp forest margins and regenerating areas. It produces large bell shaped flowers changing colour from blue to red as they mature, while also producing large egg shaped berries.

TUI, BELLBIRD AND KERERU

Tui, Bellbirds and Kereru are all birds native to New Zealand known primarily as honey eaters due to there preferred diet of flower nectar. However, they have a very diverse diet including the berries of fuchsia, coprosma and cabbage trees. They are considered to be the most important seed distributors of native new zealand trees due to there abilities to eat the largest berries and fruit as well as various smaller varieties.

wet plains ecosystem - focus stream

totara ecosystem
moist and deep kaiapoi soils

Totara Podocarpus totara

Totara is a podocarp tree endemic to NZ and was once prominent in the Wet Plains of Christchurch. It is best suited to full sun or semishade conditions and is dry/wind/ wet tolerant. It will readily establish itself on pasture land and prefers rich moist non-alkaline soil. The totara is dispersed by native birds which eat the fruit and excrete the seed.
totara bark totara seed

Kereru ( New Zealand Pigeon) Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae

Large, enedmic bird of NZ that primarily eats fruits from native trees. This makes the Keruru a crucial link in ecosystem nutrient cycles as it supports many native trees that rely solely on native birds for distribution. Breeding depends on the availability of fruit. Keruru feed on podocarp species such as Totara and distribute the seeds. The population of Keruru have declined since human occupation but they can be found in city gardens and parks.

Tui and Bellbird

Endemic passerine birds of NZ that primarily feed on nectar, fruit and insects. They are examples of mutualistic coevolution and pollinate many native plants (such as mistletoe, fuchsia and kowhai).

maori carving

USES: Totara wood is very durable and can be used for outdoor landscaping timber and it is also famous for its carving properties making it the primary wood used for Maori carvings. Before Totara forests were depleted, it was also valued for bridge and wharf construction.

Related Native Plants

Cabbage trees, miro, flax, kowhai, NZ fuchsia, mistletoe, Kahikatea, kaka beak, matai, karamu

Native bird species sightings in Christchurch Indicates urban habitat and existing bush are suitable for survival

Bellbird Kereru Tui

appropriate ecosystem

Common plum tree

The Kereru love to eat the leaves from the common plum tree which is an introduced species of plant. When availability of fruit is scarce, Kereru rely on leaves as a large part of their diet. Plum trees grown well in fertile, well drained soil. Plums are versatile fruit that are enjoyed by many people. (Fruit, jam, jellies, dried plum, sauces, desserts)

coastal plains ecosystem - focus stream

akeake ecosystem
droughty waikuku soils

Akeake Dodonaea viscosa

Meaning forever and ever in Maori, referring to the strength and durability of the wood, it is a tree capable of growing up to 4m and rarely 9m. In the Christchurch context, Akeake is an important part of the dune ecosystem located in the Coastal plains region - as it establishes effective shelters to support life. Akeake is capable of growing quickly and with little maintenance; and is even capable of growing in poor soil conditions. The rapidly spreading canopy and roots are the basis of its sheltering abilities providing both shade to the dry dune climate as well as effectively stabilising the surrounding soil; thus, resisting dune erosions. On the dunes, it can grow in the central and peripherial areas. This is possible to its tolerance to salt spray unlike many other trees. Seeds are propagated by wind. USES: The Akeake tree is useful in many aspects beyond its beneficial impact on the ecosystem. Its hard and durable wood makes it suitable for parts in the boat industry and as timber for small construction. Leaves of the tree are also used in making medicines for bone-fracture and the treatment of rheumatism.

Grey Warbler Gerygone igata

A bird endemic to New Zealand feeding off insects, their larvae and spiders. The Grey warbler or Riorio, has been able to adapt to civilizations and settlements; hence, being able to be independent of its natural habitat, the bush. This has been beneficial to farmers from an economic point of view due to it catching insects, rather than fruit. They are active hunters who are never idle as they perch from tree to tree. Their special pear-shaped nests hung from trees. These nests are protective and are usually enclosed except for one hole facing away from the prevailing wind. Interestingly, the Shining Cuckoo sneaks in an egg during the second batch of eggs. The Grey Warbler, therefore, raises the Shining Cuckoos young in its nests.

Shining Cuckoo, Pipiwharauroa Chrysococcyx lucidus

Parasitic in that it does not raise its young, the Shining Cuckoo lays its egg in the nest of a Grey Warbler as it returns to NZ. It migrates from New Zealand to the Tropics and returns to lay its eggs. The Shining Cuckoo is an important bird in curbing the numbers of the larva of the black and white magpie-moth (Nyctemera annulata) and the Kowhai moth (Uresiphita polygonalis maorialis) as most other birds avoid them.

Magpie Moth Nyctemera annulata

Magpie Moths are endemic to NZ which feed particularly on ragwort.

Kowhai Moth Uresiphita polygonalis maorialis

Kowhai Moth is a NZ native insect, whose caterpillars feed on Kowhai, brooms, lupin, gorse and clover.

appropriate ecosystem Kowhai Tree Sophora microphylla

Kowhai tree grow in mild temperate maritime climates and are native trees to NZ. They are part of the dry plains ecosystem, but are a food for grown Shining Cuckoo; especially, attractive to them for their Kowhai moths larvae and caterpillar.

1856 Map of Vegetation in Christchurch

SAND WITH FERN, FLAX & GRASS SWAMP & RAUPO GRASS ROCKS TREES FLAX

Map before European settlement showing Christchurch

FERN FERN & FLAX RIVERS OR STREAMS CHRISTCHURCH CBD CATHERDAL
Note: all plants are indigenous

Pre-Earthquake Map of Vegetation in Christchurch

Map showing what exists after settlement in by about year 2000
REGIONAL PARK GARDEN AND CITY HERITAGE SPORTS PARK LOCAL PARK CEMETERY ORCHIDS OR VINEYARDS & PASTURE HORTICULTURAL CROPS & PASTURE EXOTIC FOREST IMPROVED PASTURE UNIMPROVED PASTURE REGIONAL PARK WATER URBAN AREA CHRISTCHURCH CBD

FLAX & GRASS GRASS & FERN

Conservation
Exotic Forests:
Forest planted where exotic species, in particular conifers and broadleaved trees dominate. These forests are mostly monocultures, with about 200400 trees per hectare. Growth is for timber.

Farming
Map of Pre-Earthquake Christchurch
This map highlights the various activities associated with vegetation within christchurch. As shown, it shows that human impacts are great ranging from farming, conservation to public domains.

Improved Pasture:

Well-maintained grassland community with medium to high stock density for producing mainly wool, fat lambs, beef, dairy products and deer farming.

Orchards/Vineyards and Pasture:

A variety of tree and vine crops usually produced closely with pastoral farming. The main fruits grown were apples (pip fruit), pears (pip fruit), plums (stone fruit) and nectarines (stone fruit).

(Pinus Radiata)

Pine

(Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Douglas-fir

(Eucalyptus spp.)

Eucalyptus

(Lolium Perenne)

Ryegrass

(Dactylis Glomerata)

Cocksfoot

(Trifolium Repens)

White Clover

(Malus Domestica)

Apples

(Prunus cerasifera)

Plums

Parks with significant native plants:

Within Christchurch the parks Riccarton Bush, Travis Wetland, Horseshoe Lake, Cockayne Reserve have the most native plants. Of these, Riccarton bush has a dense forest of Kahikatea trees. Refer to Parks allow for walking, jogging, leisure sports and fishing for the puiblic.
other maps for information about the diverse plants of natives.

(Trifolium Pratense)

Red Clover

Timothy-grass
(Phleum Pratense)

Yorkshire Fog
(Holcus Lanatus)

(Prunus persica)

Peach

(Pyrus communis)

Pears

Unimproved Pasture:

Low rainfall, poor soils and more relaxed pastoral management producing low stock densities, for wool, sheep meat and beef production. Some risk of reversion to shrub and forest.

Horticultural Crops and Pasture:

Crops are mainly in conjunction with pasture lands (hence, having similar vegetation as pastures) producing both diary and field crops. Crops are primarily peas, beans and sweet corn.

(Dacrycarpus dacrydioides) (Agrostis Capillaris)

Kahikatea Tree

Browntop

Regional Parks:

(Rytidosperma spp.)

Danthonia

(Anthoxanthum odoratum)

Sweet Vernal

(Zea mays convar. saccharata var. rugosa)

Sweet Corn

(Pisum Sativum)

Peas

(Phaseolus vulgaris)

Beans

These parks contain a variety of indigenous and exotic vegetations of which some are of special cultural importance as it has ties with British history. Parks are mainly for walking, jogging, leisure sports and fishing for the public.

Chewing Fescue
(Festuca Nigricans)

Yorkshire Fog
(Holcus Lanatus)

Crop Rotation
Willow Tree
(Salix Alba) (Quercus Robur)

Oak Tree

Public Use
Local Parks:
Parks with mixed indigenous and exotic species of vegetation. These are mainly for the public to engage in as civic centres for activities such as walks, jogging, playing (children), relaxing, cycling and leisure.

City Gardens & Heritage:

A diverse range of exotic and indigenous species maintained intensively for the purpose of viewing and less-physical activities such as walking.

Maize, beans

Sports Parks:

Parks which are mainly for lesiure activities of sports and camping. These sites maintain vegetation according to needs of the function, and therefore, contain mostly controlled exotic plants.

Cemetery:

Gardens artificially maintained for the sole purpose of honouring those who have left this world. These plants vary and are usually exotic.

Pasture

Vegetables