Young Africa

Nokia Research Center
Research Team
Nokia Research Centre Africa:
Jussi Impio Research Leader Mokeira Masita-Mwangi Social Scientist / Researcher (Project Team Leader) Faith Ronoh-Boreh Researcher (Ethiopia, South Africa) Nancy Mwakaba Researcher (Nigeria, Zambia) Nyambura Kimani Researcher (Senegal)
Country Coordinators:
Wahid Manaye Ethiopia Tsakani Nghalaluma South Africa Enock Chisanga Zambia Elijah Agnew Mbwavi Senegal Ajiga Olusegun Nigeria
Other country support team:

Valentine Righa Respondent Recruiter, Kwale, Kenya Diana Nkirote Gitonga Youth Scout, Nairobi, Kenya Jane Mulanda Youth Scout, Nairobi, Kenya Patrick Kariuki Youth Scout, Nairobi, Kenya Cecilia Mkamburi Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya Juma Shibe Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya Binthamisi Toulu Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya Harry Mwawasi Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya Teke Kaleab Respondent Recruiter, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Nahom Asrat Youth Scout, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tiblets Kaleab Birhane Youth Scout, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Asebe Tekeste Respondent Recruiter, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia Tariku Bacha Youth Scout, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia Kidist Megzebu Aklilu Youth Scout, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia Zodwa Shongwe Respondent Recruiter, Johannesburg, South Africa Samantha Bungali Youth Scout, Johannesburg, South Africa Luyanda Mbatha Ngoeese Youth Scout Johannesburg, South Africa Lesetja Reatlegile Mogoba Respondent Recruiter, Jane Furse, South Africa Percy Mabau Youth Scout, Jane Furse, South Africa Sammy Rasomane Youth Scout, Jane Furse, South Africa Moses Mpeta Youth Scout, Lusaka, Zambia Natasha Kabanda Youth Scout, Lusaka, Zambia Daive Singandu Youth Scout, Chikankata, Zambia Hamukamba M Hangandu Youth Scout, Chikankata, Zambia Koutob Naoto Gilchrist Moderator, Senegal Sossehange Ouraga Respondent Recruiter, This, Senegal Aissatou Ndiaye Respondent Recruiter, Saly, Senegal Abdoulaye SY Respondent Recruiter, This, Senegal Moize Youth Scout, Dakar, Senegal Sunday Olaniyan Moderator / Interviewer, Nigeria Debbie Erinosho Respondent Recruiter, Nigeria Tulu Ojoabere Youth Scout, Lagos, Nigeria Suleodu Odutayo Youth Scout, Ikorodu, Nigeria Maragaret Eniola Apena Youth Scout, Ikorodu, Nigeria
Contents
CHAPTER ONE: STUDY BACKGROUND
Study Rationale Study Locations Target Respondents Research Methodology and Techniques Research Questions Report structure and content
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12 13 18 19 22 23
CHAPTER TWO: EDUCATION

Education in Africa Perceptions and youth attitudes towards education An Educational Day at Starays Academy, Kibera, Nairobi Student life and experience at Chikankata Basic School, Zambia
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26 36 42 49
CHAPTER THREE: LIVELIHOODS

Youth and money Livelihood opportunities; do they exist? Ideal jobs versus the reality Attaining the ideal jobs Business as Usual at Kwale Youth Business Centre, Kwale, Kenya All in a days work at the Sub-Saharan Africa Research and Training Institute, Addis Ababa
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56 57 68 70 71 73
CHAPTER FOUR: LIFESTYLE

Youth categories Pastime, fun and entertainment Keeping Fit at the Cornichian Sweat Factory Corniche Beach, Dakar Senegal A Night out Partying at OZ Club in Soweto Dressing Traveling Dreams and aspirations Perceptions Youth and Health Reaching out to the Youth with Mobile Clinic Heath Services through the Arts in Kisauni, Kenya
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77 86 87 89 91 95 99 108 110 115
CHAPTER FIVE: MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION

Mobile Phones Computers Mass Media Social Networks
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121 126 127 128
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS

Education Employment Entertainment
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133 135 137
Tables and Figures

Figure 1: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Kenya Figure 2: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Ethiopia Figure 3: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for South Africa Figure 4: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Zambia Figure 5: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Senegal Figure 6: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Nigeria Figure 7: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Kenya Figure 8: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Ethiopia Figure 9: Adolescents births per 1000 women in South Africa Figure 10: Contraceptive use in South Africa Figure 11: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Zambia Figure 12: Adolescents births per 1000 women in Nigeria Table1: Kenya focus group discussions composition Table2: Ethiopia focus group discussions composition Table3: South Africa focus group discussions composition Table 4: Zambia focus group discussions composition Table 5: Senegal focus group discussions composition Table 6: Nigeria focus group discussions composition Table 7: Types of immersions / observations Table 8: Information areas Table 9: Structure of education, content, capacity and technology use in education Table 10: Enrollment rates in 6 African countries Table 11: What youth in Africa like / dislike about school Table 12: Examples of young peoples ideal jobs Table 13: African youth categories Table 14: Pastime activities for youth in Africa Table 15: Youth descriptions of cool guys and hot chicks Table 16: Health statistics of Senegal Table 17: Internet usage in Africa 13 14 14 15 15 16 111 112 112 112 113 114 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 23 29 37 40 68 78 86 93 114 126
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
AIDS BT CBO CDs CEO CFA CRE CV DFID DHS DJ DoCWILs EDP EFA ETH EU EUR FC FGD FGM FIFA FOMO GAP GHC HIV IMEI ILFS ILO ICTs IRE IT JETS Joburg KBC KCPE KCSE KEN KES KIE KIIs KKV KMTC KTN LGAs LICODEP LLB LYCC MC MP
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Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Bluetooth Community Based Organisation Compact Discs Chief Executive Officer Franc Cefa Christian Religious Education Curriculum Vitae Department for International Development Demographic Health Survey Disc Jockey Department of Communication Web Internet Laboratories Entrepreneurs Development Programme Education for All Ethiopia European Union Euro Football Club Focus Group Discussion Female Genital Mutilation International Federation of Football Associations Fear of Missing Out Graduate Attachment Programme Geography History and Civics Human Immuno Deficiency Virus International Mobile Equipment Identity International Labour Force Survey International Labour Organisation Information Communication Technologies Islamic Religious Education Information Technology Junior Engineers Technicians and Scientists Club Johanessburg Kenya Broadcasting Corporation Kenya Certificate of Primary Education Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education Kenya Kenya Shillings Kenya Institute of Education Key Informant Interviews Kazi Kwa Vijana Kenya Medical Training College Kenya Television Network Local Government Areas Likoni Community Development Programme Legum Baccalaureus / Bachelor of Laws Likoni Youth Community Centre Master of Ceremony Member of Parliament
MPCC MSMEs NBS NDE NERDC NGO NIG NOAS NRC NYSC OBE PC PITs PLC Prim R RADTS REP RHRU RHS SA SART Sec SEN SMS SNS SOW SPSS SPW Sq/km SSA SSE STD STI TD 3D TV TVET UAE UBE UCAD UK UNDP UNESCO UNGASS USA USAID USD VCT VSD WIBA ZAM
Multi Purpose Community Centres Micro Small and Medium Enterprises National Bureau of Statistics National Directorate of Employment Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council Non Governmental Organisation Nigeria National Open Apprenticehip Scheme Nokia Research Centre National Youth Service Corps Outcome Based Education Personal Computer Personal Information Terminals Public Limited Company Primary Rand Rural Agriculture and Development Training Scheme Rural Employment Promotion Reproductive Health Research Unit Rural handicrafts Scheme South Africa Sub Saharan Africa Research and Training Institute Secondary Senegal Short Message Service Social Networking Sites Schools on Wheels Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Special Public Works Square Kilometers Sub Saharan Africa Small Scale Enterprises Sexually Transmitted Disease Sexually Transmitted Infection Technical Drawing Three Dimension Television Technical and Vocational Education and Training United Arab Emirates Universal Basic Education University of Cheikh Anta Diop United Kingdom United Nations Development Programme United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations General Assembly Special Session on HIV and AIDS United States of America United States Agency for International Development United States Dollar Voluntary Counseling and Testing Vocational Skills Development Women International Boxing Association Zambia
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Prologue
In Africa 42% of the population is 15 years or younger. Many Asian countries managed to utilize similar demographic structures by recruiting great masses of working age youth to low paying industrial jobs. This attracted foreign investment and enabled rapid economic growth in India, China and some other Asian countries. The situation in Africa compared to Asia 10 years ago is somewhat different: Africa has 56 countries, corrupted governance, immature legislations, low education level, etc. Altogether it is fair to say that most African countries are not yet ready for the industrial revolution, despite the availability of young, healthy and motivated labor. Frances Steward from the Development Studies Department in Oxford University says in his study Root causes of violent conflict in the developing countries that the number of unemployed young men correlates with the overall instability of the country. An idle mind is the devils workshop, says an old Christian proverb. Idle young men are also a workshop and a resource for radical political leaders and other economically influential people that are often behind the conflicts in Africa. The more idle young men there are, the more likely you are to have war like conflicts. Young girls with low education level and no jobs are more likely to get into early marriage and give birth to a large number of children or get into prostitution, as our study will show you. Here are the two extremes where big numbers of youth with very little opportunities can lead: Asian type economical wonders or internal and external conflicts and increased instability. This study aims at understanding the lives of young people in 6 African countries from their own perspective. What are the hopes and fears, who their heroes and role models are and what are the realistic opportunities for these young people. With this insight we are better equipped to create mobile solutions which are engaging and empowering at the same time. Mobile phones are part of the lives of African youth. If one doesnt yet have a phone, he or she is saving for it right now. Mobiles can provide an effective channel for reaching African youth with empowering tools of self-expression, education and employment. African youth in general lack opportunities, this can create phenomena such as the Yahoo Boys in Nigeria (whose products are a common annoyance and referred to as Nigerian letters on the receiving end). Here we have a group of entrepreneurial young men with few opportunities to utilize their skills in a legal way and operating in an environment where the grey area is so wide, that this kind of activity is socially more or less acceptable. Can we offer something for the Yahoo Boys and people like them where they can legally benefit from their adventures in a virtual world and pursue their ambition in a more sustainable manner? Are we able to provide something for the rural girls with no access to education and very little hope of getting a job? Though these challenges seem great, often just a little push, or pull to the right direction is enough for the young person who is balancing between the ability to sustain ones life or not, between the legal and illegal or between hope and hopelessness. Mobile solutions have a great promise in giving this little extra empowering push, and it is our challenge and responsibility to deliver the tools for it.
Jussi Impi
Research Leader Nokia Research Center Africa
Executive Summary
About Young Africa Project
NRC Africa chose to study the African youth because they are an integral part of future socioeconomic development in the region; they have the potential to be the drivers of this given their numbers. Sub-Saharan Africa is the youngest region of the world - 44% of population is under 15yrs. The overall goal of the project was to understand in-depth what being an African youth is all about; map out the various challenges and opportunities in terms of education, employment and entertainment so as to create meaningful mobile solutions for development and empowerment of youth in Africa. The study was carried out in 6 countries in SSA namely Kenya and Ethiopia in the east, South Africa and Zambia in the south and Senegal and Nigeria in the west. The main study was qualitative in nature seeking to explore the the issues in-depth through group discussions, in-depth interviews, ethnographic immersions and participatory youth scouts. Supporting pre-studies were also conducted i.e. desk study (secondary data) and real time youth insights.
Findings on Education:
How accessible is education to young people in Africa? It appears that access to a good formal education is still a challenge for many African youth. Completion of primary school equals the end of the road for many trying to acquire a good formal education. Hundreds of thousands drop out every year after primary school as there are not enough secondary schools to accommodate everyone. Also, while primary school is free in most places many cannot afford to pay secondary school fees and other associated costs. Similarly many more drop out after secondary school because there are not enough public universities to accommodate all. Most of those left out cannot afford fees at private universities. The option for many of these drop outs is either to join vocational or technical training insitutions or informal schooling altogether. Another factor contributing to the poor access is the severe shortage of qualified trained teachers to deliver the curriculums to students in Africa. Rural and public schools are especially affected and as such student teacher ratios are quite appalling. It is possible to find extremes where one teacher has over 100 students in their class. Some country governments e.g. Ethiopia and Kenya are introducing digitized curriculums and broadcasting live lessons to schools in an effort to try and mitigate lack of teaching staff. However ICT infrastructure is still very poor (including lack of electricity in most rural areas) and where ICT facilities exist they are limited and poorly maintained. How relevant is the education in Africa? On the most education does little to prepare young people for the realities of the job market. Curriculums are heavily theoretical with little or no practical activities incorporated. The method of instruction is also mainly lecture based with little opportunity for students to exercise creativity and critical thinking. In some countries revision and rationalization of the curriculums has seen elimination of practical subjects such as Art and Craft, Music, Home Science among others which the youth appreciated for the technical skills they were previously able to acquire. In addition though most countries have now introduced life skills or life orientation in their curriculums it is still largely ineffective due to the limited topics covered and poor methods of delivery. There is also little or no use of relevant technologies in education. Through the study it was also established that academics are what matter; extra curricula activities are not a given and they really dont count. This is evident in most public schools as there are no standards or enforcement of extra curricula activities by relevant education authorities hence little or no emphasis on the same by
the schools. The variety of activities available therefore is quite limited for most and very little time is allocated for such activities. In some places like Zambia, the students are even made to do other tasks such as cleaning the school during the time allocated for extra curriculas. Further, due to the absence of enough patrons or coaches to drive these activities, they simply do not succeed. Extra curricula activities are also mainly an in-school affair it starts and ends here as youth have limited avenues for continuation after secondary school. Nonetheless talent exists and youth are eager to develop and nurture it to its full potential.
Findings on Employment:
Livelihood opportunities do they exist? Formal employment opportunities are few and far between. As such a good formal education does not necessarily translate into a good job in the formal sector. The landscape is extremely competitive. There is also a livelihood tug of war between the older and younger generation in that opportunities are withheld by the older persons and there is no room for young people to exercise skills and creativity in the workplace. There is limited flexibility to allow exploration and pursuit of ambitions. Also students are often locked in a career that is in line with their study discipline which is difficult to break out. All in all the study therefore found that there is thus a strong desire to by many young people to make a shift to self-employment. This is driven by acknowledgement of job market realities and personal factors such as education background, skills, talents, personal interests and passions, creativity and innovation. However this is also stifled by fear due to lack of experience, business start-up know how and associated risks as well as no entrepreneurship training and mentoring through education systems. Youth also lack access to start-up and expansion capital hence never quite making the shift to self-employment despite the desire to do so. The Young Africa study also established that youth have poor access to job market information. There is heavy reliance on advertisements in mass media particulary newspapers yet the youth have limited access to the same; distribution in rural areas is negligible hence rural youth are especially affected. There is also a tendency by the youth to be fixated on the Big companies. They have lmited awareness of the other players and also display unrealistic expectations of employment where they will work, how soon they will be promoted, how much they will earn, benefits they are likely to get, etc. Youth also lack awareness of and knowledge to seize meaningful business opportunities.
Findings on Entertainment:
Whats big on the entertainment scene? Entertainment equals music; its a way of life or life itself every youth wants a piece of it be it in terms of listening to it, dancing to it or making it for those who have some talent that they want to exploit even in terms of livelihood. Youth listen to music either as a solo activity during their regular day to day routines or with friends (including dancing) still within regular day to day activities or sometimes during specific social events. Many access music through radio and some also share and exchange music within their social networks. Any news on the music industry? Young musicians in Africa are missing out on a big break. The production industry is highly fragmented too many people hold the rights for different aspects of a song. As such musicians cannot sign for hence get paid for use of their music or placement in a music store or other similar platform. Piracy persists and is still therefore a great challenge for many young African musicians trying to eke out a living from their music. Nonetheless the appreciation for local music is continmuing to grow. For example local music for genres that in the recent past have typically been western are now available such as Kenyan Rock.
What else engages young minds and young time? Watching TV and Movies are a common and favourite pastime for many youth. Like music its both a solo or social activity but the latter is more preferred. Approximately 90% of what youth in Africa are watching is mainstream (western and other from abroad) and 10% is Nollywood and other local programmes and movies. Youth have music on their phones and now also want mobile TV and movies. They are also making the shift from broadcasted TV to the same content on DVD because of increased availability and accessibility of the same. However just like the music, most of the material is pirated. Some youth especially the urban and mid to upper income ones also play games such as play station though there seems not to be a very strong gaming culture especially with mobile phone games. The desire to read as a pastime activity also exists for many though access to suitable literature is quite a challenge. Many depend on school resources which are also rather limited. There are little or no community resources such as libraries through which youth can also access reading material. There is also limited access to computers and the Internet which would be the other option. How then can free literature or content that exists be packaged and availed for youth in Africa? Significant numbers of youth also spend their pastimes in pursuit of given talents, passions and interests. Many youth are big on sports; football is particularly popular across the various countries be it in terms of playing or watching. Pay-to-view halls in rural and low income urban areas capitalize on this. Other youth are into performing arts both in terms of performing or watching. Generally there is room to experiment and grow given that audiences in Africa are quite receptive to new and raw talent. Youth are also joining and forming art groups with hope of earning some income from it so how best can they be helped to monetize their talents? Just as music is universal amongst young people, all youth simply love to socialize with friends and there is need for new and more cost effective methods to help youth keep in touch with their social networks.
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Chapter One | Study Background

Study Rationale
Why are African youth important? With 44% of its population under age 15, Sub Saharan Africa is the youngest region of the world (2006). We are therefore living in the age of youth. The population of Africa exceeded 1 Billion at the end of 2009. Youth being the majority have the potential to play a crucial role in bringing about great socio-economic development in Africa. Asia is a good example having started its economic development when the large youth population attained working age and joined the labour market. Helen Clark, Head of UNDP is recently quoted as saying: In the next decade, Africa is either going to rise or fall with its youth. This statement implies that despite the great potential that exists among the youth, there are challenges that need to be
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overcome such as unemployment, social vices, limited education & training opportunities, urbanization & globalization demands and influences, among others. Thus the essence of this research study carried out by Nokia Research Centre, Africa to explore solutions for development and empowerment of young Africans. Broadly the key research objective was to understand what being an African youth is all about in terms of: exploring and defining African youth segments and their lifestyles, mapping youth callenges and opportunities and illustrating what impact and influence mobile technology has had so far amongst young people. The findings of this study will therefore enable NRC Africa develop meaningful mobile solutions for the development and empowerment of the youth in Africa.
Study Locations
Where was the study conducted? The study was conducted in Rural and Urban Kenya, Ethiopia, South Africa, Zambia, Senegal and Nigeria in seeking to gather insights from different parts of Sub-Saharan Africa - East, West and Southern. 2005 which is largely attributed to death from diseases especially HIV/AIDS and better methods of family planning. The youth in Kenya, number about 9.1 million, and account for 32% of the population. Of these, 51.7 % are females. The population density is estimated at 68.58sq/km in an area of 580,367km2. The population pyramid reveals that Kenya is populated by young people as shown below:
Kenya
Kenya is a country in East Africa. Lying along the Indian Ocean, and at the Equator, it is bordered by Ethiopia to the north, Somalia to the northeast, Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west and Sudan to the northwest. The capital city is Nairobi. In 2008 the population of Kenya was estimated to be 38.5 million with a population growth rate of 2.6 percent. This growth rate had declined from 2.8 percent in
Figure 1: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Kenya
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Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a landlocked population. The population density of this country is 71.74sq/km in an area of 1,104,300km2 according to 2009 estimates. The population pyramid shows the country experiences high birth rates due to the wide base. The death rate is also high for individuals above 50 years. This pyramid indicates that the country has more young people. Figure 2: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Ethiopia
country in East Africa and is one of the most ancient countries in the world. It is the second most populous nation in Africa and the tenth largest by area. The capital city is Addis Ababa. Population censuses and projections conducted in different years show that youth constitute a high proportion of the Ethiopian population. In 2009, the population of Ethiopia was estimated at 82,825,000 in comparison to the estimate of 2007 which was 77,100,000. By then the urban population was 16% of the total population. The youth aged 10-24 years were 26,500,000 in 2006 which was 34% of the total
South Africa
South fourth largest Africa country is in the the km2 and has a population density of 40.39 sq/km. South African population is predominantly young, with youth constituting the largest segment as compared to other population groups. The population pyramid of this country reveals that the country is dominated by young people. This is especially so for the age group 10-34 years. The figure below presents a better understanding of the population in South Africa: Figure 3: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for South Africa
Commonwealth and has the sixth largest population in Africa. With 50% of its population living in urban areas, South Africa has a higher rate of urbanization than most SubSaharan countries. According to 2009 mid-year population estimates, South Africa has a population of 49,320,500 persons with Africans being a majority constituting just more than 79% of the total population. The White population constitutes 9.1% of the population, coloured population 9% and Indian/ Asian constitute 2.6% of the whole population. 52% of the population is female. The country occupies a land mass of about 1,221,037
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Zambia
The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. The neighboring countries are the Democratic Republic of Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west. The capital city is Lusaka located in the southeast of the country. The population is concentrated mainly around the capital Lusaka in the south and the Copper belt to the northwest. According to 2009 population estimates, the population of Zambia is estimated at 12,935,000 million. The population density is estimated at 17.19sq/km and the country occupies a land mass of 752,618km2. The major challenges facing youth Figure 4: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Zambia in Zambia include unemployment, access to education and HIV/AIDS. The wide base of the population pyramid indicates a large proportion of the population is young. This is an indicator of a high birth rate. The narrow top indicates a small proportion of the population is old implying a high death rate. Ageing or youthful populations may have implications on labour availability and unemployment, economic growth, educational provision.
Senegal
The Republic of Senegal is a country in western Africa. Senegal is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east and Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south. It also encircles Gambia on its three sides, except that of the Atlantic Ocean. Dakar is the capital city. This country is 196,722 km in size with an estimated population of about 12.5 million by 2009. The population density is 63.71sq/km. About a third of the population lives below the poverty line with about 70% of the population living in rural areas. The population pyramid reveals a high birth rate and a high death rate in the country with a youthful generation.
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Figure 5: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Senegal
Nigeria
Nigeria, a country on the West Coast of Africa, with an estimated population of 148 million (2008 Population Reference Bureau), is the most populous nation in Sub-Saharan Africa. It occupies a landmass of about 923 768 km2, and is generally known to have over 274 ethnic groups in the Federation. The population density is 167.49sq/km. The Governments desire to move closer to the people has progressively led to the division of the three major regions into 36 states grouped under six geopolitical zones with a total of 774 local government areas (LGAs). The average life expectancy at birth is 47.1 years. More than 55% of the people are female and the poverty rate is about 67.8%. The majority of the people (70%) live in the rural areas, and over sixty per cent of the young people are aged under 15 years (Population Reference Bureau, 2008). This makes Nigeria a country of young people. Figure 6: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Nigeria
Urban and Rural Locations

Nairobi, Addis Ababa, Dakar and Lusaka being the capital cities of Kenya, Ethiopia, Senegal and Zambia respectively were selected as the ideal urban settings to study as they very well satisfy most of the key urban characteristics such as piped water, good access roads, proper medical services, schools, ICTs among others. Entertainment and pastime activities that the youth like to get involved in such as clubs, cinema halls, malls and other recreational facilties are also abundantly available as compared to other urban centres. These cities also have a wider variety of institutions of higher learning, both private and public, that offer a wider range of faculties and courses to students and also differing varying experiences in socialization, religious affiliations and cultures. In addition it would be quite likely to capture findings on research questions related to migration and globalization as a whole. For South Africa and Nigeria, Johannesburg and Lagos respectively were selected despite not being the capital cities but definitely measure up to the mentioned urban characterstics as do the capital cities of the other countries of study. Youth in rural and urban settings are generally exposed to different cultures, opportunities, experiences, and youth related issues hence the reason to also study
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youth in rural or peri-urban settings for more comprehensive findings. The dichotomy and the interrelatedness of the two are of great importance in understanding who the youth are and in raising relevant issues to the study. Globally, the definition of rural is relative hence for purposes of the study and as would be expected in most of Africa, the definition of rural settled on for this study is a place that largely satisfies the following characteristics: z No electricity or limited to central market places or shopping centres hence majority of households depend on other forms of power z No piped water schemes or limited access to these hence majority of household either fetch water from a river, dug wells or boreholes or harvest rain water z Housing structures are simple and temporary or semipermanent e.g. mud, mud plastered, thatched roofing, timber, corrugated iron sheets z Transport and communication infrastructure and services are limited mostly earth or murram roads, limited public service vehicles or personal cars but more use of traditional means such as bicycles, carts, or simply walking, no or limited access to computers, fair use or access
to mobile phones generally one per household or community payphones at the market centre z Significant distance to large commercial centres whereby the rural residents have to travel a long distance that cannot be accessed on foot to get there hence limited visits to and interaction with an urban-like setting z Limited education and health facilities few and with limited resources that cannot adequately provide quality services to the populace z Ownership of assets in majority of households is quite basic or simple and may include such things as simple wooden furniture chairs, beds, tables, and cupboards. Also traditional cooking stove that uses charcoal or paraffin, basic household utensils, a radio, bicycle, wheelbarrow, torch and paraffin lamp Nonetheless, at least some of the rural locations eventually selected for the study did not quite meet these criteria given that the level of development in general for their rural areas was more advanced than in the other countries. These were Ikorodu in Nigeria and Jane Furse in South Africa. In Senegal, more than one rural site was visited for the study due to difficulties in recruiting suitable respondents in only one place to satisfy the targeted sample size; many people in Senegal were quite skeptical about participating in the study and even wanted to be paid large sums of money if they were to do so. A brief insight into each of the rural areas of study is as follows:
produces oranges, pawpaws, mangos, bixa, coconuts, a variety of vegetables and cereals.
Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

Debre Zeit, which means mount of olives in Amharic is a town that lies South East of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. It is a resort town that is known for crater lakes such as Lake Bishoftu, Lake Bishoftu Guda, Lake Koriftu, Lake Cheleklaka and Lake Hora. The area is home to a mixture of ethnic communities of the country, but the Oromo are the main inhabitants of the land. The history of the town is interwoven with that of the Ethiopian Air Force. The beginning of what later on became the Air Force was moved to Debre Zeit from the Bole International Airport when Ethiopian Airlines needed the airport space. Being the national Air Force base, it is therefore common for young men in Debre Zeit, to consider fighting as a sign of masculinity and a source of pride as they grow up watching airforce officers looking all ready to defend and fight for their country. The main economic activities in Debre Zeit are Agriculture, industry, a variety of medium, small and micro-enterprises and hotel and service industry. Some of the industries that have been established in the region include the Ada Flour and Pasta Factory, the Pasqua Giuseppe PLC and the Salmida Leather Products Manufacturing industry. Infrustructurally, Debre Zeit has good roads that lead to the area from Addis Ababa but roads that lead deep into the hinterland are rural access roads that are mainly dirt roads. The main means of transport within the rural areas is horse drawn carts which have a capacity of up to 6 people. The Addis Ababa Djibouti railway has a station in Debre Zeit and the Harar Meda Airport is also found in the region. Other than the Airforce training there are a few colleges such as the Kristos College and a marine college that takes advantage of the water bodies to train its students. There are two main hospitals that serve the area, one serving the public and the other serving the Airforce but there are smaller clinics that also provide health services to the residents of the region. A telephone service has existed in the region since 1954, providing fixed line means of communication that has now largely been overshadowed by the mobile phone.
Kwale, Kenya
Kwale is a small town in Coast Province, Kenya. It is located 30km southwest of Mombasa and 15 km inland. It is capital of the Kwale District. The town has an urban population of 4,200 (1999 census). It is next to the Shimba Hills National Reserve. The colorful town of Mombasa can be seen from Golini due to its high altitude. Past Kwale is The Shimba Hills Hotel and Mwaluganje Elephant Sanctuary running along the KWS strip. Kwale is the main town of the Digo and Duruma. These people belong to the Mijikenda Ethnic group of the Coast Province of Kenya. Other tribes found in the district include the Kambas, Arabs and Indians though to a very small proportion compared to the Digos and Durumas. Kwale is a very important town for small scale farmers from the inland areas of Golini, Kinango, Mkongani, Mwaluphamba, Tiribe and others for the sale and transport of their produce. Among other farm products, Kwale
Jane Furse, Limpopo, South Africa

Jane Furse is a small town in Limpopo Province, South Africa. It was named after Jane Furse, an only daughter of
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Michael Bolton Furse, an American missionary. As Jane accompanied her father to work, she became sorrowfully aware of the poverty and disease rife among the African people, hence she made up her mind to become a doctor in order to serve them. She however died before she accomplished this dream, but a hospital was built in Sekhukhune land in her memory. Jane Furse Memorial Hospital grew in reputation and attracted a great number of staff internationally. As the mission hospital grew, so did the town, businesses and services around Jane Furse, which eventually became known by the name of the hospital. It is administratively located in Sekhukhune district, one of the 6 districts of Limpopo province. The majority of its 967,126 people speak Nothern Sotho according to the 2001 census, and the ecocomic activities include retail and wholesale trade, farming (especially poultry and livestock farming) and there are also a few industries within the area. The type of soil and climate only allows subsistance farming, mainly of maize. The area is characterised by a flat terrain with huge piles of rocks that stand out on the terrain. The places that are nearest to it include Mokwete, Ga-Moretsele, Madibong, Ga-Molepane, Maleetse and Moripane.
capital of This Region and is a major city complete with in all social amenities and manufacturing.
Saly, Senegal
Saly (also called Sali or Saly Portudal) is a seaside resort area on Coast of Senegal, south of Dakar. It is the top tourist destination in all of West Africa. Saly was originally a Portuguese trading post known as Porto de Ale, which became Portudal, and later Sali Portudal. Salys economy relies almost entirely on tourism. Hotel complexes, nightclubs, bars, restaurants, shops, water sports, real estate agencies all compete for the business of wealthy visitors from other countries.
Mbour, Senegal
MBour or Mbour is a town in the This Region of Senegal. It lies on the Coast of Senegal, approximately eighty kilometers south of Dakar. It is home to a population of 153,503 (2002 census). The towns major industries are tourism, fishing and peanut processing.
Ikorodu, Nigeria
Ikorodu is in Lagos State and less than half an hour away from Lagos Town by road when there is no traffic, otherwise it can be a two to three hours journey. It is a fast growing town and though regarded as rural by some, it is fast developing into a fully fledged town with many banks and businesses coming up in the town centre. However many still have to make the trip into Lagos daily in order to earn a living. It is cheaper to reside here and the transport system is good.
Chikankata, Zambia
Chikankata is a small village located in the southern part of Zambia. It is about two hours away from Lusaka City by road. The main hub of activity is the Chikankata Salvation Army complex which houses a primary school, high school, nursing and biomedical sciences college as well as a hospital. This huge complex also includes housing for the employees and guesthouses for the missions visitors. Apart from the mission there are a number of primary schools. Most of the people live and work on the farms. For their banking needs, they have to travel to Mazabuka Town which is some kilometers away.
Target Respondents
How was youth defined? A desk study on youth in Africa recently conducted as a pre-study to the main Young Africa study revealed that some African countries define their youth as persons between ages 15 to 35 for policy purposes while most African countries define them as persons between the ages of 29-40. United Nations however defines them as those between ages 15 and 24 and Commonwealth as those between15 and 29. For this study therefore, the age bracket of 14 to 25 was chosen; it is closely aligned to the UN definition which some African countries have adopted. This age range also served to keep the research fairly focused without bringing in the risk of issues too broad, usually brought about by very large age differences in the target respondents. Also a stretch to age 35 or 40 posed a risk of
Thies, Senegal
This (pronounced chess, Wolof: Cs) is the second largest city in Senegal with a population officially estimated at 320,000 in 2005. It lies 60 km east of Dakar on the N2 road and at the junction of railway lines to Dakar, Bamako and St-Louis. It is the
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missing the mark as far as youth issues are concerned in terms of analyzing findings and addressing issues based on an age group that would soon be out of the youth bracket, and who therefore Nokia would not be catering for in terms of mobile solutions for empowerment of young people. Age 14-25 can also be considered broad in many respects; as such this was broken into three age sets of 14-17, 18-21 and 22-25. This was to help make the findings more focused on issues arising from youth who are in more or less the same phase of life and therefore face the same challenges and opportunities and to a significant extent have the same needs in terms of ICT, mobile usage among others. In line with NRC Africas mandate to conduct studies amongst low income communities in Africa, the Young Africa Study largely targeted youth who belong to lower to middle socio-economic classes but for comparison purposes also included a few discussion groups with youth in middle to upper socio-economic classes. A good mix of youth in different stages and facets of life was captured in terms of youth in and out of school, colleges / vocational insitutions, unemployed youth, self-employed and employed youth.
objective was to collect real time youth insights into youth culture and lifestyle in Africa so as to form a basis of good understanding of the youth and youth issues hence develop a suitable approach and plan for the upcoming main study. The methodology used for the main study was qualitative in order to fully explore and understand the issues surrounding youth life in Africa in depth. The study made use of a variety of qualitative techniques as follows:
1. Focus Group Discussions (Mini Groups)

These were conducted with youth at central locations. Homogeneous groups of youth were defined and recruited to participate. Because of the interest in both genders and possibility of sensitive issues arising which girls would possibly not want to speak about openly in the presence of boys and vice versa mini groups were opted for where every main group was divided into into a and b, the former to cater for boys and the latter for girls. Each mini-group had a minimum of 3 participants and a maximum of 5. Relevant topics from the reseach questions were used to develop a freeflow discussion guide. Use of projective techniques was also incorporated to uncover deep seated issues. Short simple self-fill in questionnaires were also distributed to the FGD participants towards the end of the discussion to enable collection of data that satisfied research questions which were not really suitable for group discussion such as their individual mobile phone usage. The following tables show the group composition for the 6 countries.
Research Methodology and Techniques

How was the study conducted? Prior to the main study, two pre-studies were conducted. One was a desk study whose objective was to use secondary data to describe the situation of youth and youth life in Africa; highlighting interesting trends as well as gaps and / or insights that would require further exploration. The other was a youth insights study whose
Table1: Kenya focus group discussions composition
14-17 Male Nairobi Mid to upper income Secondary school
18-21 Male Mid to upper income College Church group
22-25 Male Low to mid income Technical institute
14-17 Female Low income Secondary school School drop outs Self-employed
18-21 Female
22-25 Female
Mid to upper income Low to mid income Secondary school leavers Unemployed College students Employed / Self-employed Low income Primary school dropouts Married with children / Single
Kwale
Low to mid income Low to mid income Primary school students Unemployed / Selfemployed Secondary school leavers Married / Single
Low income Unemployed / Casual jobs Married / Single Primary school drop outs / secondary school leaver
Low to mid income Primary school students
Low to mid income College students Married with children / Single
Casual jobs / Unemployed / Unemployed Informally employed
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Table2: Ethiopia focus group discussions composition

14-17 Male Addis Ababa 18-21 Male Mid to upper income University 22-25 Male 14-17 Female Low to mid income Secondary school 18-21 Female 22-25 Female Low to mid income Graduates Part time employment Unemployed
Debre Zeit
Low income Preparatory School Out of school
Low income
Low to mid income
Vocational Secondary school institution students
Table3: South Africa focus group discussions composition

14-17 Male Johannesburg Low to mid income Secondary school Low to mid income Low to mid income Low to mid income Secondary school College Secondary school 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female Mid to upper income University students 22-25 Female Mid to upper income University students Employed
Limpopo
Table 4: Zambia focus group discussions composition

14-17 Male Lusaka Low to mid income Secondary school Chikankata Low to mid income Secondary school 18-21 Male 22-25 Male Low to mid income College Unemployed Low to mid income Primary school 14-17 Female 18-21 Female Mid to upper income College Low to mid income Primary school Unemployed Married with children 22-25 Female
Table 5: Senegal focus group discussions composition

14-17 Male Dakar 18-21 Male Mid to upper income Secondary School Saly Low to mid income Primary School Thies Mid to upper income Secondary School Mbour Low to mid income Unemployed Casual employment 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Low to mid income Mid to upper income University Primary School
Table 6: Nigeria focus group discussions composition

14-17 Male Lagos 18-21 Male 22-25 Male Low to mid income College Self-employed Ikorodu Low to mid income Senior Sec. School College Low to mid income College Self-employed 14-17 Female Low to mid income Secondary School College Unemployed Low to mid income College Employed 18-21 Female Low to mid income University / College 22-25 Female
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There was one FGD for each of the chosen age sets for both rural and urban settings in Kenya bringing the total number of FGDs to 6 but satisfied by 2 mini-groups each hence a total of 12 mini-groups, and one FGD for each of the chosen age sets for either rural or urban settings in the other countries bringing the total number of FGDs to 3 but satisfied by 2 mini-groups each hence a total of 6 minigroups. The respondents were recruited through the use of a recruitment questionnaire and screener to determine their suitability to participate in the group discussions. The FGDs were conducted at convenient central locations.
2. General Observations and Immersions

These were general observations of young people within the various existing youth communities. These were done by the NRC researchers as a one day activity per youth
community e.g. a school, a college, an entertainment venue, a church and / or other relevant places as were identified. For schools / colleges for example, youth were observed throughout the different activities in class during lessons, while on breaks or lunch time, doing extra curricula activities, when school was out and the resultant departure from school, etc. The observations were combined with short informal interviews and discussions with the youth present at the selected sites either in small groups or individuals depending on the situation. Other people around the youth and who have some knowledge of youth issues and impact or influence on these youth in one way or another were also interviewed during these observations and immersions. Teachers, guardians, parents, youth leaders, religious leaders, etc were some of the possible persons in the social dynamics of the youth and who were interviewed as a result. The achieved immersions were as follows for the various countries of study:
Table 7: Types of immersions / observations
COUNTRY Immersion Type School / College Secular live concert Nightclub Health mobile clinic for the youth Formal / semi-formal work place with numerous young employees Business place / jua kali area where youth entrepreneurs can be found Shopping mall Fitness / sporting activity Religious concert Youth day (special event) Youth picnic Total Immersions / Observations 6 Kenya Ethiopia S. Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria

3 2 3 2 2
Suitable immersions were identified through the information obtained from the pre-studies but were also informed by more interaction with the youth through the FGDs as well as Key Informants who helped identify specific places to conduct the immersions e.g. the popular nightclubs or other youth spots and other realities on the
ground that needed to be taken into consideration. The information areas covered in these observations were closely aligned to the particular setting e.g. in schools the focus was more on education issues, at church religious issues and at recreational places more on entertainment and leisure, and at work or business the relevant / related
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issues. Nonetheless other research questions were also addressed through observations as long as the situation arose that could feed into findings for these questions. The researchers also made an effort to get involved with the activities that the youth were doing so as to in essence immerse themselves in the youth lives and experience by doing. This also enabled better rapport between the youth and the researchers i.e. breaking the ice so that the youth got comfortable in the researchers presence and were able talk freely when responding to questions as and when they arose. In addition, during each of the FGDs conducted observations on youth behavior, language, dressing, use of mobile phones, mode of communication and general behavior were accomplished.
4. Youth Scouts
This is a participatory technique that involves young people being co-opted inot the research to lead their peers in discussions around the research questions and draw their own conclusions on these. This is important as a way of gaining insight into how youth really see the issues; they are unlikely to alter their answers or their behaviour when speaking amongst their own as they might do when interviewed by the researchers directly. Different youth scouts were recruited to represent different youth categories as identified through the pre-study exercises and the different age sets that the study respondents were divided into. They were identified and selected from the FGDs and were trained intensively on their assignment which was to strike up conversation with other young people similar to them on specific subject matter relevant to the study but in as natural a way as possible so that the youth being studied would not get uptight or begin to answer in a specific way. They gathered data through discussions but partly also through observation. Having already participated in the FGDs, they were required to take more of a neutral stand despite leading and contributing to the discussions so as to allow the other youth make the conclusions on the subject matter. The youth scouts were then required to spend some time reporting their findings in a workshop with all the other youth scouts where NRC staff had opportunity to interrogate the findings with them so as to collate the findings and draw conslusions. One week was spent by the youth scouts to gather their findings and reporting was done the following week. In Kenya 7 youth scouts contributed to the study, 4 in Ethiopia, South Africa and Zambia, 3 in Nigeria and 1 in Senegal.
3. Key Informants
These took the form of in-depth interviews with persons who have significant insight into youth and youth life in the countries of study. Key Informant Interviews composition was as follows: Kenya: z z z z z z NGO Youth Programme Coordinator (Nairobi) District Youth Officer (Nairobi) University Student Leader (Nairobi) Youth Coordinator (Kwale) Program Manager - Youth (Likoni) Muslim Youth Leader (Old Town, Mombasa)
Ethiopia: z z NGO Program Manager - Youth (Addis Ababa) Youth Leader (Debre Zeit)
South Africa: z z Government Officer Youth (Johannesburg) School teacher (Jane Furse, Limpopo)
Research Questions
What was investigated in the study? The research questions generated were distributed according to the different techniques being applied. Some research questions were relevant to all or more than one technique while others were relevant to only one or two. Nonetheless the research questions applied to the different techniques and respondents was done to help compare and corroborate the findings to ensure more solid conclusions are made.
Zambia: z z Youth Consultant (Lusaka) Social Worker (Chikankata)
Senegal: z z University Student Vice President (Dakar) Community Youth Leader (Mbour)
Nigeria: z z Pastor (Lagos) Community Youth Leader (Ikorodu)
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Table 8: Information areas
FGDs How youth categorize themselves and defining elements of these categories Youth numbers in different places and facets of life in Africa African youth in the eyes of society Challenges and opportunities African youth face Media, communication and information exchange x x x x
KIIs
Immersions Youth Scouts x
x x x x x x x x x
Report structure and content

The following chapters of the report contain the findings of the study. Chapter two summarises the findings on education, chapter three on livelihoods, chapter four on lifestyle, chapter five on media and communication and chapter six provides conclusions. In each of chapters two to five, relevant secondary data and past research studies literature from the desk study have been used to demonstrate the extent of the issues under discussion as related to the research questions. The main qualitative study is also presented first in terms of the main issues identified across the 6 countries of study with relevant country examples. This is then followed by country specific sections which report on any extra information about the given country in as far as the study topic is concerned particularly any issues that may be unique to the country as compared to the others. Verbatim quotes have also been used within the various sections to help emphasize certain findings and conclusions. Pictures taken during the study have also been used within the various chapters so as to provide the reader with actual visualization of the situation of youth in Africa. References and sources of any secondary data used have been provided at the end of the report. Separate country reports (Kenya, Ethiopia, South Africa, Zambia, Senegal, Nigeria) providing more detailed findings and insights per country have also been written up and are available in soft copy for those interested in learning more about the youth of specific countries only.
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Chapter Two | Education

Education in Africa
Everyone has the right to a basic education, including adult basic education and further education, which a countrys government, through reasonable measures, must progressively make available and accessible to all its citizens. There is a positive relationship between the quantity and quality of primary and secondary education and economic growth. People with education have healthier families and reduced fertility rates. This is especially true with respect to educating girls and women. Educated people also tend to be more active citizens in political life. Improved human capital is conducive to higher quality of public servants and of public service provision (Bloom et al., 2007). Africa has made great progress in gross enrollment in primary education. Today more than 95% are enrolled in primary education and about 63% complete primary education. However, there is still an estimated more than 30 million children of school going age who are out of school (DFID, 2006a). Demand for and participation in secondary education is growing as a consequence of the expansion of basic education. Average secondary net enrollment ratio is still only 25% of primary school graduates. Less than a third fail to complete lower secondary education to enrol
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in upper secondary grades. More than 70 million children of secondary school age do not have access to secondary schooling (DFID, 2006a). In all of these statistics, boys are better off than girls, urban pupils better off than rural pupils, pupils from wealthier homes better off than those from poorer homes. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is in short supply in most African countries. It is estimated that only 6 per cent of secondary students are enrolled in TVET in Sub-Saharan Africa (Global Monitoring Report, 2008). Yet, TVET is necessary to provide skills and opportunities for young people for better employment, in a situation where many African countries are facing a shortage of skilled workers. Africa is seriously lagging in tertiary education and research. In Sub-Saharan Africa the gross enrollment rate for tertiary education is around 5%, compared with 23% in East Asia and 30% in Latin America (DFID, 2006b,). However, there appears to be an increase in many African countries in investment in tertiary education, not least in private universities. Based on findings across the 6 countries of study, it appears that structure of education systems is fairly similar in terms of number of years students spend in
school through primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. In total students spend about 16 years on average to go through the formal education system. In terms of academic courses, at primary level most of the countries have 9, 10 or 11 subjects with the exception of Kenya where the subjects were reduced to 5 from 13 after rationalization of the curriculum. In most countries English and Mathematics are standard compulsory subjects while the others vary from country to country. At secondary level number of subjects is fairly similar in terms of the number (between 8 and 11) a student is expected to take though some countries have more variety to select from as compared to others. Officially, the medium of instruction is English (French in the case of Senegal) but local ethnic languages are also used especially in rural areas and particularly at primary level. This is also the case in Ethiopia except that here this is official; Amharic which is the national language is the medium of instruction in schools. English is only used at university level and at the lower levels is only taught as a subject. Local ethnic languages are also taught as subjects in all the countries except Kenya where only Kiswahili which is the national language is taught as a subject. Generally the method of instruction across the countries is mainly lecture based where teachers go through the lessons of the day and often dictate notes to the students. With the exception of South Africa which is now implementing Outcome Based Education (OBE), education in the other countries is largely theoretical as opposed to practical. Even for very technical courses, some students in various countries complained that they are not
getting enough practical experience within their studies. In Zambia for example some engineering companies are reluctant to employ fresh engineering graduates as they have little experience handling the machines. Similarly in Nigeria the students feel that they have to take the initiative to gain the practical experience e.g. through roadside apprenticeships.
We have so many graduates from the colleges who are still in the street because the companies say they dont want them to experiment on our[their] machines. We want someone with experience who can actually do the work.
Key informant Lusaka, Zambia
Lifeskills or life orientation also considered as a practical aspect of learning exists in most of the countries, some like Kenya and Ethiopia having recently introduced this in the curriculum. However many young people seem rather dissatisfied with the content and method of delivery. In some cases they complained of it being too general or shallow and in some cases lacks relevance in that it does not cover the life issues that they feel are important to them. In terms of delivery some Key Informants said that the teachers who are delivering life skills to the students are too far removed from youth issues hence cannot relate to the youth and in turn the youth are not comfortable around them.
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On the whole academics seem to be emphasized more than extra curricula activities. One of the main reasons for this is lack of enforcement by the governments in that schools are not required to meet certain standards as far as offering these activities. It is therefore up to the individual schools to decide what to offer if anything and how much time and resources they will allocate to extra curricula activities. There is also a lack of coaches or patrons to drive the activities. Clubs that are related to academic subjects tend to exist and function fairly well especially in secondary schools since there are academic benefits of engaging students in these activities in terms of their performance. All in all youth attitudes to extra curricula activities such as sports and various performing arts is generally positive but there is no room to nurture this in school and their desire and talents are also somewhat suppressed by lack of community support. In some countries like Senegal sporting and fitness is a culture hence the love for sport and practice is quite evident in youth even at an individual level, in and out of school. With the exception of Senegal there is generally fairly good capacity at primary level for most of the countries in that there are enough schools to accmodate children of school going age. The main concern is availability of enough trained teachers to deliver the curriculum to the students. The advent of free primary education across the countries of study has compounded the matter so that student teacher ratios are quite high as indicated in table 9 below. The Africa average pupil teacher ratio is 40:1 for primary and 26:1 for secondary. In some places the situation is quite chronic where a primary school teacher has to deal with as high as 100 students in one class. opportunity arise. Also those who study teaching though not out of choice tend to seek for employment in other sectors. There are generally fewer public schools at secondary level as compard to primary hence not enough to accommodate all students who have qualified to proceed to secondary school. In Kenya for example hundreds of thousands of students miss a place in secondary school every year. Senegal presents a similar scenario. The option therefore for such students is to enroll in vocational training either in formal institutions or through informal apprenticeships so as to gather some skills after which they can join the labourforce. With the exception of South Africa the number of public universities just like secondary schools is not sufficient to cater for the number of secondary school graduates. ICT policies exist in many countries but there is a gap between practice and policy. Few schools have access to computers and internet use and ICT infrastructure is generally poor especially in rural areas which are not connected and lack electricity. There are some projects by development organizations working towards increasing access; they provide computers to schools though these are mainly refurbished. IT or computer studies as a subject also exists in some countries though its impact is minimal since the facility i.e. computers and computer labs simply does not exist. In addition the curriculum is somewhat underdeveloped and there are insufficient trained teachers to deliver the same. In Senegal however the gap between ICT policy and practice is relatively smaller than the other countries of study; students generally have access to computers in school with high speed connectivity and cost is relatively low. This can be attributed to earlier access to the fibre optic network and active implementation of the ICT policy by government. Senegal is widely recognized as West Africas ICT hub. Phew! A break from Saturday classes at last. Now we can sit around, chat and do our hairs
My mother is a teacher at Vuga Primary School and when I went to visit her there one day I saw that she has over 100 students in her class! I asked her whether she is really able to cater adequately for the needs of each of those children and she frankly said no. As much as teachers would love to deliver quality to their students, the numbers are unmanageable
Key Informant, Kwale, Kenya
It appears that the teaching profession is not attractive to many governments are the biggest employers of teachers yet generally pay poorly. Many teachers hence opt to work in private and urban schools should the
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The table below provides a summary of various education data in the 6 countries studied. Table 9: Structure of education, content, capacity and technology use in education
Kenya
Ethiopia
Covers 8 years primary, 2 years secondary, 2 years preparatory, 4 years university Primary 9 subjects, secondary and preparatory 12 subjects, University variety of courses
South Africa
Curriculum 2005. Covers 9 years primary, 4 years secondary and 4 years tertiary
Zambia
Covers 7 years primary, 2 years junior sec, 3 years senior sec and 4 years university Primary 7 subjects, secondary 7 subjects (examinable), University variety of courses
Senegal
EFA Curriculum (Education for All). Covers 5 years primary, 6 years secondary, 3 years university. Primary 11 subjects, secondary 11 subjects, University variety of courses
Nigeria
6-3-3-4 System. Covers 6 years primary, 3 years junior sec, 3 years senior sec and 4 years university Primary 10 subjects, JSS 11 subjects, SS 7 subjects, University variety of courses
Structure
8-4-4 System. Covers 8 years primary, 4 years secondary, 4 years university
Academic courses
Primary 6 subjects, Secondary 9 subjects University variety of courses
Primary 7 subjects one of which is an elective technical skill, secondary
Medium of instruction
Officially English. Many rural primary schools also instruct in ethnic languages though unofficially.
At primary & secondary Amharic and other ethnic languages; this is official. English at tertiary level
Mainly English. The Department of Education language policy also recognises and permits other official languages. Many rural primary schools also instruct in ethnic languages. Mainly lecture based Good number of activities exist but without standards and with limited emphasis
Officially English. Many rural primary schools also instruct in ethnic languages though unofficially.
French for mainstream and Arabic in quaranic schools, Wolof in the rural areas
Up to grade 3 in language of immediate environment and from grade 4 onwards in English.
Content
Instruction method Extracurricula activities
Mainly lecture based Some activities in school exist but without standards and with limited emphasis Clubs related to academic subjects tend to do well Government frameworks for interschool competition exist Facilities and equipment somewhat limited
Mainly lecture based Good number of activities exist but without standards and with limited emphasis
Mainly lecture based Some activities in school exist but without standards and with limited emphasis Clubs related to academic subjects tend to do well
Mainly lecture based Sports is fairly well emphasized especially soccer. Other activities exist to a limited extent
Mainly lecture based Some activities in school exist but without standards and with limited emphasis Clubs related to academic subjects tend to do well Government frameworks exist to support the activities
Facilities and equipment are barely there
Facilities and equipment exists or can be availed but security is a concern. That which is there is poorly maintained Schools exist but some have limited facilities and equipment due to security issues
Facilities and equipment are somewhat limited especially in rural schools Schools exist though not enough; many are also poorly constructed with limited facilities and equipment.
Facilities and equipment barely exist
Facilities and equipment are somewhat limited especially in rural schools Schools exist though not enough to accmodate all the numbers
Capacity
Schools exist; at primary level can accommodate most; significant limitation at secondary and university level many miss space after primary Shortage of trained teachers especially in rural areas national pupil teacher ratio of 40:1 for primary and 32:1 for secondary 25 universities (7 public) Limited. Poor ICT infrastructure. Government currently digitizing curriculum 1 Million laptops initiative for university students soon to be implemented
Schools exist some even put up by the communities
Chronic shortage of schools at all levels government (ministry of labour) indicates difficulty in coping with the student numbers Shortage of trained teachers national pupil teacher ratio of 42:1 for primary and 26:1 for secondary 2 public universities, 5 private universities ICT is an integral part of the education system; majority have access even out of school and wireless connections are universal
Extreme shortage of trained teachers national pupil teacher ratio of 72:1 for primary and 54:1 for secondary 26 universities
Shortage of teachers especially in public and rural schools national pupil teacher ratio of 36:1 for primary and 31:1 for secondary 23 public universities
Shortage of trained teachers national pupil teacher ratio of 51:1 for primary and 34:1 for secondary 3 public universities
Shortage of trained teachers national pupil teacher ratio of 37:1 for primary and 40:1 for secondary Over 40 universities (most state owned) Computer studies as a subject in schools; not always up to date. Limited ICT use due to lack of facilities and infrastructure. Lack of enough trained computer teachers.
Limited. Some digital broadcasts of lessons using plasma screens. School mini media for recording academic and entertainment content. Poor maintenance of the equipment. ICT clubs spreading across schools
Technology use
Limited ICT use but mainly due to security concerns especially in township schools
Limited ICT use due to lack of facilities and infrastructure. Public universities are developing infrastructure e.g. wireless. Developmental organizations in collaboration with government to provide computers in schools.
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Below are additional country specific findings and insights on education:
education, social education and ethics, agriculture, home science, art and music as well as industrial, business and physical education. Of these students were required to select a suitable combination of 8 or 9 subjects. Some of the vocational or talent related subjects at secondary level were also scrapped though students are still required to do more or less the same number of subjects; 7 to 8 in total.
Kenya
Structure and content:
The 8-4-4 curriculum launched in January 1985 emphasized vocational or practical subjects so as to enable school dropouts at all levels to be either self-employed or to get employment in the informal sector. 13 compulsory subjects at primary level included Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, Science, Agriculture, Music, Art, Craft, GHC (Geography, History and Civics), CRE / IRE (Christian Religious Education or Islamic Religious Education), Home-Science, Business Education and Physical Education. After revision and rationalization it now covers 6 compulsory subjects in primary - Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, Science, Social Studies and CRE, and Physical Education. Ironically though, some young people interviewed were not necessarily happy about the changes. They were concerned that the practical subjects are no longer available yet it is through these subjects that they would be able to identify and nurture their talents. This was mostly amongst the rural youth as well as the low income urban youth who attend public schools where there are limited extra curricula activities that can act as the fallback for a lack of some of the practical or talent related subjects. Indeed there were also some school dropouts in many of the rural groups interviewed and at least 2 of the urban groups (14-17 female and 22-25 female). As such the vocational subjects were quite relevant to them as their livelihoods are now pegged to the informal sector which requires vocational skills.
In some of the public and / or rural schools, there is no interest in the teachers to nurture talent; the students are often discouraged to pursue their talents and are instead told to focus on academics.
Our school did not support talent the teachers would keep telling us to stop acting and concentrate on our studies in class even if you were already doing well in your academics. They would not acknowledge our success in drama festivals and in fact would do things to sabotage our participation like not having the bus ready for us on the days we needed to go
Male, 18-21, Kwale, Kenya
Capacity:
As in other countries student teacher ratios are high. Statistics from the Ministry of Education indicate that the country is currently facing a teachers gap of 65,000, with primary schools being the worst hit with a shortage of 40,000 while secondary schools 25,000.
They are still cutting down subjects yet the whole objective of the 8-4-4 system was to impart practical skills like carpentry but now even those have been scrapped If you fail to move on to secondary and university it means you have to find a vocational school to teach you the skill
Key Informant, Nairobi, Kenya
My mother is a teacher at Vuga Primary School and when I went to visit her there one day I saw that she has over 100 students in her class! I asked her whether she is really able to cater adequately for the needs of each of those children and she frankly said no. As much as teachers would love to deliver quality to their students, the numbers are unmanageable
Technology use:
In secondary school subjects were 17 before rationalization including English, Kiswahili, a foreign language, mathematics, physical sciences, biological sciences, geography, history and government, religious
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According to media reports, the government has plans to introduce digital learning platforms so as to make it simpler to demonstrate some of the more practical
Basic facilities available in a typical classroom in rural and public schools in Kenya
Students from an afternoon shift of classes in Debre zeit enjoy some chit chat as they leave school
lessons and also to help bridge the gap of insufficient teachers. So far KIE has digitized content for Form 1 in secondary school and Standard 5 for primary school and is moving on to do so for the other classes. There are still a number of hurdles to be overcome in terms of capacity building for teachers, buying of the computer hardware and software and most importantly ensuring that the computers are well maintained, powered and connected to the Internet. Currently, out of the 19,000 primary schools only 2,000 have computers out of which only a quarter are connected to the Internet. According to the Kenya Country Report for ICT and Education, most secondary schools have some computer equipment; however, this could consist of one computer in the office of the school head. Very few secondary schools have sufficient ICT tools for teachers and students. Even in schools that do have computers, the student-computer ratio is 150:1. Attempts to set up basic ICT infrastructure in primary schools are almost negligible.
Every school system works based on curriculum, having objectives which guide it. Hence the curriculum designers should have a great deal of knowledge about their responsibility. Teachers should act accordingly. In general everyone in the system should be a positive thinker and optimist. No school shall go for maximizing profit. Rather it should concentrate on networking, empowering and producing good citizens
Male, 18-21, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
priests took three years. When a student knew the psalms by heart, he had mastered the house of reading and was now considered an elementary school graduate. Orthodox Coptic Church schools provided much needed training in reading and writing in preprimary schools. Many children therefore already had basic literacy skills by age six upon starting primary school. The first postwar formal curriculum was a 6-6 structure: six years of elementary school followed by six years of secondary school. Adoption of the secular education evolved into the current education system that is not skewed to any specific religion but focuses on the sylabus that has ben put in place by the government. The latter system of education, in spite of a few hurdles here and there is largely appreciated by both the youth and the community at large. It is thought of by most as an exit point from poverty and the only way to get a good future.
Ethiopia
In the pre-European education in Ethiopia, children in primary schools, learned to read and write. Emphasis was placed on memorization, where elementary pupils between the ages of 7-12 had to learn to read, write, and recite the Dawit Medgem (Psalms of David) for about two to three years. Next they learned to sing kum zema (church hymns), which took four years, and msaewait zema (advanced singing), which took an additional year to learn. Liturgical dancing and systrum holding required three years. Qine (poetry) and law required five years to learn. The interpretation of the Old and New Testaments, as well as the Apostles Creed, took four years on average, while the interpretation of the works of learned monks and
Methods of instruction and technology use:

Over and above lecture based methodology, school mini-media is used to relay education material as well as entertainment to students. This is an initiative of the government that is funded and supported by NGOs and other organizations. A mini-media center is a planned set of materials which include tape recorders, computers, microphones, amplifiers, and direction sheets and kits.
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Individual students or groups of students who share similar interests learn to prepare visuals, charts, audio and video tapes, slides, games, books, movies, radio shows and other material through direction sheets and kits, teacher guidance and peer teaching. They then serve as mediators between what they have learnt and what the other students may learn through the center. The mini media centers are also used by the school to make announcements as everyone within the school is able to hear the loudspeakers. Another method of instruction that has been adopted by the Ethiopian government is the Plasma. Plasma is a screen that is fixed in one classroom of every school, and is used to broadcast academic instructions live to students across the country. There is a time table that indicates timings of classes for the various grades. Students therefore gather for these classes at the appointed times. The classes are not substitutes to teachers; the content of topics taught by way of the plasma are tested in the national examinations. The classes are broadcasted live from Addis Ababa for all to attend. Last year the students had a chance to interact with the countrys prime minister through the plasma, where they discussed various issues and had a chance to raise their concerns to him.
South Africa
Before democracy, black South Africans went throught a system of education that was called the Bantu education. This system of education served the interests of white supremacy. It denied black people opportunities and resources enjoyed by white South Africans and promoted myths and racial stereotypes in its curricula and textbooks. The Bantu culture was presented as crude, whereby African people and communities were portrayed as traditional, rural, and unchanging. Bantu education treated blacks as perpetual children in need of parental supervision by whites, which greatly limited the students vision of his/her place in the broader South African society. The disparity and differences that existed in the system of education then is still evident today, despite the fact that all schools are open to all citizens regardless of race. The difference in the quality of education and facilities available for teaching is still clearcut and students in township schools are still quite bitter about the inequality which is one of the main causes of some of their actions such as reposession. They steal equipment given to schools, not necessarily because they really need it but because they want to prove that they can and as a means of expressing their bitterness.
If you dont go to school you cant reach anywhere you want to go

Female, 14-17, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
There seems to be a gap between the Information technology as taught in schools and the practical experience of the same that the youth feel they need. Information technology is offered as a subject right from primary school level, yet a large number of youth, especially in rural areas expressed the need for skills in the same implying that they are currently not getting much out of the subject. Those that have had a chance to use computers in school only have very basic knowledge of it, while others have not had the chance to use a computer. There is need for enough IT equipment for students. ICT clubs have been introduced in at least thirteen schools in Addis Ababa and there is intention to spread these clubs throughout the country. Although this process might take some time, the clubs are definitely a worthy cause as youth are eager to embrace technology.
I think in Soweto there was an NGO or a company called Soweto Digital Village you find that ok, so digital village installs this big satellite dish for the computer networks in schools but then the computer lab ends up being dark. Because of them trying to block so that people wouldnt see whats inside or trying to barricadeit ends up not being a friendly environment to be in.
Key Informant, Johannesburg, South Africa
We dont use the internet frequently because it is not accessible easily and we dont have enough skills to do so for different advanced purposes
Female, 14-17, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Curriculum 2005 is the brand name given to the South African national curriculum framework that is currently used in schools. This framework adopts an Outcome Based Education that stresses group work and common tasks that are shared by students. The idea behind OBE is to give a more practical experience
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High school students in Soweto on their way home from school. Classes end at 2:00 pm in all public schools in SA.
Its revision time for the boys of Chikankata High School, Zambia as they make their way to the library loaded with plenty of books.
to the students while at the same time encouraging interaction between students and teachers. Instruction therefore focuses on the eventual intention of education, which is to give students a more rounded approach in terms of knowledge and practicals. The challenge in the education system in SA however is that the department of education has in the past few years changed the system a number of times such that before one is fully implemented, another is introduced or amendments are made on the first one. Some students found it a bit confusing and challenging to quickly adopt these changes. Public universities in SA offer courses that are of a specific kind in terms of content. There are therefore three categories of public universities: traditional, technology and comprehensive universities. Traditional universities offer degree courses that are more theoretically oriented and require minimal practicals. As the name suggests, technical universities offer degrees in technical fields that involve practical applications while comprehensive universities offer a combination of traditional and technology courses.
school going age children but also offers early childhood education, adult education, vocational training and distance learning. This is to cater for all ages of the countrys education needs. SchoolNet South Africa was established in 1998 to support and advance distance learning through information and communications technology. Schools with special education needs have also been established. The SA government has tried to develop diversity schools to cater for students/youth with special needs. Unfortunately, there arent enough schools or qualified teachers to absorb this segment of the youth. South Africa is one of the few countries that have a social safety net that caters to the welfare of school drop-outs who have dropped out because of teenage pregnancies. Financial assistance in the form of grants is given to legitimate cases of school drop-outs particularly girls who have dropped out because of early pregnancies.
Zambia
Content:
Capacity:
The primary syllabus consists of Mathematics, In order to combat the problem of shortage of trained instructors and teachers, SA government uses its colleges of education to offer three or four year diploma courses for secondary school teachers. A number of colleges have come to agreement with universities, enabling endorsement of the certification of teachers. Some colleges of education offer a Bachelor of Primary Education degree which is conferred by a university. This way the country gets qualified teachers for the various levels of education in the system. The education system in South Africa does not only focus on curriculum for the English, Religious Education, Home Economics, Music, Integrated Science, Local Language, Social Development Studies, Literacy (where pupils learn how to read) and Community Studies (where pupils learn what happens in the communities where they live). The junior secondary syllabus consists of subjects like Mathematics, English, Music, Art, Geography, Environmental Science, Office practice, Home Economics, Local Language, Religious Education, Agriculture Science, Book Keeping and Carpentry. English, Mathematics and a science are core subjects.
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Capacity:
There has been a dramatic increment in net enrollment in primary schools since 2000. This is due to the elimination of tuition fees in primary school although according to one key informant, there are still hidden charges in the name of development fees. One way that Zambia is dealing with the large number of students is to have them come in at different times i.e. in shifts. Students report to school by 6:30am and start classes at 7:00am all through to 12:40pm. According to one key informant, those who come for the afternoon classes pay lower fees. They come in for 3 hours from 2:00pm to 5:00pm while those in the morning benefit from more than 5 hours of lessons. The inability to afford fees for secondary and tertiary levels of education however also exists and many fall on the wayside. The basic education schools (primary) are also expanding their capacity by going on upto grade eight and nine (secondary grades) so as to accommodate those who miss places in other secondary schools. In Zambia there is a lack of adequately trained teachers; the counter measure especially in rural areas is that those who have graduated from grade twelve and performed well are employed as untrained teachers by their respective schools to teach others. z z
They could say that they have computer classes but when you go to the classes you find two computers being used against thousand of pupils so the access issue is a major obstacle to technology application in education.
Key Informant, Lusaka, Zambia
Senegal
The structure of the Senegales education system is fairly fluid meaning that there is no clear separation between primary and secondary education. Vocational training is meant to give technical skills to students and prepare them for university. The different levels of schooling are as follows: z Elementary/ primary 6 years (examining/administering institution: lcole primaire) Middle school and general secondary 3 years (offered by collge) z Technical and professional secondary 2 years (offered by Lyce professionnel) Higher education/university 2 years (baccalaurat proffesionel)
There is also a strong non-formal education system
Technology use:
The use of technology is limited to schools near towns because of lack of ICT infrastructure including electricity. Most schools teaching computer will be found in the urban areas as opposed to hard to reach rural areas. However in Lusaka the 22-25 year old male respondents had hardly used a computer. In their college they did not have access to the computer lab because they were not doing courses that required direct use of it. Conversely, a youth scout reported that most other college and university students own laptops, which are available for purchase locally including secondhand ones. It seems therefore that exposure to technology depends on which school one attends. In Chikankata some of the respondents were from the Chikankata High School which has a computer lab and offers lessons to its students.
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comprising of literacy programming and community schools usually designated for 9-14 year olds who are not enrolled in school or who have dropped out early. Under this category, there are koranic schools or daaras whose curriculum is entirely based on the teachings of the Quaran. This system exists as an alternative to the mainstream system (the French-based formal system).
Two girls on their way to daaras Senegals alternative to the formal education system
Saidou Nourou Tall Academi de Dakar: Catching up Youth from an urban school en pause (on break).
Nigeria: University students walking into UNILAG.
Capacity:
Amongst the key problems in the Senegalese system of education is poor infrastructure and shortage of desks, lack of textbooks, high repetition and dropout rates, irrelevant teaching programs (which have not changed for decades), the inexistence of a culture of evaluation in schools, departments and regions and a lack of trained teachers. Respondents reported that selection and recruitment of teachers is very subjective; often they are hand-picked by school administration. This has created a huge competency problem in Senegal which has eventually compromised the quality of education offered. Lack of sufficient schools also leads to youth starting their professional lives immediately or going into the informal system of education. It has been reported that as at 2001, 32.5% of children in Senegal have already began their professional lives.
Nigerian youth hardly read, instead they pay to pass exams and get their certificates. You can pay your way through anything in Nigeria. Even government officials cant defend their certificates.
Key Informant, Lagos, Nigeria
Capacity:
The Nigerian educational system has been on the decline for many years and recently the president pledged to improve the situation. In recent years the government has put in more funds towards education and one respondent acknowledges that Lagos State is improving in providing facilities such as free books and stationery. One key informant blamed the government for not paying teachers well and on time.
Nigeria
Structure:
Those students who wish to be employed in the formal sector in future must undergo one year of National Youth Service Corps after university or other tertiary course.
In Nigeria the teachers pay can be as low as 7500 Naira (EUR 37.5). The highest amount that they can be paid is 150,000 Naira (EUR 750). There is a common saying therefore, a teachers reward is in heaven. The poor pay has caused teachers to engage in other money making activities rather than being present in class. It has also resulted in many youth seeking education in other countries. One key informant claims that 50% of the students in Cotonou, Benin are Nigerians. Apparently the education syllabus there is better and
Content:
The curriculum has undergone many changes since independence. NERDC (Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council) has completed drafting a new curriculum which will be implemented starting September 2011. Among the new subjects are ICT, Civic Education and skills acquisition through technical education.
the time line more predictable as compared to Nigeria. Corruption has also eroded the value of Nigerian education. Many respondents complained of some students bribing teachers and lecturers in order to pass exams. Buying certificates has become common place such that it is difficult to say who rightly deserves theirs. As such Nigerian qualifications are on the whole losing credibility.
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Perceptions and youth attitudes towards education:

Do the youth value and appreciate education? Does the society as a whole?
Generally the youth do value education across the countries of study. They all generally seem to equate a good education to the means to a good job hence why they all agree that it is important to go to school. The better education one has the better the opportunities especially for formal employment. In addition, education is deemed to give one better stature in the society self confidence, expression, acceptance and ability to interact with different people.
including those who have secondary and tertiary education. There is also the need for youth to strike a balance between education and earning a living; some youth especially those from lower socio-economic classes sometimes opt out of school so as to engage in small businesses, make some money hence support themselves and/or their families. As such they do not necessarily place the same value on education as do those who have sufficient provision of their basic needs therefore can focus on getting an education. Others who already have a steady source of income do not on the whole value education since they do not see what further benefits education would add to their lives. A good example is as illustrated by one Key Informant in Nairobi, Kenya who is a District Youth Officer in the Dagoretti area. He gave an example of how despite most youth having completed their secondary education in Dagoretti this usually comes with a lot of prodding and coercing by their parents. Those who are exposed to their own income at teen age often do not want to continue going to school and these are such as children of slum landlords who are allocated some rooms of their own to let out. They no longer see the need to go to school since they are now making their own money and many have thus dropped out. African society as a whole generally seems to value education although in some countries like Kenya and Senegal, certain communities were seen not to place as much emphasis on the importance of education because as they argue, there are those who have succeeded without it and on the other hand there are those who are highly educated yet have little to show for it. Wrestling for instance is a major money minting activity for youth in Senegal. In Nigeria, internet fraud is a major activity in which young people engage a lot of their time. Such youth are referred to as the Yahoo Yahoo boys. In Kenya beach boys and prostitution as well as drug peddling as a whole is quite rampant especially in the coastal region and this is another way in which youth are making money hence opting out of school. Similarly prostitution in most other countries; in South Africa a key informant revealed that they were expecting an estimated 40,000 more commercial sex workers come the 2010 World Cup in June.
As you are growing up, you cant stay at home the whole time for 17 years of your life you have to do something substantial. School is also a social place you get your friends there I think that is where life begins...
Male 14-17, Nairobi, Kenya
Without education today, no man wants to listen to you.

Male 18-21, Ikorodu, Nigeria
Everyone should go to school even if he or she is a dancer, singer or celebrity because if one didnt go to school, during a conversation, he or she feels rejected because of his or her inability to express him / her self. For example Drogba is now internationally famous because of his football. On the other hand we have Cadee who is also very good but cannot become as famous as Drogba because he cannot express himself.
Female 22-25, Mbour, Senegal
In some instances, some young people interviewed appeared not to have as much appreciation for education as some of their counterparts. This is mainly because they have been disillusioned by the high unemployment levels evident by the jobless youth in their neighbourhoods
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I mean look out our president (Jacob Zuma), he is not that educated but he has people writing speeches for him. He probably doesnt know that Jub Jub (hip hop star) killed 16 children. He will find out weeks later.
Youth Scouts, Johannesburg, South Africa
Many people in life have made it through football. The majority of Senegal football national team are people who never went to school and have made it in life. In Senegal the wrestlers sign contract of 100 million franc (152,000 EUR), we are talking about only 3 minutes of a fight and you have your 100 million Franc. This emphasizes that it is not only through formal education or school that one succeeds in life that means that school is not the only means of success in Senegal.
Key Informant, Dakar, Senegal
The table below shows enrollment rates for primary, secondary and tertiary levels for the 6 countries studied. It appears based on this that there is generally a positive attitude towards education as a whole. Enrollment rates have been on the increase over the years particularly primary schools where free primary education has been introduced such as in Kenya and Zambia. This signifies that youth and the society to a good extent value education; the main barrier is poverty where people are unable to raise the fees and other school related costs especially at higher levels i.e. secondary and tertiary. Even at primary level, some students are still locked out despite free primary education since there are often other hidden costs which parents are compelled to pay in order for their children to be enrolled (admission fees) and some development funds that they have to contribute to every year. There are also other societal attitudes and cultures which are barriers to education; for instance some African societies do not
The diplomas for us youth I would say are like mere papers because there is nothing (no opportunities) after getting diplomas. They (youth) try to do other things such as trade and enterprise after school.
Key Informant, Mbour, Senegal
Table 10: Enrollment rates in 6 African countries GROSS ENROLLMENT

Primary Male KEN 2000 2004 2007 ZAM 2000 2004 2007 NIG 2000 2004 2007 SEN 2000 2004 2007 ETH 2003 to 2008 SA 2003 to 2008 105 102 93 99 86 86 70 41 77 77 97 85 37 24 74 75 29 19 58 58 71.8 79.8 83.6 62 75.5 83.5 18.9 23.3 27 12.3 16.8 20.5 60 69.4 72 52.8 65.7 71.9 18.4 23.1 13.2 17.6 43.6 50.2 50.7 31.8 42.7 46.6 100.8 103 104.5 80.1 85.3 88.9 26.2 36.5 35.2 21.6 28.7 28.4 7.1 12.7 12 5.4 6.7 8.3 66.6 67 67.6 54.9 57.3 58.2 79.9 64.7 82.9 105.3 120.7 77.3 100.7 117.2 25.6 30.8 45.7 20.7 24.5 40.6 3.2 1.5 68 83.1 93.7 66.4 83.3 94.4 20.9 28.5 43.7 17.5 22.2 38.1 65.2 76.1 93.5 54.9 66.1 82.6 97.5 111.1 107.3 96.2 104.9 104.4 40.2 49.2 52 38.2 46 48.6 3.6 3.4 1.9 2.1 65.3 74.1 74.8 67.1 74.2 76.1 33.6 39.6 43.3 33 39.9 42 91.5 93.7 88.6 91.6 Female Secondary Male Female Tertiary Male Female
NET ENROLLMENT
Primary Male Female Secondary Male Female
COMPLETION RATE
Tertiary Male Female
Source: 1) World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0 2) http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/statistics.html

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believe in educating the girl child. In Senegal for example this is a very big phenomenon and part of the culture not to send girls to school. The disparity between male and female literacy levels is a reflection of this culture male literacy is about 50% while that of females is only 29%. Such communities would rather send the boys to school and keep the girls at home to help out with various chores and eventually marry them off. Some of these children will still therefore miss out on school despite it being free and even compulsory in some countries such as Senegal and South Africa. In South Africa education is compulsory for all children between 7 and 15 years of age and in Senegal for children between 6 and 16 years. Similarly in Nigeria the law that established the UBE (Universal Basic Education) stipulates a 9 year formal schooling for all children though this is not necessarily enforced by the government.
language. Senegal is the exception as they offer a wider variety i.e. about 4 international languages of which Latin is compulsory. Because of use of lecture based approach in teaching, many young people are also ill prepared for working life since they have not been nurtured to think critically and creatively. South Africa is currently implementing the OBE system which should add value to the students in this area though students complained that the teachers are still struggling to learn how to deliver in this way. The desired outcome for lecture based method of teaching is content acquisition and conceptual understanding hence students are compelled to focus on passing particular exams set in a particular way. The examination systems in most of the countries are designed to fit certain responses which the students should deliver in order to pass. Student teacher interactions and relationships are also not conducive to learning so as to develop critical thinking and creativity.
How relevant is education in Africa today?

Based on findings across the 6 countries, it seems that education does little to prepare young people for the realities of the job market. As discussed earlier most of the curriculums are heavily theoretical with little or no practical activities incorporated and are more geared towards formal and white collar jobs. Unfortunately in most countries the opportunities in these sectors are quite limited hence the high rates of unemployment. In Kenya for example the rationalization and revision of the 8-4-4 system led to the elimination of subjects that were deemed to offer certain practical skills which a young person could then utilize to earn a living within the informal sector. These subjects included Art, Craft, Music, Home Science, and Business Education. Individual areas of interest in Kenya are also therefore not adequately catered for and the fallback would be to pursue this through an extra curricula activity which may not necessarily be available. The other countries however still retain some form of practical subjects in their curriculums though they are still heavily theoretical and in some instances outdated. On the whole varied interest areas are catered for by the variety of academic subjects available for the students to select both in arts and sciences. Some students acknowledged that they had been able to select their subjects of interest or those that they are especially talented or skilled in and hence nurturing the same. There is room for improvement though as far as languages are concerned as in most countries schools tend to offer only one international
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Often, teachers wield a lot of power, are unapproachable and cannot be questioned or challenged by the students. Students in turn are therefore afraid to ask questions or reveal that they have not understood certain concepts for fear of being humiliated. In Zambia for instance students were punished for not knowing the right answer. The teachers are simply not role models for the youth; they do not encourage the students to reach their full potential and nurture them to do the same. Education to some extent also fails to prepare young people for life in general. Although most countries are trying to incorporate some form of lifeskills or life orientation in their curriculums, it is yet to make significant impact due to somewhat shallow content and ineffective methods of delivery. For example the life skills courses are mainly taught as theory and using the same lecture based approach as is done for other subjects; there is little creativity in how these courses are delivered. Also as earlier discussed delivery is also ineffective due to the teachers who are sometimes too far removed from youth issues hence cannot relate to the youth and in turn the youth are not comfortable around them.
Most people said that they dont like life orientation as a subject. They said that it was an unnecessary subject. They teach you general life skills but as a woman they dont teach you how to take care of your hair. They should add more. Its a subject you can miss the whole year and still get an A.
Youth Scouts, Johannesburg South Africa
Most of the schools also have a heavy emphasis on academics as opposed to extracurricula activities or other such as life skills and life orientation. As such there is more focus on booksmarts as opposed to streetsmarts despite the fact that many young people interviewed acknowledged that both are quite important. Streetsmarts or life skills are in many instances a by-product of the education system as opposed to being made an integral part of learning. Despite this being the case some young people appreciated that they had acquired various social skills by going to school. These included such things as expression and interaction with people, good grooming and dressing, among others. In addition because of the heavy focus on academics, young people who have various talents and interests in terms of extra curricula activities are often not adequately catered for. Nonetheless schools do have some extracurricula activities such as performing arts and various sports and some young people interviewed were happy that they had been able to nurture their talents in various areas.
In such a technological age, education in many African countries also does not offer the relevant training and use of technologies so as to prepare students for the job market. As seen earlier few schools have incorporated ICTs and the infrastructure is still quite poor. Little has been done to move beyond the policy on paper to implementation.
They could say that they have computer classes but when you go to the classes you find 2 computers being used against thousands of pupils so the access issue is a major obstacle to technology application in education.
Is the education in African countries inclusive enough?

There are substantial efforts that are being made towards making education in Africa accessible to all. Over the years various actions have been taken by the different stakeholders development partners and governments in order to provide education to all; hence the advent of free primary education in many countries which has led to an overwhelming increase in enrollment rates. In addition there are school feeding programmes that have been started in various schools especially in rural areas and urban low income schools. This has been done in all the six countries of study. Some respondents said that this has really encouraged school attendance since many who are poor have nothing to eat at home; the meal they get at school may be the only one that child will get for the day. It has been established that one of the reasons children do not go to school in some areas is extreme hunger which means that they cannot concentrate in class. In some countries there are even extra incentives built into such feeding programmes to incorporate the families in the
I can give a tick to extra curricula activities in primary and secondary school. There are things like drama, music, debate Talent is identified, harnessed and promoted very well at this level but at university it is very poor, it exists but overall it is very very poor. We are trying to organize a talent night for our students. We have great singers here who dont know who to show their talent to. What will make them billionaires is not classwork but their talent. Still society respects education and holds it in very high esteem so our students must not neglect their classwork
Key Informant, University Student Leader
Career counseling in schools is also limited or altogether lacking in many of the countries studied and as such contributes to the gap between school life and the realities of the job market. Many young people as a result do not have enough information when selecting subjects or courses they would like to study at tertiary level. They instead rely on advice from family and in many cases parents often impose their personal desires and aspirations on their children hence coercing them to take courses that they do not necessarily have a passion and interest in.
community. In a past study carried out in Somali region of Ethiopia a development organization was running a school feeding programme whereby children got a meal at school and in addition got a bottle of cooking oil to take home to their families if they attended school for a consecutive number of weeks. As such the families in the community were quite motivated to send their children to school. Other unique efforts also exist albeit on a small scale. For instance in Kenya one of the youth scouts reported about the existence of a mobile computer training programme in
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Kibera which is an informal settlement in Nairobi. There is a bus with computers which parks at the bus stage in Kibera every day and those who wish to learn computers enrol for a minimal fee of KES 200 (EUR 2) and learn for a period of 3 months. There are also other similar mobile schools and mobile libraries for various courses in the different countries especially in nomadic areas. Such initiatives are however few and far between and cannot cater for all the populations who are seeking to get an education. Overall formal education still has a long way to go in terms of accessibility to all especially at secondary and tertiary levels. There are not enough institutions to cater for all students and there is a disparity in terms of number and type of insitutions available to students from different regions; those in the urban areas have more opportunities and variety to select from as opposed to those in the rural areas. In the long run, how effective is formal education in Africa if universal access is still a great challenge? Youth with special needs are also not adequately catered for in terms of school facilities more so at the tertiary level and have limited opportunity to be absorbed into the mainstream job market. The communities are also not supportive in advocating for the rights of children with special needs and in many African communities such children are believed to be an abomination or a curse and
are kept hidden. Individual parents of such children are therefore also often at a loss of what to do with them since there are no supportive structures either in the community or in educational institutions.
I have many friends who are blind so I want to invent new cell phone features that aid the disabled and the elderly in their day to day activities its screen has a Braille system so it will assist the blind people.
Female 22-25, Addis Ababa Ethiopia
What do youth in Africa like / dislike about school?

The table below shows some of the mentions by young respondents of what they like and dislike about school. It provides some additional insight into the strengths, weaknesses and gaps of the education systems in Africa based on the 6 countries studied, over and above the various issues that have been discussed in previous sections.
Table 11: What youth in Africa like / dislike about school

KEN LIKES Socialising, interacting and making friends Learning how to be confident, express oneself and communicate with different people Playing various sports Music and drama School outings and trips Going home for mid-term and holidays Acquiring new knowledge and gaining exposure Free or atleast affordable education More accessibility due to increased number and type of institutions Removal of the cut off point for the exam at grade 8, meaning more students go onto grade nine Variety of subjects and courses offered Good education policy ETH S.A. ZAM SEN NIG NOTES
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KEN DISLIKES Cults Punishments including corporal forms of it in some schools. Bad food in boarding schools Strict rules, regulations and restrictions
ETH
S.A.
ZAM
SEN
NIG
NOTES
Interestingly some respondents in Kenya were of the opinion that this is important since it instills discipline in the students
E.g. students in Kenya are not allowed to bring and use certain personal items to school such as mobile phones, other music and electronic gadgets, clothes and fashion accessories
Theft from other students Bullying Sexual advances and defilement of female students by male teachers Tribalism, ethnicity and other forms of social discrimination by the teachers and also amongst the students Teachers with low morale due to lack of pay and lack of commitment from the government Doing irrelevant subjects that may not be useful later on Examination set-up for primary, secondary and some colleges and training insitutions under After studying for a period of 8 or 4 years, this all culminates in one final exam over a few days and this one exam is what determines your fate. What happens to those students who have performed well over the years but an unfortunate occurrence like illness on exam days makes it difficult for them to perform to their level best?
Students giving bribes to teachers to pass examinations or be given certificates. Lack of practical training in subjects that require it Insufficient number of books in school and also high cost of text books Having to resit exams because of missing results Some courses are offered only up to diploma level Some students would like to further their courses of choice to degree levels but the courses can only be furthered to diploma levels Feeling that certain courses e.g. arts do not require maths Numerous curriculum changes confuse students
Maths as a prerequisite to joning university one must perform well in mathematics in order to join university Lack of consistency in the education system Quality of education system is poor as compared to the West Insecurity in schools Learning international languages afterall those in the west dont learn African languages Disparity between public and private schools in terms of facility, equipment, teachers and the quality of education Lack of facilities such as books, laboratories and structures such as toilets Excessive work or overload for students
Some students are drug peddlers, violent and involved in crime In SA Afrikaans is also compulsory in some schools and some dont want to learn it.
Engineering and Medicine degrees are now taken in fewer years than before but same content covered
Education policy is outdated and irrelevant Lack of practicals to back up theories taught Use of TV screens to air live lessons (The plasma) It discourages interaction and is too fast for some students. Students cannot stop to ask questions or learn at their own pace.
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An Educational Day at Starays Academy, Kibera, Nairobi
tarays Academy also referred to as Starays Hope Community Centre is an informal school within the Kibera slum in Nairobi just behind Olympic Estate.
incident in the past of a boy who was found smoking bhang in school he would go to the toilet after every couple of hours to smoke since he was addicted and when the manager found this out, they simply worked out an arrangement where he would be allowed a couple of hours before afternoon classes to go home and smoke his bhang then return to class and hence be able to concentrate. At the same time they still recognized that the boy needed help and were able to get him some counseling and rehabilitation services outside of school. The teachers too have had problems of their own but Starays has tried to help and accommodate them as they are in turn willing to give their time and effort to educate the children. Madam Jane gave one example of a teacher who had been an alcoholic for a long time but had eventually come to the realization that he needed to make himself useful in the society and therefore volunteered to become a teacher even if he wouldnt earn much from it. Starays is referred to as
The school was founded in 2004 by a married couple Jane Okeyo and Paul Odhiambo to cater for children in Kibera who could not afford to proceed to secondary school due to poverty yet they had passed their KCPE exams at primary level. Madam Jane, a graduate teacher by profession had been working at a similar school elsewhere as a volunteer and where she found the inspiration to start Starays. The schools vision is to give a second chance to students from poor backgrounds and also those who have experienced various life and social challenges that would normally lock them out of the mainstream education system. These include things such as pregnancy or early marriage, drug abuse among others. There are girls at the school who are mothers and so are allowed to go home to nurse their babies at lunch hour before they get back to school for the afternoon lessons. There was also an
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an informal school because it does not function under the specific rules and regulations of the Ministry of Education though there is hardly any diference between theirs and formal schools educational activities. The curriculum they offer is the same 8-4-4 and so is the national examination which they register and sit for i.e. KCSE. So far they have had 4 groups of KCSE candidates. On average majority of the students attain grade Cs with a few obtaining B grades overall. The school does not rely on any donor funding. The students are charged fees according to their family situation and ability to pay; some pay KES 20 (EUR 0.2) a day, some KES 500 (EUR 5) every half month and those who can pay monthly. No student is turned away because of lack of fees. All the buildings are made of corrugated iron sheet and cement floors. Although occupying a small area, there is maximum utilization of space. At the time of visit there was one Form 1 class, two Form 2 streams, one Form 3 and two Form 4 streams. There is a library, laboratory, staffroom, kitchen and administration office and reception. There are also dormitories, the girls has thirty two borders who sleep two a bed while there are about eighteen boys who each sleep alone. The girls dormitory is a small room that has small double decker beds. There is a small bathroom on one corner with a wooden floor that water flows through into a tunnel underneath. The boys dormitory is much smaller than the girls and is close to the caretakers room for safety and close monitoring. It is also congested. The manager tells us that they had to increase boarding facilities for the boys because some of them get into bad habits at home and get into trouble with their fathers so it is better to keep them in school at the request of their parents. All the buildings and facilities in the school are very modest with very simple furniture mostly makeshift wooden benches and tables. The library has the only computer in the school and a small collection of books that were donated to the school by a well-wisher. They therefore have about 5 copies for each class/form and for each subject for the students to refer to when doing homework. Teachers can also borrow the books for the students to use during lessons but they must be returned promptly when the lesson ends. Given the limited number of books students are not allowed to borrow to take home hence they have to go to the library to do their assignments before they go home or during any free lessons or during lunchtime. These limited text books have to be shared by all the students as most cannot afford For lack of a better storage area given the limted space in the school, extra mattresses for boarders are kept on one side of the lab.
The modest library facility that has gone a long way in providing reading material and text books to the students
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Plastic containers for water in the lab. Lack of water is a common phenomenon in the slums.
to purchase their own books. The librarian also doubles up as a CRE teacher; she sits in the library to serve the students whenever she is not in class. The laboratory is also a basic one and is used for all science subjects; students therefore do their examinations in shifts during exams as the facility is obviously not enough for all of them at a go and for all the science exams. There are some chemicals and equipment stored in a cupboard on one side. They have some very basic lab equipment such as test tubes, beakers, and Bunsen burners which were donated by some well-wishers but they lack more sophisticated and essential equipment such as microscopes. There is a lab technician who sits right in the middle of the rather empty room and there are a few sinks along the wall and surfaces for students to work on. The school has six male graduate teachers and one young female untrained teacher. She is hoping to train as a nurse at KMTC later this year. She is the one who also doubles up as the librarian. The teachers range in age from late twenties to early thirties. There is a manager, Paul Odhiambo who mostly deals with the parents. Jane, currently the head of the school is a graduate teacher and has been offered a government position since starting the school but she has refused to take up a well-paid position because in her words, I am the one who had the vision, how can I leave? The school cannot afford to pay any of the staff a salary so what they get is a small stipend to keep them going. In total there are about 300 students in the school with about 40 to 50 students per class. The students wear school uniform at all times they are supposed to be neatly dressed in green skirts (or trousers for the boys), white shirts, green pullovers and green ties with white
stripes, black shoes and white socks for the girls, grey for the boys. Personal grooming is also taken very seriously for example one boy is sent home during assembly for keeping long untidy hair with the instruction to shave it afterwhich he may come back to school. He is therefore a little late for his classes that day but is readily re-admitted back since he has now shaved the hair. Later in the day another boy is reprimanded for an untucked shirt and loosened tie which he quickly corrects. School starts at 7:00 am at Starays Hope Community Centre in Kibera and ends at 5:00 pm for the non-boarders and 10:00 pm for the boarders. The routine is strict and emphasis is mainly on academics. 7:00 8:00 am preps with the teachers. This time is dedicated to extra study, tuition and revision. Students are expected to make it to school in time to attend these preps.
Welcome to Starays School Perhaps thats what the sign would read at the entrance, if there were one
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On a tour of the school with the manager. Current stop the science lab.
An aerial view of Kibera surrounding the school
8:00 1:00 pm regular classes with a half hour tea break at around 11 am. On some days they have a school assembly from 8:00 to 8:30 am hence classes start a little later than usual. We visit various classes and sit in to go through the lessons of the day with them and in a day are able to go through various subjects English, Maths, Business Education, and History. The method of instruction is largely lecture-based where the teacher discusses the topic of the day and dictates notes to the students. He has a blackboard at the front of the classroom in case he needs to write down anything for reference. There is some opportunity for class participation where teachers ask questions and students can answer and similarly students are free to ask questions to their teachers. The atmosphere in class is quite relaxed and informal whereby students seem quite free with their teachers and will jovially interact with them sometimes asking questions or introducing topics that are outside of the lessons for the day. Most of the students also speak Kiswahili or Sheng in class and even with their teachers. There seem to be a few students in every class who are most active as compared to the rest they answer most of the questions and also ask questions. Generally students seem to be overloaded with assignments every teacher leaves an assignment and some of these are supposed to be done in the course of the day and delivered to the staffroom yet the students have very little free time to do the assignments; there are some teachers who even carry out extra lessons over lunch hour and on weekends which are said to be optional but it is established that students feel obliged to attend so as not to miss out. Mostly it is observed that students of the same gender sit together but there are a few desks where girl and boy sit together; the students generally pick where they
want to sit as opposed to allocation by their teachers. The classes have large openings for ventilation which is what serves as the windows but because of the iron sheets, it still gets quite hot inside especially from midday when the sun is high. There is a foul smell in some of the classes indicating that there are toilets nearby and sanitation is generally not very good. Looking around the classes one notices that there are different types of bags that students use to carry their books; backpacks, small metallic boxes and simple polythene bags. Some students also dont seem to have some of the necessary books and stationery they need for their lessons; some have geometrical sets, others just have a pen, some have large A4 exercise books while others have smaller A5 ones with very few pages and they write in very tiny handwriting so that they can maximize on that small book as much as possible. Others have very neatly covered books using brown paper while others do not. Seemingly therefore, there are different socio-economic categories of students even though they all come from the same neighbourhood. For example in the mathematics class for Form 1 as well as Form 4, the particular lessons attended involved graph work and not all students had graph books. In Form 4 the teacher declined to mark assignments from those students who had done their work on ordinary ruled exercise books while in Form 1 those who did not have the required graph books were warned that if they did not acquire them by the next day they would be caned. Apparently corporal punishment is used for students in Form 1 and 2 while the older ones receive other forms of punishment. 1:00 1:30 pm Time for lunch. Students and teachers alike have their lunch at school. There is a kitchen with two staff members who start to prepare lunch for the school from as early as 8:00am. The daily and basic
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Out for a break students gather around the kitchen area trying to get a bite
The plot adjacent to the school which they hope to acquire soon for expansion purposes.
meal is githeri which is a mixture of maize and beans. For dinner, the school prepares ugali which is made out of maizemeal; they eat this with vegetables. Some students who have certain medical problems and cannot therefore eat githeri for lunch are served with ugali and vegetables instead. These meals cost Kshs 20 per student (EUR 0.2) so as to ensure affordability for the majority. All students who have paid for the lunch get a meal card which they submit at the kitchen in order to be served. A few students who have a little more to spend buy bhajia also available from the school kitchen at KES 1 (EUR 0.01) a piece. The administration decided to introduce this option so as to avoid students going outside of the school compound over lunch hour seeking alternative meals; this way they avoid time wastage and students can quickly settle back to class after lunch for more lessons or assignments. During this time we get to engage with various students and find out more about school life from their perspective. One boy in Form 4 shares his experiences. Apparently he is not completely convinced about the value of the education he is getting and basically why he has to be in school. His father has forced him to come to school and at that become a boarder so as to keep him away from negative influences of other youth in his neighbourhood who have dropped out of school. in Nairobi. He comes from Kawangware which is another low income area and informal settlement He acknowledges that with his education he is better off than his drop-out friends because of the exposure, confidence and general knowledge that it has given him and so he will have better survival skills in terms of livelihoods than they will. However he still feels that he is missing out on life out there especially the opportunity to hustle and make money. He would also like to have
a mobile phone in school so that he can keep in touch with the world out there and perhaps be able to run his businesses but alas mobile phones are strictly forbidden and anyone found with one faces serious punishment and the phone is destroyed or thrown into a pit latrine. He concedes though that there are still some students in school secretly keeping and using their mobile phones but its tricky and one can easily get caught especially if you fall out with some students who would then sell you out to the administration. On extra curricula activities and clubs, he says there is not much at their disposal because the school is more focused on academics and there is little physical space anyway for sports. The most active clubs therefore are also those that are related to academics such as Maths club, Science club and Debate. They receive a lot of recognition and support from the school administration and they also do not require a lot of space for their activities. Generally the school atmosphere is friendly though he reveals that for the boarders there is sometimes some underlying animosity between students of different tribes hence people tend to prefer to hang out with their own. Another female student also shares her experiences. She is now in Form 4 but she joined the school only a year ago after having been transferred from a rural school. She says she is very happy here; apparently she finds the teachers at Starays to be very committed to delivering quality education to the students whereas in her old school teachers were rather demotivated and didnt really care about teaching the students. According to her the students at Starays are also very focused with their studies and this helps keep everyone in check. About subjects and subject choices, she says there is not much guidance to students as to
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Assignment completion and study time in the library
The only computer in the school. Limited ICT facilities means that students miss out on critical technological aspects of learning.
how to select subjects to specialize in when they get to Form 3. As such there is some confusion whereby students keep switching from one subject to another before they finally settle to one and in the process miss out on a lot. This is partly driven by fear especially when it comes to tests and assessments and partly by lack of understanding of what selecting a certain subject means in terms of tertiary studies and future careers. This particular girl says that she made her selection of subjects based on some advice from her big brother; he simply told her to select subjects that are relatively easy to pass; subjects that would not be difficult for her and that is what she did. 1:30 2:00 pm Students go back to class for any additional lessons or to the library to read or complete assignments. 2:00 4:00 pm Regular classes resume. Because of the limited number of teachers in the school, it is common to see students from the different streams of a given class all congregating into one classroom for a given lesson. For example there was only one English teacher at the time hence the two Form 4 classes all came together into one classroom to have the lesson together. The lack of textbooks is another challenge that is quite evident. It is therefore not unusual to see 4 to 5 students huddling around one textbook trying to get the benefit of the lesson. There is a railway line just adjacent to the school and because of the deafening noise of the passing trains this creates some disturbance very early in the morning and in the afternoon usually towards the final lessons of the day. We experience one train passing at about 4pm. The teachers have to stop speaking if they were in the middle of a lecture until
the sound subsides with the train disappearing into the horizon. They all seem to be used to this as part of their day to day experiences. 4:00 5:00 pm Games, club activities or prep afterwhich non-boarders go home. The school manager explains to us that they sometimes have some football practice in the field across which they have been allowed to use by the owners. They have not got round to doing this for this school term however. He continues to explain that students at the school have various talents, passions and interests especially in the arts but unfortunately they have not been able to nurture these through regular activities. He says this is partly due to the lack of space but also a lack of teachers who have the same interests and passions therefore can take up these activities as the patrons and drive them successfully. Nonetheless whenever opportunities arise for their students to take part in certain arts related competitions or the like, they take them up and prepare the students to participate. They are usually not the initiators; anything they have participated in, in the past has been initiated by other schools or organizations and to which they were officially invited. We leave the school just before 5:00pm as the day draws to a close. As reported to us by the school manager, the remainder of the evening for students who are boarders is spent as follows: 6:00 7:00 pm Dinner for the boarders 7:00 9:00 pm Prep for boarders 9:00 10:00 pm Prayers / Christian Union Meeting 10:00 pm Boarders go to sleep.
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Student life and experience at Chikankata Basic School, Zambia

School type:
This is a middle basic school, meaning it runs from grade one to grade nine. It has three levels of education namely lower primary (grade 1 - 4), upper primary (grade 5 - 7) and junior secondary grades (8 - 9). The school is run by a female head teacher assisted by a deputy and heads of various departments such as math department, English department and so on. It has senior school teachers and ordinary teachers. The school is mixed both boys and girls and by observation the numbers are quite equal. The students wear uniform although some students wear sports shoes instead of the required regular black shoes. Others in the grade seven class that we sat in had worn out and even torn uniforms perhaps a reflection of their low income background. Obviously the school is not too strict in this regard as this would lock many students out. However no necklaces, neck chains, fancy hair styles or other improper dressing is allowed. The school day starts at 6:30 am when pupils report to school and start by cleaning the classrooms and the surrounding. They then assemble briefly before going in for the first lesson at 7:00 am. At 9:40 am there is a twenty minute break. They resume again and break off at 12:40 pm. (Another lot of students will come in at The teachers are held in utmost respect and pupils must stand up each time a teacher enters the classroom. In fact students who were late for the first morning lesson, knocked, came in and knelt before the teacher as they asked for pardon. Other rules are that pupils will take part in sports, academic, social and production unit activities as may be arranged by the school. The production unit is when the school engages in farming activities like during the previous school term when the school had a thriving vegetable garden.
School programme;
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This is the school block which is still undergoing some refurbishment hence the missing doors and window panes.
Students crowd over the obviously limited number of textbooks to do exercises in Chikankata basic school.
2:00 pm and knock off at 5:00 pm). The ones who leave at 12:40 pm will come back at 3:00 pm for clubs, cleaning and other activities until 5:00 pm. The head and deputy head teachers meet daily for a briefing while a staff meeting is held every three weeks. Every Monday there is also assembly to make any important announcements to the pupils.
some classes; in some, bright students are placed in each group so that they may help others while in some classes the brightest students sit together then followed by the next brightest such that those who usually lag behind sit together in one group. We observed that one table always raised their hands to answer questions while the table with the pupils who do not perform well, looked almost lost and hardly raised their hands to answer anything.
What they study;

The primary syllabus consists of subjects like Math, English, Religious Education, Home Economics, Music, Integrated Science, Tonga (local language), Social Development Studies, Literacy and Community Studies (learning about what happens in their community). The junior syllabus comprises subjects like Math, English, Music, History, Art, Geography, Environmental Science, Office Practice, Home Economics, Tonga, Religious Education, Agriculture, Science, Book keeping and Carpentry. The teaching method is mainly the lecture method. Teachers explain the topic and give a few examples on the board and then give a few questions which are then done in class and for home work. The reason for this seemed to be the lack of enough textbooks. In grade seven pupils are seated in groups of eight to ten around two tables joined together, facing each other (see photo). They then share one book among four pupils if not more. The books are distributed at the beginning of class and later collected so the teacher has to write the homework exercise on the board. Similarly for subjects like Social Development, the teacher has to write the notes on the board so that the students copy. The seating arrangement also differs in Teachers have to make their own visual learning aids such as these charts in a grade seven class in Chikankata basic school.
Extra curricular activities;

There are social clubs like debate club, anti-aids club, drama club, school choir and junior engineers, technicians and scientists club (JETS) There are sports clubs; football, netball, volleyball, athletics, long jump, high jump and triple jump club.
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After school activities in Chikankata basic school. Dance, dance, dance as teacher and other pupils look on.
There is also preventive maintenance i.e. where pupils clean up the school and work in the garden.
of communication therefore is face to face. English is spoken in class but at breaks one will hear Tonga being spoken.
Interactions
The teachers are dedicated in their work and want the pupils to understand what they are being taught. Slow learners are given special attention. If they are having difficulty understanding, the teacher for instance may explain the point in mother tongue. The students are also eager to learn and look up to their teachers with a lot of respect. They look to them to guide them towards a better future. Pupils who come out top of their class are awarded to encourage others. The students group themselves according to status and seem to feel that those from well to do families look down on others. They also form study groups to help each other to perform well and also help each other perfect their skills e.g. in football, netball.
Pupils comments
Some common problems among them are the lack of school shoes, mathematical sets and exercise books. Some of them do piece work like watering vegetables at the Chikankata mission to earn some money. Some students would want to change the class time to begin at eight because they have to walk long distances to school. Similarly those who live far away would want to be exempted from extra curricular activities in the afternoon because this means arriving home late in the evening.
ICT use
The school does not have computers. Only a small number of pupils have mobile phones but these are not permitted in school. The most common medium
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The main market. Mbour is one of Senegals largest cities with a vibrant informal business trade
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Chapter Three | Livelihood
ban areas than in rural areas which clearly points out the substantial difficulties of youth participation in the labour market. The number of unemployed youth grew by 30% from 1995 to 2005. In addition to the unemployment rate, which is measured in relation to the labour force, a large part of youth in Africa can be classified as inactive, i.e. not part of the labour force (under education or completely outside the labor force). Youth make up 43.7% of the total unemployed people in the world despite accounting for only 25% of the working population. In fact, in SubSaharan Africa, 3 in 5 of the total unemployed are youth (ILO 2006). Most young Africans in work have employment
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outh unemployment rates are about three times the unemployment rates of older adults in Africa (ILO 2006). Youth unemployment is higher in ur-
that is characterized by long hours, low pay and no security. Many young people working in the informal sector are working poor, i.e. earnings are still below US$1 a day (DFID, 2006b). Youth are more likely than older adults to be in the informal sector, and less likely to be wage employed or self-employed. For example, in 2005, 81.4% and 12.5% of Ethiopian youth were in the informal and self-employment sectors respectively, against 43% and 49.6% of adults (ILO 2007). Young people are more likely to work longer hours under intermittent and insecure work arrangements, characterized by low productivity and meager earnings. Underemployment is more prevalent among youth than older adults, and is more prevalent in rural rather than urban areas. Youth are employed primarily in agriculture in which
they account for 65% of total employment. In rural areas the youth work longer hours and spend a lot of their time in household work. In rural Ethiopia for example, they work 43 hours a week in contrast to the 31 hours worked in urban areas. Of those 43 hours worked, the rural youth spends 31 hours in household work (fetching water, collecting fire wood, and other domestic activities), in contrast to the 22 spent on these tasks in urban areas. Rural youth attached to agriculture are disadvantaged in terms of employment status as compared to those engaged in non-farm activities (ILO 2007). In practice, there are many complex structural and frictional constraints related with lack of employability (Semboja 2005). These include preference by employers, lack of work experience during school years; poor quality in the education; inadequate preparation of the youth in career development and low level of information technology. The art of taking a business endeavour where one becomes self employed have become a challenge to most young people. Micro, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises, (MSMEs) are in both formal and informal sectors engaging in farm and non-farm economic activities such as manufacturing, mining, commerce and social services. MSMEs are
more effective in the utilization of local social and natural resources using simple and affordable production technology. Also, MSMEs are better positioned to satisfy limited demands brought about by small and localized markets due to their lower overheads and fixed costs. Although micro, small and medium scale informal businesses are dynamic and employment generating entities, they are not socially and economically preferable jobs. This results in a kind of frictional unemployment where the young job-seekers prefer large companies and therefore tend to wait for a satisfactory job to come up. Many micro and small sized enterprises in East Africa are informal because the administrative procedures for business registration are too cumbersome, long-winded or costly. The barriers to setting up new businesses are particularly high for young people who on the other hand face complex entrepreneurship barriers. These structural problems include: the lack of voice and representation; and lack of access to credit due to lack of collateral that banks require for a loan. Isolation and lack of support are problems many young women and men entrepreneurs experience and this often prevents them from gaining a foothold in modern business.
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Youth and money

Like everyone else, youth say they definitely need money. What for? This ranges from basics like food, clothing and shelter to other secondary needs and wants such as entertainment, mobile phone and airtime, transport, among others. The priorities depend on age, life circumstances, culture or family socio-economic class. As such some young peoples prioritization may not need to cover basics such as food, shelter and clothing hence the things that one would consider secondary then become the priority for them when spending their money. On the other hand some youth may need to contribute to family needs because of poverty and / or a culture of dependency where families simply expect their young people to provide for them even from a fairly young age. This is quite evident across the countries of study. For example in Senegal, a young person aspires to build a house for his parents and ensure that they are well catered for financially before taking care of his own personal needs and desires. Similarly in other countries, there are various manifestations of the dependency culture.
family expectations to meet hence youth are quite good at juggling and stretching the little money they have to cover all the needs. There was not much evidence of youth making a conscious effort to save and invest for the future; it seems that they are generally spontaneous in their spending, live for the moment and are short-sighted about the benefits of making solid financial plans for the future.
Young people hardly ever save. Campus students are living large yet most of us here come from lower to middle income backgrounds. When the Higher Education Loans Board loans come through you should see what happens Everyone has bought woofers, music systems but no computers! Some of them get the money and actually pay school fees for their siblings but most are just spendthrifts and later run into problems when they have to pay their school fees and other expenditure to sustain them at school which is what the loan was meant for in the first place I think society has let young people lose
Key Informant, Nairobi,Kenya
There are very high expectations, very high expectations. Though they know your salary is very small you have to give, you have to educate your younger ones, you have to help in terms of buying clothes and shoes and when holiday comes you have to buy some things - some animal to slaughter. You sometimes have to say what you earn.
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia The dependency culture can be said to be counterproductive to the African communities despite having some good intentions. Some youth felt that they were being held back from personal development and success because of the constant need to provide for family. they It also has negative effects on the very complacent and unproductive. same communities who are being supported in that become On a personal level some of the things that youth spend their money on include clothes, shoes, airtime, busfare, entertainment / social costs (e.g. alcohol, music, cigarettes, clubbing). Those who are living on their own also spend money on other basic needs like rent and food. The desire to satisfy these personal needs and wants is quite strong amongst the youth yet at the same they have
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It is the general disease affecting black men. Once they have money they want to show the world they have money by the kind of car, house, shoes and clothes. They would prefer to go where they sell a bottle of coke for 5000 Naira instead of buying it where they sell it for 50 Naira just to show they are rich. It is mainly a Nigerian thing anyway.
Key Informant, Lagos, Nigeria
Where do the youth get their money?
Many get
money from their parents especially the younger ones (14-17 and in some instances 18-21), particularly those still in school or college and of better socio-economic standing. The amounts of pocket money or allowances vary a great deal depending on socio-economic status and living arrangements for the students in boarding school or college. This also varies from country to country. The amounts ranged from EUR 5 to EUR 3000 in Kenya per term or semester, EUR 5 per week in Nigeria, and EUR 32 to 48 per month in Ethiopia. Some have come up with creative
ways of having sufficient money to cater for needs that their parents or guardians will not necessarily finance. These are such as keeping change when sent to purchase something, walking certain distances instead of spending the busfare provided, skipping meals, overstating amounts required e.g. for school fees or other school related costs, money from politicians, selling certain items in their homes, prostitution (including sugar daddies and sugar mummies) and internet scams. Some of the Key Informants particularly at the Kenyan Coast shed some light on some of these sources of money that the youth are making use of mostly out of desperation and frustration; other acceptable sources are either nonexistent for them or are failing to yield sufficient
amounts of money from which they can live a comfortable life. Other youth earn wages from informal / casual jobs or doing their own small businesses so as to make some money to keep them going. Some of the examples mentioned were hairdressing, farming, community services like selling water, managing public toilets and bathrooms, weeding farms and slashing grass, making bricks for construction and digging pit latrines, running errands, performing arts, selling snacks and food, doing laundry, burning and selling CDs for music or movies, selling scratchcards for airtime, photography and fine art, masonry, tour guide, among others. In terms of monies earned, the youth in Kenya reported that for doing laundry they could earn about EUR 5, for live gigs (performing arts) they could earn between EUR 2 and 5 per gig because they are usually in groups therefore have to split the earnings. In Zambia youth were able to earn EUR 4 per hour for piece work (chores, construction, farming, etc) and EUR 16 per week in Nigeria for handicrafts, EUR 7 per week for an apprentice cobbler and EUR 6 per day for onsite construction casual workers while in Zambia such labourers were paid EUR 48 per month. In Senegal youth said they can make wages of EUR 0.7 to 3 per day in urban and some EUR 7.8 per week also in urban areas. There are also those youth who are formally employed or self-employed especially in the upper age bracket (22-25) and therefore earn a monthly salary. In rural South Africa youth earnings ranged from EUR 10 to 37 per month and in urban EUR 53 to 213, EUR 48 per day in Nigeria (business owner), EUR 80 to 160 in Zambia and in Kenya EUR 250.
There are no jobs here in Kwale and many young people have dropped out of school so they do not have a good education background that can guarantee them a good job. Even those who have gone to school are unemployed The trend now is that many young men are becoming beach boys In reality there is no work that they do at the beach, the truth is that they are Gigolos and the reason they hang out at the beach is to look for old European women who then finance their every need. Some of them are even married but because of hardship have come to an agreement with their wives that they can take on these rich European women and get some money for the family
Livelihood opportunities; do they exist?

Formal employment opportunities are few and far between in most African countries as such a good formal education does not necessarily translate into a good job in the formal sector. The landscape is extremely competitive given that population growth rate is expanding faster than economic growth rate and the pool of qualified professionals is getting bigger every year due to increased emphasis on education by various stakeholders. In addition, there appears to be a livelihood tug of war between the older and younger generation. Employment opportunities are withheld from the youth because there is preference for people who have more years of work experience hence fewer opportunities for fresh graduates. Also, some of the older generation who are in employment have worked their way up through the ranks and continue to maintain the positions despite the fact that they may not necessarily possess the professional qualifications that some of the youth now have. Employers are also not willing to invest in training and developing the youth in the workplace; there is a feeling that the quality of graduates coming out are not particularly well prepared in terms of practical experience and skills as well as knowledge of the realities of the work environment.
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When you get money from an older man you will always have that guilty conscience because you cannot get anything for free. No man can give you anything for free.
Female 18-21, Lusaka, Zambia
We have so many graduates from the colleges who are still in the street because the companies say they dont want them to experiment on our[their] machines. We want someone with experience who can actually do the work.
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia There is a strong desire by many young people to make a shift to self-employment. This is driven by their acknowledgement of job market realities such as lack of opportunities. In addition students do not necessarily have a say in the courses they pursue at tertiary level this is often dictated by cut-off grades, family or teacher influence and subjects studied at secondary level. On completion of their studies, the rigidity of the job market also does not allow them to break out of their area of study and explore or pursue other interests and ambitions. They are therefore locked in a career that is in line with their study discipline which they may not necesaarily have a passion for. Self-employment is therefore an option for such young people as it is more likely to offer them the flexibility to venture into other areas of interest as they so desire. Being in formal employment is often not enabling of exploration of other talents, skills and interests outside of the workplace in terms of time and general support. There is also an inherent old school approach to tasks and activities in the workplace which stifles young peoples creativity; they are seldom allowed to weigh in on important decisions and activities.
aware that the option for them lies in self-employment and many of them were already actively engaged in one entrepreneurial activity or other. Others were evidently trying to make use of their talents to earn a living.
In Senegal we have many young people who leave school very early and give themselves to sports. Many people have made it in life through football. In fact majority of the Senegalese football team are people who never went to school and have made it in life.
Key Informant, Dakar, Senegal Young South Africans and Senegalese are an exception as compared to youth from the other countries of study. In South Africa key informants were of the opinion that the youth have not clearly seen the big picture and understood what self-employment encompasses. They perceive it to be only the small menial jobs that they dont want to be associated with. Hence with a wider understanding they would probably have the same desire for self-employment as do youth in the other countries. Some of the reports by the youth scouts in South Africa support this. They said that the youth have numerous business ideas but the problem is that they tend to think too big and want to start at that level as opposed to starting small and growing it hence never implement their ideas. Similarly in Senegal some youth argued that the common belief that it is not possible to succeed in their country because there are no opportunities for the youth is not entirely true since there are immigrants from countries such as Mauritania, Guinea Bissau and Guinea who are engaged in micro enterprise and succeeding at it.
They dont encourage creativity. For example if you want to be a musician, families still consider music as very bad work so you dont do such please study hard, study the formal things (as would be said by parent). So it starts from the family. In your workplace from your boss if you try to do an assignment in your own creative way your boss might not be happy so such pressures are a big challenge.
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
The desire to shift to self-employment is also driven by personal factors or realities such as education background, skills, talents, personal interests and passions, creativity and innovation. Some of the respondents who had only primary education and / or secondary education were quite
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I think South Africans are very intelligent. They have a lot of ideas and if we had to come up with 6 ideas each, we would probably come up with 100. But we just dont carry out because we probably know it is gonna fail. You just think hmmmm where do I start? and thats where it ends.
Youth Scout, Johannesburg, South Africa
Despite young peoples interest in self-employment, there are challenges and obstacles that they face that make it difficult for them to make the shift. Some of them have a lot of fear and lack confidence fueled by lack of experience, business start-up know-how and associated risks. This is partly due to a failure in the education systems whereby there is hardly any entrepreneurship training and mentoring to prepare young people for this field. There is also lack of access to start-up and expansion capital as youth do not have collateral for loans from financial insitutions among other formal requirements. Many youth in some of the countries of study were keen to go into selfemployment but felt that they first need to be formally employed for some time (on average 5 years) so as to gather experience and save some money before venturing into their own businesses. In Ethiopia, most young peoples immediate choice was for self-employment the obstacle being the capital to start. Some country governments are making efforts to avail business capital to young people though on the whole this is yet to make a noteable impact. In Kenya for example, the Youth Enterprise Fund was introduced to give loans to groups of young people to implement their business ideas. However they were required to submit convincing proposals which many did not even know how to put together. The money was also to be disbursed to groups rather than individuals and this brought about other challenges of group dynamics which many youth were unable to manage. In addition the amounts given were rather low (EUR 500) per group hence starting and sustaining a successful business which would be a source of livelihood for all the group members and still manage to repay the loan proved to be quite difficult for most. As such the whole fund turned out to be unsustainable as most of the loans were never repaid and as a result other young people have not benefited from subsequent loan disbursements. Similary in Ethiopia there is a government fund whereby loans are disbursed to the youth through regional cooperatives. The youth also have to be in groups hence have experienced similar challenges as their counterparts in Kenya. However unlike Kenya there has been significant sustainability and impact from the loans since the youth are at least offered training to help them manage their businesses. There are also other initiatives related to job opportunities that have been started by governments and development organizations. In Kenya the Kazi Kwa Vijana which was a nationwide initiative which was meant to employ 200,000 to 300,000 Kenyans, primarily the
youth who were at risk of hunger and starvation so as to enable them earn income to buy food and other basic items as well as to support their families. Youth were employed in jobs such building water dams and irrigation, repairing boreholes and access roads, clear bushes, plant trees and sow seeds. There is also the recent Jobs Abroad Programme by the Kenyan Government aimed at sending 10,000 people to work abroad so as to alleviate the unemployment problem. So far 390 young people have been sent to Iraq and Afghanistan. In Senegal the Ministry of Public Functions and Employment in conjunction with the Ministry of Education have come up with initiatives to help create jobs for young people National Politic for Young People. Similar to Kenya where we have KKV, the Government of Senegal has set up a public works program to cater for unemployed youth with the aim of providing short-term employment through labour-intensive private works such as construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of public services and provision of essential services. During the 1st phase of the program, approximately 80,000 jobs were created for young people in 416 projects in microenterprises. Overall 3,226 projects have been implemented resulting in the creation of 350,000 temporary jobs perannum. These projects also led to the establishment of 6,000 permanent jobs. But do such jobs really provide long-term opportunities and impacts for the youth or are they just a source of cheap labor for the government to undertake infrastructure projects? Apprenticeships in Senegal are also a good model for providing the youth with post-primary training and integrating them into the informal economy. If properly organized, they will meet the needs of Senegal to stimulate the creation of jobs and activities for the young generation. These reforms would for instance link formal and informal training and aim to develop a comprehensive and integrated training system that would ensure the maximum number of Senegalese youth acquire skills needed to stimulate the informal economy. This would also encourage the shift from survivalbased approach to development-based approach. Below are further country specific insights on employment and livelihoods.
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Kenya
Kenya
Youth at work in the newsroom at Pamoja FM community radio
According to the National Youth Policy (2006), the economic growth rate has not been sufficient to create enough employment opportunities to absorb the increasing labour force of about 500,000 annually. Only about 25% of youth are absorbed, leaving 75% to bear the burden of unemployment. Furthermore, some of those absorbed in the labour market have jobs that do not match their qualifications and personal development goals. The youth in Kenya account for about 32% of the population or 9.1 million. Of these, 51.7% are female youth. These form 60% of the total labour force. Despite this, opportunities are very scarce to absorb them in the job market. These young people are a potential resource for growth and social development if gainfully and productively engaged. The majority of the working populations are engaged in agriculture as their main occupation, where 71% of the working population are subsistence agricultural workers. The professional, semi-professionals and administrator categories collectively constitute 7% of the total working population, while the sales and service workers are 9% of the total working population.
Youth unemployment in Kenya is on the increase as is under-employment. An increasing number of youth is moving to urban centers but are unable to find work, suggesting that this is due to lack of skills and working experience, but also that the urban Kenyan economy is unable to absorb the potential work-force (Manda 2003). The ILFS 2000/2001 (quoted in Semboja, 2007) shows youth unemployment rate is about four times the older adults unemployment rate and is growing at double the rate for older adults unemployment.
Appreciating other young peoples artistic works displayed for sale
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Ethiopia
A street in Mercato, the market. Religion, tribe, socio-economic class and levels of education are unknown here. The market is maximally used by all to the extent that supermarkets are not quite relevant.
44% percent of the countrys population is below the absolute poverty line. Under this situation of poverty, the youth is the hardest hit segment of society. The widespread unemployment prevailing in the country is the main expression of poverty. In this poverty related situation, the variance between skilled human resources supplies on one hand and demand on the other has further widened the gap. The national labour force survey conducted in 1999 by the Central Statistical Authority indicates that 1,890,249 persons in the age range of 15-64 are unemployed. Out of this 1,260,177 (67%) are youth. The number of female unemployed youth is 899,426 (71.4%) and the corresponding number of males is 360,751 (28.6%). The fact that majority of the unemployed youth constitute females indicates the magnitude to which young women
are the main victims of the problem. The view regarding the alleviation of the problem, especially the perception that the government alone would resolve the problem of unemployment has been a cause for aggravating that very problem. Although sufficient data and information on the situation of rural and urban youth engaged in the informal sector are not available, it is assumed that rural youth could deploy themselves in off-farm activities. Similarly, as a finding of one study conducted in urban areas to establish the number of people engaged in the informal sector indicates that, out of 146,460 persons engaged in this sector 64,441 or 44% are youth. Large numbers of rural youth are migrating to urban areas due to abject poverty and in search of better opportunities (World Bank, 2009).
Transportation Horse drawn carts are the most common means of transport in Debre Zeit. Tuk Tuks are also used by commuters and lorries for transiting goods and heavy material.
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South Africa
African Sourvineirs and memoirs on sale in Soweto. A livelihood opportunity for the youth.
he South African economy was reported to be growing at an impressive annual rate of 4.5% since 2004, up from
numbers of young people living in poor households. Unemployment in return brings with it a number of social problems including: crime, drug and alcohol abuse, poor health and the loss of self-esteem and the confidence needed to participate in the broader society. One of the specificities of South African education, and the transition between school and the labour market, is that the country is still dealing with issues of transformation and the legacy of apartheid era inequalities, with particularly high unemployment rates among the young African population relative to coloured and white youth. There is a strong correlation between the importance and the quality of schooling with the probability of finding work. Deficiency in youth education and labor market preparedness is still a relevant concern in contemporary South Africa. A Labour Force Survey conducted in 2005 reveals that 42% of African youth who were between 15 and 24 years of age had stopped their studies and entered the labour market. What is troubling is that more than 60% of these youth had less than a complete secondary school qualification, while 33% had nothing more than a complete secondary school qualification. Racial differences appear even before youth finish school, with white youth much more likely than any other group to work during the years they are enrolled in school.
a mere 3% average from 1994-2004 (it is acknowledged that this trend has however, been impacted on by the current global financial crisis). However, there are concerns that the increase in employment numbers is insufficient to absorb the current (and growing) labour force. Concerns have been raised about youth unemployment, which was estimated at 50.3% for 14 to 24 year-olds and 29.5% for 25 to 35 year-olds in March 2006. Even though this figure constitutes a fall of about 2% from the previous year, it is worrying that there is still a significant number of young people who are unemployed and therefore vulnerable to poverty (Trialogue, 2007). Morrow et al (2005) estimates that 65% of the four million young South Africans who were part of the labour force were unemployed in 2005. This rate is among the highest rates in the world. One third of all youth are living in poverty, and approximately half of this one third live in extreme poverty. In 2007, almost two-thirds of youth aged 15-24 lived in households with expenditure of less than R1 200 per month (EUR 120), as did approximately 60% of youth aged 25-34 (Labour Force Survey, 2007). Youth poverty in South Africa is attributed to continuous unemployment (Morrow et al, 2005). Poverty tends to reproduce itself among children and young people from already impoverished families. Conditions of poverty further hamper access to basic services for large
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Young people relax at the Mandela House in Orlando West, Soweto. The house in which Mandela spent a good part of his life is now a tourist attraction and young people act as tour guides at the house. They have the Mandela history right at their fingertips and impressively take visitors down memory lane.
The informal sector of the economy also has its role to play. Services ranging from mechanical to upholstery and photocopy are availed to meet the varied needs of the population
Youth working at a car wash. Youth dont cease to come up with moneymaking ideas whenever they need money.
Youth express themselves artistically on a wall in Johannesburg. This is the only wall in the whole of Joburg that they are allowed to paint and draw on. It is through such opportunities that youth get to discover and nurture their talents.
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Zambia
Young women with a food stall in the market in Lusaka. Food industry is a lucrative livelihood opportunity for many.
only 350,000 of the total population are formally employed.
ver 70,000 youths are floated on the job market each year. Unemployment is generally very high since
The closure of industries in the various provinces due to the open market economy and privatization as well as economic decline has reduced formal employment opportunities for young people.
A second hand clothes market in Lusaka where many youth are either buyers or sellers its booming business.
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Senegal
Dakar: Young men traverse the streets of Dakar on a horse. They are most probably going to or coming from ferrying goods. Informal transport like this provides self-employment opportunities to the youth but also causes major traffic casualties
and livelihoods. In Senegal, there is a strong demarcation in household decision along gender lines. Unlike men, whose work is done mainly outside the home is distinct from it and is associated with cash income, for women, work is deeply interwoven with her family and home. Formal sector opportunities in industry and services are limited for youth, especially females and/or early school leavers, and formal sector jobs can also go unfilled because youth do not have the skills/training required, thus contributing to the unemployment of youth. The formal economy absorbs only about 16% of youth who have completed their education leaving the remainder to their own devices. Plutot homme que femme, adulte que jeune, is a common statement in the Senegalese society which translated means Rather a man than a woman, rather an
ender exerts a significant influence on what choices youth make in regarding education, fertility, marriage
adult than a young person, and is a statement that reflects the attitudes towards female/youth seeking employment. Occupations in Senegal are generally stratified along gender lines and this is why we find that in the Senegal formal economy, women outside of sales and clerical positions are either nurses or teachers, or are employed in low-paying public sector jobs that offer job security and fringe benefits. In these jobs, women are concentrated in subordinate positions, with limited opportunities for upward mobility, as noted in survey of women in Dakar conducted in 1994. This occupational pattern can be explained in terms of the relatively lower level of education and training achieved by women, but also by societal attitudes and norms that govern the nature of skills that females acquire namely, training in secretaryship, catering, dress-making, hair-dressing and similar vocations.
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It is worth mentioning the following characteristics of unemployment in Senegal: There are more men (64%) than women (36%) who are seeking employment (about half ); The youth (age 15-35) represents 56% of total jobseekers; The majority of job-seekers (53%) have no education, while 74% and 87% of those who entered school have not gone beyond primary school and 4th grade of secondary school, respectively; 57% of job seekers have no diploma and only 1.6% have a university degree; The capital (Dakar region) has the highest percentage of job seekers (21%) followed by the second largest region of Saint Louis (15%) The proportion of youth (age 15-35) among job-seekers is particularly high in the most urbanized regions of Dakar (74%) and Thies (60%). The above picture of job seekers is in sharp contrast with the supply of employment opportunities. As indicated earlier employment in the public sector is subject to tight
budgetary policies.
The data related to employment
opportunities offered by the modern economy, as recorded in the relevant offices in the regions, is scarce and non reliable. (UN)
Id rather die enroute to Babylon rather than deteriorate into a nobody here in Senegal
Youth Male, Senegal With high rates of unemployment among Senegalese youth and illegal migration to Europe persisting, Senegal has partnered with the Spanish government to give young people skills that respond to the local job market. Senegal has been a jumping off point for Africans heading to Europe for work. Many make it only as far as detention centers, like the one in Spain, and then are expelled. To partly combat the problem, the European Union has been allowing some legal immigration, favoring people who have skills needed in the EU.
Corniche beach, Dakar: A man exhales after his workout enjoying some Atlantic therapy. Senegal is a transit point for many youth wishing to illegally immigrate to Spain, Italy and Europe to seek better economic opportunities.
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The National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) is a program to involve Nigerian graduates in the development of their country. It involves graduates from universities and polytechnics. The corpers are posted to cities and states outside their origin and learn to mix with people from a
Nigeria
A young man displays and sells his paintings on the street in Lagos.
different background and tribe from them. This is done in order to foster unity in the country. The program has also helped in creating entry level jobs for many Nigerian youth. An NYSC forum dedicated to the NYSC members was recently built to bridge the gap amongst members serving across Nigeria and also as an avenue for corpers to share job information and career resources as well as get loans from the National Directorate Of Employment. The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was set up in 1986 as an initiative to combat unemployment. It has four main programmes namely Vocational Skills Development (VSD), Small Scale Enterprises (SSE), Rural Employment Promotion (REP) and Special Public Works (SPW). These programmes target unemployed school leavers at all levels (graduates and non-graduates) and are aimed at training through apprenticeships, entrepreneurship programs, training on agriculture and agro-based activities. The special public works program gives youth short term placement in public sector jobs that are labor intensive enabling them to earn while they acquire work and trade experience. They also have a resettlement loan scheme in the VSD programme aimed at equipping those who graduate with tools of trade that they will require going into self employment. In 2006 for instance, 1480 trained youth were given tools and equipment in the national open apprenticeship scheme (NOAS). In the same year, a total of 29,405 people benefitted in the four programmes under various schemes such as NOAS, Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP), Schools on Wheels (SOW), Graduate Attachment Programme (GAP), Rural Agriculture and Development Training Scheme (RADTS), Rural Handicrafts Scheme (RHS) among others. (NDE) Considering the much larger population of unemployed youth, more needs to be done to make accommodate them into these schemes and other initiatives.
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he estimated labor force of Nigeria as at 2009 was 47.3 million (ILO). There has been an increase in the
unemployment rate and as of March 2009 according to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), it stood at 19.7% of the labour force meaning 9.3 million Nigerians. The figure is slightly higher in the rural areas (19.8%) compared to 19.2% in the urban areas. The highest rates of unemployment are among the youngest and the oldest age brackets with the highest rate of unemployment being among youth aged 15-24 years (41.6%). Statistics also show that the highest employment rates by gender are among the females while by educational level the highest is among secondary school leavers (38.7%) and least among those who have more than the first degree (0.5%) (NBS, 2010). This shows that having an advanced education increases ones chance of employment.
Street hawker selling a variety of goods including watches to car passengers in a busy Lagos street. Are they genuine?
Ideal jobs versus the reality

The table below shows a few country by country examples of what the youth described as their ideal jobs: Table 12: Examples of young peoples ideal jobs
Ideal Job
TV Reporter especially doing investigative journalism the likes of Mohammed Ali (Kenyan TV Reporter)
Reasons
Appears to be a very exciting career and one also participates in bringing important issues to the publics attention There is big money to be made in real estate Related to current studies and interests
Salary expectations per month

KES 50,000 (EUR 500)
KENYA
Real Estate Developer (own company) Engineering machine maintenance. In a big well known factory preferably in Nairobi like Bamburi Cement, Coca-Cola Bottlers or Kenya Malting with a friendly and understanding boss as well as colleagues Football player Real Estate business Governmnet Employee Driver and mechanic Lawyer Doctor (General Practitioner) Working in an NGO
In the millions KES 70,000 (EUR 700)
ETHIOPIA
Loves playing football and is good at it It makes good money and can be satsfactory Job security He drives an old mans tractor and he would like to drive and be a mechanic at the same time To prove that a black female can succeed in a traditionally male and white dominated field For the pay Want to work with the community Has always admired nurses in their uniform and the mission hospital is the largest formal employerv Has a brother in the police force who will facilitate the process Wants to work for Microsoft Not specified Wants to save lives. Also doctors are well paid. Not specified Not specified Not specified
2500 Birr (EUR 90) 2000 USD (EUR 1650) 2000 Birr (EUR120) R 2400 (EUR256) Minimum R20,000 (2130 ) R30-40,000 (EUR 3,196-4261) 20 Million Kwacha (EUR 3200) EUR 48-56 EUR 240 EUR 760 4,500 EUR 120 Not specified EUR 27,000 EUR 810 Starting salary for a graduate should be EUR 378
SOUTH AFRICA ZAMBIA SENEGAL NIGERIA
Nurse in Chikankata Policeman Software Engineer Civil Servant Paeditricianvv Job with Mobil Company Job in a communications company Any fresh graduate entry job
Many of the youth interviewed talked about jobs in the formal sector as their ideal. Others qualified this by saying that they eventually desire to run their own companies or practices within the same formal fields after
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acquiring enough experience, developing the necessary networks and saving the required capital to invest. The older youth (18-21 and 22-25) who were already studying a particular course at tertiary level tended to describe their
ideal jobs within the same fields of study hence if studying engineering, they desired to become engineers in future. Generally, media and journalism came out as one of the attractive sectors for many youth in South Africa, Zambia and Kenya and this seemed to be driven by the significant growth of the sector over the years as well as the excitement and glamour associated with the profession. In Senegal most young people desired careers in the medical field for two main reasons it pays fairly well and the national university (Cheikh Anta Diop) is reputed to produce the best doctors in West Africa. Similary in Chikankata Zambia, young people also wanted to become doctors or nurses mainly influenced by the presence of the Chikankata Mission Hospital which is the main formal employer in the area. In Nigeria the telecommunications sector was quite popular. Overall, there was a tendency for fixation on the big / multinational companies; many youth want to work in these companies due to the perceived benefits of the same. They believe that in these large companies they can earn big salaries, get to travel extensively and have other luxurious benefits that they desire such as a house, a car, and other motivational facilities within the workplace such as TV and also the perception that such companies treat employees better. The fixation on big companies however could also be attributed to lack of awareness of the job market as a whole in terms of other medium or smaller players and what they have to offer. The youth to some extent also seem to have somewhat unrealistic expectations in terms of what they expect to earn, what levels or grades of jobs they will work in, how much work they will actually have to do, how quickly they will rise up the ladder among other things. In addition there appears to be some kind of desire to have a relatively easy working life hence why they are quick to mention high ranking jobs perceiving them to be highly rewarding but not as demanding. In Senegal and Kenya for example some young people wished to work in government not as civil servants but as high ranking government officials e.g. MPs, Ministers, and Ambassadors. However some, particulary the older ones (22-25) are a little more realistic and even the salaries quoted are fairly in line with market rates. Having had real life work experience, a few youth who are already employed also have something to say about challenges they face or are likely to face in the workplace. Examples of this in Zambia are such as poor pay and poor working conditions such as lack of protective gear for those working in the mines or factories. Others in Nigeria said that they have to deal with unrealistic targets e.g. those in sales and marketing and some females also talked about constant sexual harassment as another challenge. In Ikorodu Nigeria and Debre Zeit Ethiopia youth also complained of long commute to and from work every day since some opt to look for job opportunities in the nearest urban centres (1 to 3 hours away) but still live in their rural places so as pay lower rent. In defining their ideal jobs, there were other youth who outrightly expressed preference for self-employment and went on to describe the kind of businesses or companies they would like to run often related to personal talents and interests. This was especially evident in Ethiopia and also amongst Kenyan youth who were already self-employed even at a fairly early age (14-17). All in all there seems to be a gap between the ideal jobs and the reality. As earlier discussed formal employment opportunities are quite limited. By extension those studying certain disciplines may not necessarily land jobs within those fields since by virtue of the limited opportunities they may be forced to settle for whatever job comes their way or become entrepreneurs.
Metal frames displayed by the roadside. Many young men are engaged in the informal sector industry in Zambia. Inspirational signage at a workplace in Nairobi signifies the recognition of self-employment as a good opportunity for youth
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Attaining the ideal jobs

One of the major obstacles standing in the way of the youth in attaining their ideal jobs is corruption and patronage. With the exception of South Africa, this is evident across all the countries of study as expressed by the youth. Many youth complained that bribery is the name of the game as well as nepotism or having connections with certain people in the main agencies or corporations both public and private so as to be fixed in any given position. In a sense those who are deemed to have already made it in life are the same ones who are said to have the necessary connections hence the lower income youth feel that they will never get there. In Zambia for example one respondents ideal job was to become an army commander and he was quite confident that he would get in. He explained that this is because his uncle is a Major in the army and so had already assured him that he would get him the job on completion of his studies. Some of the female respondents expressed more woes in addition to this. They said that in order to secure a job women are sometimes required to concede sexual favours and once there are also required to do the same so as to move up the ladder or benefit from salary increments and other benefits. According to some female respondents in Zambia, this matter has even led to husbands forbidding their wives to seek employment especially in the corporate world as they fear that their wives will definitely succumb to the demands of the male superiors in the workplace. Occupations in Senegal are also generally stratified along gender lines as illustrated by this statement as earlier reported: Rather a man than a woman, rather an adult than a young person. This was a statement in a newspaper headline in Senegal which clearly reflects the attitudes of society towards the youth especially the female youth seeking employment. In South Africa some of the youth talked about racial discrimination as a real obstacle to securing employment. Opportunities are more limited for Black South Africans as a result. Another major obstacle especially for those whose ideal job is related to starting their own business or company is the lack of capital. In addition the youth also lack business know-how and mentorship which could add significant value to their entrepreneurial ambitions. There are some initiatives both by government and private sector in providing mentorship and business support to youth though these are generally limited and therefore do not cater for significant proportions of the youth populations.
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Carrying the troubles of the world on their shoulders? Not really but quite disillusioned by how impossible it may be for them to attain their dream jobs so...they idle all day.
To some extent youth also appear not to actively seek employment and business opportunities not only due to a lack of awareness and knowledge to seize meaningful opportunities as raised by some Key Informants but also because they lack the personal initiative and drive to do so. Instead some of them become complacent based on assumptions that they definitely cannot compete on a level ground with others and succeed so why attempt in the first place? They also without questioning, tend to believe falsehoods peddled in the community about accessibility of certain job opportunities which in reality they might have been able to benefit from. In addition, youth generally do not seem to latch on to the idea of seeking internship and volunteerism opportunities as a way of gaining experience hence be able to meet the experience requirement that employers demand in order to grant applicants the positions advertised. However there is also evidence of employers failing to create an enabling and sustainable environment for youth who are keen to volunteer or intern. Youth also have poor access to job market information which also adds to the reasons why many are unable to attain the jobs they desire. The main source of job advertisements for instance is the mass media particularly newspapers yet there is limited access to the same especially for youth in rural areas where distribution is negligible; few people in rural areas can afford to buy a newspaper daily anyway. The disconnect and limited collaboration between educational institutions and the employers also adds to the youth not having sufficient information about the job market. Most people have access to and listen to radio but unfortunately this is not a channel that most employers use to advertise opportunities. The Internet which would be a good source of information is also not accessible to a large extent for the majority.
Getting diagnosed using the acupuncture machine
Business as Usual at a Tiens Shop at Kwale Youth Business Centre, Kwale, Kenya
for the youth in Kwale. It is rent free and hosts several businesses including a bakery, a hardware shop (that seemed to be always closed), a multi-level marketing franchise shop (Tiens), among others. It is interesting that there is no electricity in the place yet many of the businesses there seem to be the kind that would require the use of electricity and / or electric gadgets every now and then. We arrive at the business centre at about 9:00am expecting to find the Tiens shop open as they are our hosts for the day. However it is still closed so we decide to talk to the youth at the business next door. Next to the Tiens business is a group of youth who do artwork and occasionally sell it at the tourist hotels. Two youth are available on the day and they take some time to show us samples of their work. They tell us that they will be departing shortly to go and paint signposts in the national park. One of them says that he is a natural artist. He came to the Coast Province about 10 years ago after completing secondary school and thats when he started using his artistic talent. There is evidence of his talent in terms of various drawings
he Kwale Youth Business Centre consists of a block of offices that was built by the Ministry of Labour
on most of the walls at the block of offices. Some of his paintings are on the walls of the buildings and more are in the shop; they are mostly pictures of people and animals. Some of the artworks are also inspirational or motivational quotes or statements painted in an artistic way like Yes we Can and Anayekuambia ujikinge anajali afya yako. Mjali pia, jikinge kila mara, which is Swahili for He who tells you to protect yourself cares about your health. Care about him as well and protect yourself all the time. This message is quite likely related to safe sex campaigns implying that this is a concern in the Kwale community i.e. the need to protect one self and to encourage and support one another. The
Outside view of the Tiens Shop
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reveals that his upline takes home at least KES 100,000 (EUR 1000) per month. He however intimates that he is doing well enough since he is even able to employ the two ladies. At the Tiens shop Salim and his team deal mostly in nutritional and health supplements. They also have an electronic acupuncture machine which they use to diagnose what their customers could be ailing from after which they are able to prescribe the supplements. They offer to give free diagnosis to one of us which Other offices on the same block as the Tiens Shop they do seemingly with quite some skill and accuracy. The machine seems quite accurate given that most of the ailments described are actually true and known to young man also mentions to us that he runs a gymn in collaboration with an NGO near a cultural center called Kwale Arts. He goes there to train people in the morning and in the evening. There is a small make-shift wooden room next to one of the workshops which we later realize is a nursery school when we see some children in class with a teacher. It is rather strange that most of the shops at the youth business centre remain closed most of the time despite this being a week day. Salim (32) and Moha (in his 20s) arrive at around 10:00 am. Salim is the owner of the shop and Moha is his downline. They also work with two ladies who they inform us are out in the field marketing. The origin of the Tiens business is in China and it is a direct / multilevel marketing business. Apparently it is quite popular at the Coast and even in Kenya as a whole. Salim tells us that he used to work in an upmarket hotel but decided to quit when this business picked up. He does not disclose how much he earns from his business but our researcher. They go ahead to give a diagnosis and prescription of the herbal remedies that she should use. They tell us that very many people have been healed even of terminal illnesses such as cancer just by use of the herbal medication available at Tiens. The two young men appear to be very highly motivated and enthusiastic about their business. Although it appears to be a slow day given that we do not encounter any client who comes to the shop throughout this day, they show as a filled up notebook full of client names. They say that they also spend a lot of their time outside the office marketing the products hence sometimes the clients do not need to come to them at the shop. They charge KES 500 (EUR 5) for the acupuncture diagnosis and most of the supplements range from KES 1000 (EUR 10) onwards. According to them, their strong belief in their products helps to sell them.
Basic facilities available in the gym that Salim runs
Kwale Youth Business Centre: A view of the workshops at the centre the furniture shop
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All in a days work at the Sub-Saharan Africa Research and Training Institute, Addis Ababa
SART is a private research agency that is based in the Bole region of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Most of the employees are aged between 15-25 years, majority of who are permanent employees. A few, especially some data entry staff are employed on contractual basis. Having various projects that they work on, on behalf of their clients, each of them seems to know quite well what they should be doing and at what time. On this particular day there are about 10 of them in the office. Initially there are 2 ladies who are printing questionairres and 2 gentlemen working on some transcripts. The transcribers, who also do a number of other duties in the agency, are listening to voice recordings and keying in information. There are about 5 desktops and a number of laptops in the office. Knowledge and use of computers is visibly good as all the staff are using them for different functions ranging from Ms Word, SPSS, use of search engines, and sending and receiving e-mail. One thing that is quite evident is the team work. Much as they speak in Amharic one can detect team work and synergy in the work place. At a point or two the printer that the ladies are using is not printing so well and the gentlemen take turns to check out the printer and sort it out so that the ladies can continue preparing their research tools. On speaking to one of the data entry staff (girl of about 18 years) on where they learnt computer skills, she says that much as she had computer classes at the university, she still had to attend extra computer training classes at a local college so as to get better knowledge and experience on the computer and also to better her typing skills. Most universities do have computer classes but considering the population ratio of students to the facilities available, they do not get satisfactory computer skills as a result. A team meeting is held to discuss findings from a quantitative market research survey that had been done. One of them is clearly the team leader and he leads his team of about 8 in discussing the general findings. The data is later to be entered into the computer using data processing packages, but the meeting is meant to establish the general experience the enumerators had in the field and what they think about the findings. Each of them has a chance to speak, some referring to documents they have on the table. There emerges a serious discussion on an issue and the team members get a bit louder as they seemingly try to iron out the issue. Apparently there is a strange difference in data collected in one region as compared to the other regions. The survey was on preference of soft drinks, and it seems that distributors of the same drinks in one region have almost contrasting figures on preffered drinks in comparison to the rest of the regions. The team leader is keen to establish the cause and reason for this kind of finding, considering that they had been doing the study periodically for a couple of months and the trend seemed to have taken a sharp turn in this particular wave of the study. Soon even the girls who had been working on their computers join in the discussion. The Executive Director of the company who is in his early 30s is also in the room but is not really moved by the happenings at the meeting. He barely interrupts to give his opinion, and later explains this by saying that he is quite confident in his team leader and staff as a whole and hence need not micro-manage them on their duties. He only listens to them as he continues his work and later on says a word or two. On asking him why his staff are mostly youth, he says that youth are always energetic, diligent in their work and ambitious. They are, he said, keen to learn and to do quality work as they know that this way they will climb up the professional ladder. Older people on the other hand are not as enthusiastic. At lunch hour, most of the team go to lunch with the Executive Director. They are quite friendly and comfortable with each other, and joke about their social lives now and then. One particular employee (the soft drink survey leader) is lightly criticized to be married to his job and that he must be afraid of girls. He is said to work continually and does not stop until a task is complete. As is in the Ethiopian culture, food is served in one big tray and everyone washes their hands and together they eat from the same tray. One cannot easily tell who is boss over who as they all discuss freely and comfortably like one big family. Some of the employees also do other part time jobs whenever they got a chance to increase both their experience and income, and they seem to have perfected the art of juggling as their director does not have a problem with the extra work they do on the side. Some are school teachers and others have some research related contracts here and there. All in all these youth generally leave one with a good impression; they actually are hard working and ambitious as their director says. They take on whatever opportunities they come by and work hard at them.
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Chapter Four | Lifestyle

It is well known that the youth are in a state of rapid physical and psychological change. Because of their curiosity, enthusiasm and urge to try and see new phenomenon, a considerable number of youth have become addicted to alcohol, khat, dangerous medical drugs and narcotics drugs all of which are detrimental to their health. These and many similar health hazards challenge the youths proper physical, mental and psychological development. As a result, the youth are being exposed to unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, various venereal diseases and most of all, to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The harsh economic conditions resulting in joblessness expose the youth to social evils. With the high cost of education majority of youth are not able to access it, and have therefore turned to not only petty crime but armed robberies. They are also exposed to drug abuse which due to the cost implications leads them to crime to enable them secure money to buy the drugs. In Ethiopia, a large number of youth have, because of economic and social problems, been exposed to
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juvenile delinquency, addiction to dangerous narcotics, prostitution, beggary, street life and to similar other social evils. On one hand, this condition exposes them to health problems (HIV/AIDS, STD etc.) while on the other, pushes them into engaging in criminal acts. Some 143,169 juvenile delinquents were registered between July 2000 and June 2001 alone. There are more sex workers who are aged 1524 years and so are the street youth below 30 years. All this indicates that a great number of youth spend their most active years not in engagements that are useful for their human development but in activities that expose them to health problems and criminal offences. Gang rape has become a youth-cult in South Africa. Every year, 380,000 women are raped in South Africa and this is one of the reasons why HIV-AIDS is at such a high level in the country, with some 6 million people now infected. Rape is also a form of initiation among the men. New inmates in male prisons are inevitably raped upon arrival by all members of any given cell.
Another example of a youth culture among one tribe in Kenya include a phenomenon called Disco Matanga (Disco Funeral) whereby community members, including adolescents, congregate at the home of a deceased person for several days, accompanied by music and dancing. Disco funerals are an important place for young people to hang out and the events increase the opportunities for youth to meet and engage in (risky) sexual activities. Many adolescents have casual sex on these occasions, sometimes with multiple partners, and mostly without condoms. Girls are forced into sex, and some instances, gang rape occurs. Sex is also exchanged for money. Drugs and alcohol facilitate unprotected, multiple-partner, coerced, and transactional sex (Njue et al., 2009). In addition, organized crimes are committed by very young people especially carjacking, household theft, political violence, among others. Findings from the main study on various issues related to youth lifestyle are presented below. These include what categories of youth exist (as defined by the youth) and what the distinguishing characteristics of these are, why if at all dressing is important to the youth and how they like to dress, pastime activities, fun and entertainment, traveling, dreams and aspirations, and how the youth perceive themselves vis a vis the societys perception of them.
Youth Categories
Young people do have their own way of classifying or categorising themselves with specific names for the categories and vivid descriptions of those who belong to these groupings. In most places the key distinguishing factor both in urban and rural seems to be wealth / money. Other distinguishing factors are those related to lifestyle such as how they dress, speak, act, things they own, places they hang out, hobbies / interests, beliefs and values some of which still have some kind of relation to the wealth factor. In Senegal it is more about lifestyle factors as opposed to wealth or money. In some places some of the youth interviewed could not give specific names to the categories of youth that exist but could only describe the different types of youth using these distinguishing factors of dress, wealth, behaviour, speech, etc. Generally, youth categories as defined and described by the youth appear to be more elaborate in urban than rural settings. This may be because of a more communal way of life in rural areas where everyone is perceived to be more or less of a similar status and there is more cohesiveness and interedepence. For example though there are quite likely differences in financial capability from one family to the next, there is not necessarily an intentional and outward display of the same; instead people tend to extend support to one another which is cemented by communal values and norms.
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The following categories were described: Table 13: African youth categories
1. Those belonging to the middle to upper socio-economic classes:

Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Ballers, Mababi / Masonko / Masource, Mababi Extreme Summary description:
Rappers, Stylish (female)
Bourgeoisie, Hiphoppers
Upper Mwambas or Chinondo
Le Jeune Extravagant
Butty, Tush, Omodaddy, Omomummy
Dress expensive; genuine designer labels; newly purchased Fashionistas Have a lot of disposable income mostly from parents Own various expensive gadgets such as phones (N Series, E Series, Blackberry), ipods, laptops, home theatres, playstations Flashy and seek a lot of attention Hang outs: latest, trendiest clubs, malls, restaurants Relatively well educated and eloquent Mostly speak the official languages as opposed to slang and mother tongue Use private transport as opposed to public dropped and picked, drive themselves or cab it Not considered as very ambitious in life dont work as hard in school, likely to inherit their parents wealth or get into the family business Have an almost guaranteed path to success due to their family connections Highly influenced by western culture music, dress, language Rock, Hiphop Love music and nightlife Perceived to be snobbish, keep to their own kind Sometimes admire the freedom that comes with an ordinary lifestyle of other youth (Kenya, Zambia) Sports tendency towards more elite sports like basketball, tennis, swimming, etc Some have distinct demeanour walking style e.g. bounce, swagger, sagging trousers, bling Society considers them spoilt, disrespectful, but on the other hand sometimes also expect financial help from them
They have a lot of time to spend on the Internet, they wear expensive clothing they dont need to work for money. Their role models would be R&B artists or Hip Hop ones They are influenced by international things which they see from the media
Kwale, Kenya.
The bourgeoisie are so brand conscious they can even take a sprite label and stick it on their jeans
The rappers always focus on their dressing styles and throwing parties. But the addicted ones are always trying to get money
Male 14-17, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
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2. Those belonging to the middle to lower socio-economic classes:

Kenya Wanati Ethiopia South Africa Rastafarians Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Summary description: Enjoy reggae music Some fully embrace Rastafarian lifestyle dreadlocks, rasta colours, smoking marijuana Consider themselves peace loving, wise and non-confrontational people; are free spirited Like to hang out at places with reggae music or else simply at designated street spots in their neighbourhoods Speak more of local slang than official languages Often not as well educated and eloquent as the richer youth Not flashy though may still dress fairly well can source smart and trendy items from second hand markets Perceived to be streetsmart and survivors Society considers them druggies, thugs or good for nothing though this is sometimes a big misconception
The Wanati are from low income areas, they carry tiny rugsacks on their backs and are generally free spirits they are often envied for that
Female 18-21, Nairobi, Kenya
They have big dreadlocksthey dont eat meatthey dress in their own colours
Female 14-17, Limpopo, South Africa
Kenya Hustlers, Wannabes
Ethiopia
South Africa Plastics
Zambia Yobalis
Senegal Les Hipocrite
Nigeria Yahoo Boys, Big Boys & Girls, Swagger Boys & Girls, Ashanti Girls, Area Boys & Girls
Summary description: Perceived to be streetsmart and survivors Hustle to make extra money to support their lifestyle some do very well as a result Flashy or want to be love the spotlight and style Dress fairly well can source smart and trendy items from second hand markets or sometimes save and spend on new items if they really desire them Influenced by western culture dress, music, language Baggy pants, fancy hairdos, make-up, earrings for boys, some bling Media savvy, sassy Some have special talents especially in the arts
Get rich or die trying is the Area Boys Motto. (As said by the rap artist 50 cents)
There are some categories in Senegal such as those who want to study but have no means and are even forced to drop out of their studies. There are those who would like to study and work to help Lagos, Nigeria their families and those who study because their families have nurtured them and made them comfortable by giving them a good means of They are too snobbish, and like attention transport and good clothes and finally there are those who fight for they live and breathe media themselves just like me. I work and pay school fees for myself.
Female 18-21, Johannesburg, South Female 22-25, Mbour Senegal
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Kenya
Ethiopia
South Africa
Zambia
Senegal
Nigeria
Mateja, Wanati Extreme, Masmata Summary description:
Susegnas / Druggies, Gangstas
Pantsulas
Niggers, Thugz
Les Rebels
Niggers
Are drug addicts and layabouts Are constantly broke Desparate for money can sell any of their personal items Some are actual thugs and are violent
Many of them (pantsula) get electrocuted on railway lines as they try to show off tricks on moving trains
Male 14-17 Johannesburg, South Africa
Sell stolen items for income cars, phones, anything they can lay their hands on Have a harsh demeanour Many have a poor education background Tend to speak local slang as opposed to proper or standard official language Dont care much for being well dressed / groomed
They (mapantsula) love being in a group. Its unusual to find them walking alone
They are high (drunk) most of the time and cannot follow conversations well. Ni watu wamechoka na life (they are people who are fed up with life)
Male 18-21, Kwale, Kenya
They may have dreams and aspirations but are overwhelmed with frequent imprisonment and feelings of desperation and so forth (gangstas)
Male 18-21, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
The mateja are lazy even in their mannerisms, they have no purpose in life
3. Based on general lifestyle and / or lifestyle passions:

Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Chanukaad Summary description:
Stylish
Les Intellos (The Intelligent)
Tush
Quick, focused and progressive Confident, eloquent, can express themselves well Good command of official languages Have fairly good education background Quite studious and intelligent Well dressed and classy; have a good dress sense and are fashion conscious Ladies wear make-up Generally knowledgeable about their surroundings and current issues Technologically savvy Up to date with the latest trends, entertainment, hang outs, etc
A chic who is Chanukaad will not wear blonde braids yet she is dark skinned. Blonde braids may be in but they dont look good on dark people
Les Intellos are too serious with little amusement and often very stressed, they are not men of sports, they go to expositions and they say very little..
Dakar, Senegal
The stylish wear very fashionable cloths like jeans, sketchers

Female 22-25, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
They (the stylish) are most of the time influenced by the western culture. They are always under peer pressure
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Kenya
Ethiopia
South Africa
Zambia
Senegal
Nigeria
Washamba
Geja / Uncivilised
Makiba, Magagasa
Le Jeune Analphabetes (The Illiterates) / Le Jeune Inconscient (The Unconscious)
Rude Boys & Girls (Street)
Summary description: Somewhat poorly educated Poor fashion or dress sense Lack social knowledge Own simple, cheap items e.g. low cost phones Tend to be traditional in their ways e.g. even in dressing Poor in expressing themselves Have no stand in life Can be easily influenced or misled
Their culture (makiba) is characteristised by song and dance

Male 22-25, Limpopo, South Africa
They (magagasa) like to sing cultural music and dress in traditional gear
The Geja youth do not understand things well

Kenya
Ethiopia
South Africa
Zambia
Senegal
Nigeria
Devoted Christians, Volunteers, Meklit
Christians, Decent
Religious
SU (Christian), Innocent
Summary description: Dress decently and neatly (do not expose themselves) Are conservative (even though may be from rich families) Keep a low profile, are not flashy or showy Actively involved in church activities (e.g. choir) Virtuous, obedient, conform to societal norms Society has a positive perception of them Some people may consider them backward or unprogressive since they are not necessarily concerned with the latest trends Other non-religious youth tend to avoid them because of their eagerness to transform others Own simple gadgets e.g. low cost phones Hardworking and generally have good academic performance Service oriented (to society) Friendships, social life as a whole and activities mainly centred around the church or mosque
Volunteers expect mental satisfaction for what they do. They might not get that much significant monetary rewards but are satisfied mentally
For instance, taking the religious groups, helping other youths to follow the track they assume is right could be taken as their life goal
Female 18-21, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
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Ballers, Mababi / Masonko / Masource, Mababi Extreme Rappers, Stylish (female) Bourgeoisie, Hiphoppers Upper Mwambas or Chinondo Le Jeune Extravagant Butty, Tush, Omodaddy, Omomummy
Wanati Rastafarians
Hustlers, Wannabes Plastics Yobalis Les Hipocrite Yahoo Boys, Big Boys & Girls, Swagger Boys & Girls, Ashanti Girls, Area Boys & Girls
Mateja, Wanati Extreme, Masmata Susegnas / Druggies, Gangstas Pantsulas Niggers, Thugz Les Rebels Niggers
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Chanukaad Stylish Les Intellos (The Intelligent) Tush
Washamba Geja / Uncivilised Makiba, Magagasa Le Jeune Analphabetes (The Illiterates) / Le Jeune Inconscient (The Unconscious Rude Boys & Girls (Street))
Devoted Christians, Volunteers, Meklit Christians, Decent Religious
Wasanii Young Life Yobalis
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Kenya
Ethiopia
South Africa
Zambia
Senegal
Nigeria
Makwaito Summary description: Easily succumb to peer pressure Fashionable, reckless and self-indulgent (alcohol, drugs, clothes) Love music and entertainment (some singing) Some are school dropouts Some are bullies
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa
Influence
Le Jeune Extravagant
They put on leggings and short skirts (makwaito)

Zambia
Senegal
Nigeria
Wasanii Summary description:
Young Life
Yobalis
Aspiring artists tend to be talented in various performing arts Some Western influence
They gather weekly on Saturdays to discuss how they spent and how they should spend their time
Female 18-21 Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Kenya
Ethiopia
South Africa
Zambia
Senegal
Nigeria
Punks, Emos, Goths Summary description: Perceived by the rest of society to be strange or weird Display antisocial and rebellious behaviour Some are emotionally unstable even said to be suicidal Have body piercings, steel jewellery, and tattoos Wear black clothing and make-up Are mostly White youth though other youth slowly beginning to join this lifestyle
Society thinks they are strange they are attention seekers (punks)
Female 22-25, Johannesburg, South Africa
Some insight into the groups and way of grouping
Kenya
It appears that many Kenyan youth are to a good extent aping and embracing western culture or at least borrowing certain aspects of it and localizing it. This is what is seen to be cool and progressive and is evident in terms of such things as dress, language and music; this seems to cut across most of the youth categories as defined by the youth. Quite likely globalization has a role to play in this because it has brought about exchange of ideas through the advancement of technology. This therefore has had an effect on culture for example the way of dressing, dialect/ communication, thereby creating a possibility and even the likelihood of global culture.
Ethiopia
Youth categories in Ethiopia are based mostly on the activities that they engage in during their free time. It is quite noticeable that unlike the categories pointed out by youth in other countries, the main factor that differentiates one youth category from another are the activities the youth are involved in as opposed to socio-economic class. Perhaps this can be explained by the tradition of most people in the country, whereby much as there is economic difference amongst the people, there is also general unity and acceptance amongst people regardless of economic class or status. It was also found that youth categories were more pronounced and defined in Addis Ababa (urban)
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than in Debre Zeit (rural). This is the case because the gap between the socio-economic classes is not too wide in the rural areas.
priorities and past times (as in Ethiopia) as well as level of disposable income. This can be attributed to the fact that Islamic culture of brotherhood encourages social cohesion where differences in material wealth and financial prosperity are perceived as collective success rather than individual efforts. A similar picture can be seen in Kwale (rural) Kenya which is predominantly Islamic hence categories are not as distinct as in Nairobi. Therefore although Senegalese economy is fundamentally capitalistic, at the micro level, resource allocation / sharing is a very communal affair. This is not to say that wealth distribution is equitable. Rather than size each other up, Islamic teaching encourages integration rather than segregation, humility rather than conspicuousness, the success of the community rather than that of the individual.
people with similar personality form a group. But groups are not that distinct. There is an interaction point all over and no animosity among people. when you think about the future there is no me. It is us. You think of your friendship as long lasting. We always set our future goals all around each others future goals
Female 14-17 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
South Africa
Youth categories in South Africa are many and distinct and appear to be based on dress, appearance, skin color, wealth, socialization, behavior and values. Profiling themselves seems to be an easy and natural process for youth mainly and gives way to distinct youth categories. This can be attributed to their history of apartheid that created discriminative mindsets which are still evident to date. This experience also instilled in them a psyche of pride and nationalism and a pride of associating and staying true to ones identity hence the very distinct groupings. It is this sense of belonging that united them in their liberation struggle.
Nigeria
The economic situation in Nigeria has meant that many youth cannot get formal employment and so they have to find alternative means of earning a living. These street youth are referred to by different terms depending on occupation, e.g. Yahoo boys are so called because of their internet scams. There seem to be many youth categories developed around hustling or trying to make some money in one eway or another. For example other than the Yahoo boys, there are the Ashanti girls who are perceived by some to be prostitutes, and that is how they make their money. Another term that has become popular is swagger with many youth now wanting to consider themselves as swagger youth. It is more about how you do something, rather than what you do. It is used on youth who are lavish in their style and are proud but it also has a connotation of self-confidence, innovativeness and streetsmarts. Thus it is not confined to one particular special group. In some discussions the ginger boys and girls were also referred to as the swagger youth.
Zambia
In Zambia it appears that the gap between the upper class and the low and middle class is quite wide hence most youth tend to group themselves along these lines. There is also strong religious influence on many youth particularly in terms of dressing style where one is perceived as either decently dressed or indecently dressed hence this forms another way of categorizing.
Senegal
Amongst the youth, the categorization experience in Senegal sharply contrasts that in other countries for example SA. The categories are certainly fewer with subtle distinguishing features. In fact, they are based more on
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Pastime, fun and entertainment

Fun and entertainment is a big part of lifestyles of youth in Africa and even reflects as one of the main items they spend their money on as discussed under youth and money in the chapter on livelihoods. Generally socializing and listening to music are the main pastimes that cut across or appear to be universal amongst all youth as demonstrated by the different youth age sets studied as well as rural and urban youth in the various countries of study. There are different ways and means of socializing that vary among different types of youth and also depends on what they can access. For instance many rural youth may not have access to the internet through PC or phone hence would have to meet physically with their friends in order to socialize while
in urban areas Facebook is on an addictive all high this is how youth keep in touch with their friends. In South Africa MXit, an sms and internet based social networking platform is also big amongst the youth. Watching TV and movies is also major though access may sometimes be a challenge especially in some rural areas; some youth in rural areas and low income urban settlements settle for pay-to-view halls in their neighbourhoods. Youth are also interested and actively participating in sports with football being the major one across all the countries. In Senegal for example football is the only sport. Most activities that can be done either individually or as a group often also serve as boredom busters. The table below shows the various activities mentioned as pastime activities by the youth interviewed in the different countries of study.
Table 14: Pastime activities for youth in Africa

KEN Pastime Activities Listening to music Dancing Watching TV Watching movies Reading Playing sport Socialising with friends Drinking Partying Having Tea / Coffee Taking walks Exercising / keeping fit Playing video / computer games Playing mobile games Going to church / mosque Concerts Internet surfing Chewing khat Cooking Doing household chores Sleeping Climbing trees Swimming Picnicing or picnic parties Performing arts (comedy, drama, dance, song, poetry) Spending time with family Studying Shopping
U Urban
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ETH R U R U
SA R U
ZAM R U
SEN R U
NIG R
R Rural
Keeping Fit at the Cornichian Sweat Factory Corniche Beach, Dakar Senegal
that overlooks the Atlantic Ocean with fine walks punctuated by palm trees-an area that resembles and feels like the posh Palm Springs in the America. Corniche is home to Senegals expatriate community. It is also strategically close to Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD)-the countrys national university. Together these populations converge on the beaches of Corniche for the one activity that unites and has come to define part Senegals lifestyle: sports, fitness and general wellness. There are different beaches ranging from the exclusive Plage des Enfants and the more crowded Anse Bernard. From about 4pm every evening, it is a ritual for the urbanites in Dakar (mainly the youth) to break sweat on these beaches. Some jog, others prefer low-intensity options of brisk walks, and also in action were the hardcore bunch that pumped weights. Then there is the group that sticks to the good old football. Only a few endured a dip in the cold Atlantic waters. The remaining are either involved in muscle stretches and toning exercises. In total, there were about 300400 people with 60% being students from UCAD. These groups are organized in fitness circuits each having self-appointed circuit leaders that basically gave instruction to ensure uniform movements for
ast Corniche (Corniche Ouest in French) is an up market area east of Dakar. It is a beautiful area
participants. The leader typically gives verbal instruction to the faithful masses and they basically follow. So when he shouts deplacer a la gauche! the crowd jogs in the left direction and when he shouts vers a la droite they move in the opposite direction. The pace of movement also varies depending on what the instructor says. At some point, another instructor may take over the session until it gets dark and the crowds disperse. On the beach parking, there are several coconut vendors at the crowded car park selling coco coconut fruit with refreshing and nutritious coconut water to rejuvenate weary and thirsty clients. The beverage is sold for CFA 200 (EUR 0.3) and is in fact a lucrative business that enjoys a steady (sometimes overwhelming) supply of clients. For about 30 minutes, I watch this Corniche Sweat Factory in action before I decide to engage some of the patrons in small talk I approach one volunteer football coach responsible for soccer. After brief and pleasant introductions, I ask Mamadou Why are the Senegalese so committed to working out? What really are the main motivations for this? There is a health crisis in Senegal that is not spoken aboutDiabetesAs we all know, it is a terminal disease that is best managed through lifestyle changes says a friendly Mamadou.
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Sacre Coeur neighbourhood, Dakar: Getting physical A group of young ladies gather here at 5pm every evening to work out
More drills
Youngsters gather at the beach every evening to work out
The Cornichian sweat factory is also a social networking opportunity for the youth
Probing further on how the diabetes crisis came to be in Senegal, she says that the Senegalese consumption of sugar is very highand clearly hazardous Senegalese traditional tea (Bissap) is taken very sweet (which is primarily why I had difficulty taking it when it was offered to me). Compounded by the fact that Dakar is pastry heaven that feeds the sweet tooth of the people of Senegal. In addition to this, Ceebujen (fried rice and fish) their national food is typically cooked with a lot of oil. I move along to engage two Southern belles from Casamance area in Senegal who are taking a short recess. On the same subject one of them admits that her key motivation to exercise is to stay in shape and enhance her libido and sexual performance. Her friendly quickly concurs.
This immersion provided a lens into a positive aspect of health and lifestyle in Senegal. Sports and exercise is highly encouraged and practiced amongst their youth which certainly explains why the Senegalese (men) look so much fitter and younger than they really are. It is probably also the reason why the Senegalese generally take pride (rather than shy away) from the issue of sex. The Cornichian factory would not happen in the absence of a safe and relatively crime-free environment that is in Senegal. This setting has made it a remarkably impressive country of trust and respect for other peoples property-which is certainly a far cry from most African cities.
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A Night out Partying at OZ Club in Soweto
Its happy hour at club OZ and youth make the best of it. Buy one get one free! It is only wise to first get your supply of drinks for the evening before doing anything else.
z is a club in a residential area in the heart of Soweto. At around 8 PM on a Thursday night
accompanying us as part of the observation. They are quite cheerful, easy to get along with and free to talk about youth and clubbing in Soweto and Joburg generally. One of them is dressed in a knee length dress, a small sweater and doll shoes. The other has capri pants and a T-shirt. They are both in their early twenties. Discussions with them reveal that young people in Soweto party almost every day of the week though the best days are Thursday through to Sunday because of restrictions from parents, lack of money and school or work schedules which mean that even if one has to party on a weekday it cant be all night. They say that generally people dress smart casual but recently there has been a trend where on Friday people come dressed sportily especially in football gear due to excitement about the World Cup which will be in June this year. Asked what else they like to do for fun other than going out clubbing they say that this is pretty much what everyone enjoys and mainly it is for the good music and the company. One girl says that young people also like going to the parks i.e. having parties in the parks so they take their food, drink and music and go have a party at the park. She says this is becoming more and more common especially since now there is more security provided at the parks. Policemen have been provided so that young people can go and have their fun without fear of being attacked.
there are two young people at the entrance. Both are black and dressed in jeans and T-shirts. They seem to be employees of the club. From prior information, on this particular night, youth are required to be dressed in smart casual wear failure to which there will be no entry to the club. Security at the club seems on point. The specification of the dress code is part of the security measures taken by the club to ensure that only serious clubbers gain access to the club. The club is somewhat empty on arrival. There is a bar from which drinks are sold, some tables, chairs and a dance floor. The room is dimly lit with disco lights all over. House music is playing and it is interesting that this is the only music that is played the entire night. House music is electronic dance music that is strongly influenced by elements of soul and funkinfused varieties of disco. It generally mimics discos percussion, especially in the use of the base drum on every beat. It has its origin in Chicago, Illinois and USA in the 1980s. This type of music seems quite popular and accepted by the youth in Soweto. There is a smaller room with a glass wall on the side that faces the dance floor and the rest of the club. There are 2 girls already in the room who are
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Two young people walk in, buy their drinks and proceed to sit next to a TV screen to watch football as they sip their drinks in silence. Two more come in and get their drinks as well and sit at a table. Once in a while individuals get up and dance at their table or just make slight dance movements while seated. The dance floor is not at any point occupied. It is happy hour and therefore a buy one get one free drink time. Two young men come to join the girls. They are also accompanying us for this immersion. Much as they had not met the girls before they hit it off quite well and talk like they have always been friends. They also go to get their drinks so as to capitalize on the happy hour. Drinks are served in small metallic buckets filled with ice. Most people like their drinks chilled, hence the buckets of ice. There are so many youth in the club in about an hours time. They all go to get the drinks to take advantage of the hapy hour offer, and hence have many ice buckets with drinks on their tables. Noticeably, most females take canned drinks while most males have bottled drinks. While still in the room a group of many girls comes in and they sit on one of the couches. One of them seems to use her phone more than the rest. From her type of phone, dress and the command of the group of friends, one can tell she either has more money or is more exposed than the rest or both. Her friends sit quietly most of the time while she makes phone calls and types something on her phone. Some men who appear to be part of the group finally walk in with buckets of drinks. Since there is not enough room for all of them they all walk out perhaps to find another spot within the club. At some point one of the girls accompanying us gets her phone from her purse and we ask her what she wants to do with it at that particular time. She says she wants to check mail, incase anyone has mailed her something of importance. She ends up not checking her mail anyway but instead joins the rest. There is a staircase that leads downstairs where there is more space and big couches all around the room. This room also has a bar and a DJ playing house music. The large group of youth that had just left the other room upstairs is already at one corner of the room and they chat as they enjoy their drinks. One young man is constantly on his phone, possibly browsing the internet and only looks up every once in a while when a friend in the group interrupts to ask or tell him something. The dance floor here is also not occupied, but the youth that are seated all around the room dance next to their tables whenever they want to. All the people in the club are noticeably black, and most likely in their 20s to 30s.
A night club in Soweto. A bouncer waits at the entrance to ensure that only genuine clubbers get in. OZ is a great attraction for the youth from the hood. Now that we have our drinks, lets catch up as we listen to music. Youngsters enjoy each others company at the club.
They just talk as they have their drinks. The lady from the large group that had earlier been using her phone still uses her phone to take pictures of the group. At some
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point two young ladies are on the dance floor and they are joined by two men. Two men walk into the club. They looked gay from the way one of them is dressed and from their general behavior. The one that has rather feminine behavior sits and chats up another man while his friend goes to get the drinks. When the drinks come they go to a couch and sit closely together. More discussion with the two young men who are accompanying us reveals that other than partying the other thing that young people tend to enjoy is going to the movies or else just meeting up with their friends and talking about their partying activities what happened where and when and what is coming up. Those who love football are also really looking forward to the 2010 World Cup and have even purchased one or two tickets in readiness. With the guys security does not seem to be an issue as they say if they are partying within Soweto i.e. not too far from their residential areas they will normally just walk to the venue and walk home afterwards no matter what time it is but if they have to go to a far off place then they will try and find a friend who has a car to go with or take a cab together and split the cost.
The rest of the evening is pretty much the same with youth gathered in small groups, drinking and chatting with minimal dance by their tables. In the ladies room there are a number of ladies, seemingly doing their make up. They all leave the room shortly at the same time. There is also a lot of activity going on right outside the club. There are food selling points where some people get something to bite, and many youth just hanging out outside. Some just sit in cars and have a good time while others stand in groups. The cars of course have booming music that the youth enjoy. A grocery shop just next to the club is still open, possibly so as to serve the people who are still hanging out outside. Although all seems well in terms of security, the the grocery shop has been heavily fitted with steel bars and grills seemingly to keep thieves out implying that the place may not be as safe as it seems. A group of ladies walks towards the club dressed in very short dresses and skirts and high heeled shoes, probably in preparation for the fun and entertainment that is in store for them for the night. We depart shortly afterwards at around 1:00 am although for many, the night is still young just as they are.
Dressing
Is dress important to the youth?
The answer to this is a resounding yes. Youth The main difference in dressing and its importance is in terms of rural versus urban youth as well as in terms of religious practices or tendencies, in terms of age and occasion, family background or upbringing and overall the category of youth that one belongs to. Dressing is actually one of the key distinguishing factors that youth use to tell any given youth category apart from another.
are particularly conscious about how they dress mainly because they want to look good and impress but this can also mean different things for different youth.
For me clothes are so important, the reason I want to become a politician is so that I can make a lot of money, and buy clothes! Im not creative at all, but im so obsessed to clothes of all types. I want to present myself in different ways. I have split personalities, it depends how I feel and who im gonna be chilling with. I would not go around in thetownship full of guys and wear something extremely Fourways or extremely Sandton.
You wont find a person wearing Rastafarian clothes unless they are one. If you wear the Pantula style then you live as a Pantsula.
Male 14-17, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Youthful attire - Caps, sunglasses, jeans and t-shirts
Yes, dress is important to the youth and shop for it they will. A lady shops at a mall in Johannesburg
Simplicity and decency in clothes and hairstyles is evident in conformity with Zambias rural setting. Decency is the name of the game. Women in Kwale, Kenya often wrap themselves in lesos over Okada driver and female customer both in their ordinary clothes. native attire or ankara as the Nigerians call it. Oh oh, they have no helmets!
Ethiopia: Who will be left behind in dressing to look cool enough to walk in style? Not me.
Zambia: A second hand clothes market in Lusaka
Kenya: Clothing stalls at the market place. Being well dressed is an important aspect of youth life and a good income earner for the very same youth.
Lay buys accepted? You have a deal! This store in Maponya mall in Soweto most likely targets the youth. A deposit and installments are all you need to look cool if you dont have enough cash. Notice the Dickies brand that is commonly associated with the Pantsula and the Nigger youth categories.
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For religious youth, dressing well or looking good is likely to mean that they should take care not to expose themselves; in essence dress decently. For example the Muslim women should cover themselves up with buibuis and hijabs or niquabs, and bubus or kaftans for men. In Kwale, Kenya which is predominantly Muslim, the youth also said that people are generally expected to be well covered shorts for instance are generally forbidden even for men; if they have to wear them, then they should be long, below the knees. Rural youth on the other hand tend to prefer simple as well as decent dressing where they do not wear anything that would be considered showy or too fancy for example women will not wear make-up or have fancy hair dos. Urban areas are relatively more liberal as compared to the rural although many youth still conform to societal norms of decency. Youth may therefore dress more decently in regular day to day activities and on other ocassions such as partying and clubbing, will tend to be more liberal and wear such things as mini-skirts, halter tops, plunging necklines, muscle shirts, tube tops, skinny jeans, hot pants, sagging pants with exposed boxers, etc. In some countries like Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Senegal traditional dress is also important especially for specific ocassions such as church / mosque, or weddings.
There is this saying Possession is nine tenths of the law and the other thing which is taken from this is appearance is nine tenths of the law because how you appear to people is how they see you and they connect with you and clothing is a big part of that. So clothing is an important factor in our social acceptance. If you dress up differently off the conventional style, you will be an outcast.
Female, 14-17, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
In some instances there appears to be an underlying importance attached to personality and character as compared to dressing. This is quite evident in both rural and urban Ethiopia, Senegal and South Africa. In other countries however dressing is deemed to be very important because that is what the youth use to show who they are or what they are aspiring to be. It is also important because if one is well dressed then this helps them exude confidence. Respondents were asked to describe what a cool / hot guy or chick would wear and this is what they had to say:
Table 15: Youth descriptions of cool guys and hot chicks
Cool Guy
Baggy jeans, blingbling, one earring, airforce sneakers and a cap facing sideways Anything that looks good on them Like PDiddy, JZ or Kanye West T-shirt and jeans are ideal. T-shirts should not be too loud with too much design; simple is cool and classy. Short hair and sneakers What he is comfortable with, suitable for the prevailing weather and fits his personality
Hot Chick
High heels, flats or sneakers depending on the occasion Mini skirt (not too short knee length, One way top (with one sleeve only) Handbag Hipsters, mini skirts, tyra shorts (hot pants), Capri pants, dress tops, Like Beyonce Smart instead of crazy; clothes that are well suited to her body size and shape What she is comfortable with, suitable for the prevailing weather and fits her personality Skinny jeans Flats High heels (some) Long decent skirt and top (rural) Traditional Ethiopian dress (rural)
KENYA ETHIOPIA
Jeans Nice t-shirt Flat shoes (sneakers) Big pants Neck chains (bling) Formal attire (suits and ties)
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Cool Guy
Skinny jeans (some) Skinny jeans High heels
Hot Chick
SOUTH AFRICA
A neat look is cool regardless of what one wears.

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Golf shirts Printed t-shirts Nike or Addidas sneakers Formal attire like suits (some) Good haircut (well-shaven called chiskop) Bright and colourful clothes Trousers with a belt with formal shoes Designer wear Big t-shirts Sagging jeans (some) Timberland shoes Neck chains Sunglasses Cap worn front side back Formal attire (rural)
Designer / expensive clothing Knee high summer skirts Sunglasses Formal attire like suits (some)
Mini skirts Spaghetti tops or barebacks High heels Hot pants, hipsters and peddle pushers Boy cut weave or hair extensions Make-up and articificial eyebrows Long earrings Jeans and pretty dress tops Long skirts and tops (rural)
ZAMBIA
Like wearing very big trousers like someone has already said, those things are meant for prisoners so that they couldnt escape.... (Laughter).... When they are trying to escape, so for me some things I do avoid, really in life, for example sagging...
Male 14-17, Lusaka, Zambia
Smart casual Italian wear Well-shaven
Italian labels such as Louis Vutton Is slim Short skirts Has hair that is well done
Jeans and t-shirts Long trousers Tall, neat, clean and well-dressed Good shoes (Italian) COOL: Smart Native wear Well-ironed clothes HOT: Sagged jeans Dirty boxers Latest footwear Fly collar Earrings Fancy haircut
COOL:
Skirts Jeans Polo Native wear (with traditional / African fabric) Corporate look / suits Smart and simple
That is so overrated (cool). What is cool to me is what makes me happy. I like people that are different, they are cool. If you can rock your own thing even if it is not the latest thing it can be cool. You have to be an individual.
SENEGAL
HOT:
Treated hair Micro-mini See-through clothes Halter necks Clothes that show off the body Tattoo on the lower back
If one dresses with suit and a tie one would be seen as an important person, but if one dresses madly by wearing dreadlocks, wearing two earrings as a man [that]would make others think one is not responsible.
18-21 Ikorodu, Nigeria
* NB. Cool and hot have somewhat different connotations hence are defined separately
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NIGERIA *
Traveling
The youth are very interested in traveling be it simply as a pastime or to satisfy other needs related to knowledge acquisition and exposure as well as livelihoods. Some Destinations that were mentioned and the reasons thereof are as follows:
Kenyan youth would like to travel to

Nairobi from what they have heard and the pictures they have seen, Nairobi seems very grand and life in general seems very good there; they would like to experience it for themselves and also bring home to Kwale the good things in Nairobi so that Kwale can be just as good.
just have a spirit of adventure and wish to satisfy their curiosity about other destinations. There is also a general perception that living standards and the quality of education and employment abroad is much better than that in their own countries. Interestingly, many youth do not necessarily want to relocate altogether to other countries despite the perceived better life; instead they just want to gain exposure and borrow ideas which they can bring back home and develop their own. Some of the desired travel destinations mentioned are as a result of increased media exposure and in some instances are as a result of influence from friends and family who have traveled to these destinations or currently live there. Apparently travel to other African countries is also quite desirable to some African youth. There were significant mentions by youth in Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia who wish to travel to other African countries. In some countries like Ethiopia and Kenya, youth were also quite keen to travel within their own countries. A good number of South African youth were however not interested in traveling altogether. Anywhere within Kenya this is home and they wish to see the different places and learn more about them, the people, the life, interact with people from different ethnicities and backgrounds and overall gain more exposure.
Hmmmm if I could travel I would go to Nairobi, and I would take that Nairobi, put it in my pocket and bring it back here(Laughter)
Female 22-25, Kwale, Kenya
When it comes to traveling I am a goer. Its only that I dont have enough money but if I did I would galavant all over this world. I am originally from Embu but moved to Kirinyaga when I was in primary up to class 4 then I went to Chuka. For my high school I went to Mombasa and college I went to Meru and Kisii. Then I worked in Mwea for some time and now I am in Nairobi. I have a new job which I am starting in Suba District next month if you know where that is! I have also been to Garissa
No. I come from a very disadvantaged community (Giyani), and when I grow up I want to give something back to them and not forsake them
Zanzibar Just to tour and alsvo buy their lesos to sell in Kenya. Apparently this is good business.
Tanzania To experience the lifestyle and just satisfy their curiosity. Similarly the Phillipines
Travelling is not my thing. I want to be alawyer when I grow up, so travelling isnt a priority for me
Male 14-17, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Nigeria To socialize with the Nollywood actors. Its also has the highest population in Africa and this is quite interesting to see and experience
Kenyan Coast Its the perfect place to relax and have a good time.
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Africa to see the geographical sites and the nature then once they have been all over Africa, Asia would be next on the list
some German in school so would like to interact with the people and speak the language more. Also to further their studies Haiti Have heard that it is the poorest country in the world and are quite intrigued and curious about this seeing as they think they are already struggling so much in Kenya therefore how much harder can it be for the people of Haiti?
Egypt have heard from friends who visited that it is an interesting place and there are cute guys there and nice gifts and mementos that you can buy to bring back to your friends
Mauritius different and exotic experience; heard of this from family members who have been there UAE to play womens football and become a role model for other talented young Kenyans
South Africa to attend the 2010 world cup, meet Mandela, visit Robbin Island, meet Jacob Zuma Jamaica to see Elephant Man. Have also heard that bhang and cigarettes are readily available and would like to see how true this is Brazil It is less populous country as compared to Kenya and so should be a good place to stay. Also meet the international footballers and the beautiful women China to learn more about engineering and generally gain more technical knowledge
Countries abroad in general to seek greener pastures and to have some time away from family and familiarity. They believe living abroad would present better opportunities i.e. even janitorial jobs pay better than they do in Kenya, and freedom to explore their potential. Some youth are not concerned about which country in specific; they are open to exploring whatever any country has to offer.
USA and UK they think that the economy there is better than in Kenya, they wish to go and see for themselves and just compare whether life is better there than it is in Kenya. If it is better there, then they want to bring home some good ideas to help make Kenya a better place. Some want to go live and work there since they feel there are better opportunities there and there is no corruption like in Kenya which makes earning a living difficult Dubai those who have some business aspirations and their friends and relatives who have been there speak very positively about it in terms of business. Many Kenyans go to Dubai to bring in various types of merchandise to sell in Kenya. Japan for the cultural experience
Standford Bridge in the UK because he supports Chelsea in the English League; another would like to go to England to see Rooney.
Ethiopian youth would like to travel to

Lalibela because they have learnt about it in History and it has rock hewn churches which they would love to see; this is unique to Ethiopia and a heritage to be proud of. Axum because they have learnt about it in History; it has the giant obelisk which are regarded as some of the finest examples architecture in the world. Hawasa / Awasa because the scenery is green and beautiful. This is the southern part of the Great Rift Valley.
Hollywood Love of acting and aspirations to be a great actor some day.
London to see River Thames and the cars that are manufactured there and the motor industry in general and reconcile with past and present in terms of what Kenyas former colonial masters benefited in the long run from colonizing Kenya in the first place are the benefits still evident?
Germany the motor industry and also because learnt
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Gondar this was a religious city and they are proud to be associated with its history

Paris Love, passion and those good looking men Brazil they are mad about football Nigeria they have pastors with healing powers like Pastor Chris
Gurage the people there are marginalized; would like to learn more about how they live

Bahir dar it is a naturally green area in the southern part London it is a multicultural city whereby immigrants actually own their own homes. Also due to architectural and art heritage which they would like to see Barbados It is beautiful, has beautiful people and Ronaldo was born there Botswana Has family there, the government is well grounded, free education and security Jamaica their accent! I love their accent
Dubai so as to see and learn more about unique architectural designs
USA to see the Lincoln memorial having read about it and watched it on TV. Also perceived as a fun place to be
Zambian youth would like to travel to

River Kafue (Zambia) USA because of the good life as they see in the movies, for live performances e.g. 50 cents, people mind their own business
Israel for pilgrimage reasons; to experience and associate with the birth and life of Jesus. Another was interested because of their strong military.
Arab countries and African countries where there exist conflict and war just to understand the social problems that are causing this.
South African youth would like to travel to

Port Elizabeth there is not much talked or shown about this place hence would like to see it for themselves London a lot of people have gone there and would like to know how they live New York would like to one day be a producer and has heard that it has a lot in common with the townships in SA like crimes and gangsters USA Most people seem educated and they like education, for its beauty especially New York Cape Town Low crime rate Cape Town and Durban loves water England looks fascinating and beautiful Switzerland people look calm and collected; it must be so much fun and welcoming
The States, because life is good there. Everyone minds their own business and you can do whatever you want to do. They believe in expressing themselves, each and every one of them, like I for once I dont enjoy the traditional stuff like in marriage where you have to start respecting your husband or what. I believe am not for that. I have hanged out with couples from the states and just the way they carry out themselves, hang out and play, its just like they are dating and so when they get married it keeps the spark going.
Female 18-21, Lusaka, Zambia Sweden to learn their development strategy England the education system is good, to see Wayne Rooney. Mexico looks attractive on TV, to learn the language
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Jamaica because of the music and the people Italy to see the tradition, the historical ruins and churches
Egypt because of the history and Egyptian movies and beautiful Egyptian girls

France the technology is advanced, for the fashion Belgium employment after study is almost guaranteed

Dubai advanced technology South Africa advanced technology, high employment rate, to eat apples, see monuments, to see the motor vehicle company in Cape Town
Hawaii

Tanzania to import clothes and foodstuffs for business Kenya to see if people are as rich as she has heard they are; to see the wild animals in the game parks
Nigerian youth would like to travel to

Kano to see animals which are rare in the western part of the country Calabar it is beautiful and there is less corruption Akwa Ibom because it is a neat state and there is less corruption. You can also make soup for only Naira 100 (EUR 0.5)

Egypt to see the pyramids Zimbabwe to visit relatives, to see whether people are indeed dying of hunger
Nigeria to meet the Nollywood actors Ghana to pursue business opportunities South Africa for the numerous job opportunities Turkey and UAE because they produce oil China to gain technology exposure and ideas Paris heard that it is beautiful USA have good technology, low corruption and good security
Senegalese youth would like to travel to

Spain because of the sports (soccer) and for livelihoods

USA good quality education that is also arts based, perceive the people to be straightforward hence business is good and transparent, nice lifestyle, dancing and singing, Obama is their idol

Mecca For Al Haj (pilgrimage) Italy Because apparently a lot of their friends have gone there and made it, it is pastry heaven Spain to see Ronaldo, children are not beaten, to learn how to build night clubs UK to visit relatives, people there are better behaved and mature, for further education, to play football for the English clubs India just love the people Canada heard of job opportunities there and for general experience
Japan they have a strong sense of culture although they also have high suicidal rate
Canada it is a peaceful country and good education system, employees are well paid and there are numerous informal employment opportunities
England to learn English and good pronunciation
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Dreams and aspirations

Based on the discussions with youth during the study it appears that their dreams are more often than not related to succeeding in life so that they and their families can have good livelihoods and live comfortable lives. Be it a dream or desire to travel, to attain a certain education, or to utilize their personal talents, all this often relates back to the need to earn good money and hence lead a comfortable life. The youth want to be able to satisfy all their basic needs such as food, good shelter, clothing and education and then have something left over to spend on wants. Generally the younger youth have very specific and numerous dreams and life goals but as they get older and come face to face with certain life realities, they begin to lower their expectations and goals in line with this. For instance those youth who have had to drop out of school hence cannot compete on the same level as those who have been fortunate enough to attain a high level of education, tend to lower their livelihood goals to realistic targets. For example such youth may only aspire to get some casual work that will earn them their daily bread; they are content with whatever is enough to get by on a day to day basis. They no longer aspire to growth and development beyond their immediate communities; they simply aspire to get married, have children and find ways of supporting their families.
I could have been a pilot but my parents were unable to educate me, I dont blame them though. Even if I only got to class three at least I managed to get rid of some illiteracy and ignorance At least I can read and I can also count some money so I am grateful for that. Now I can do some odd jobs and earn some money.
Female 22-25, Kwale, Kenya
Ethiopia
Whenever your government is not able to provide a job, it gives you an opportunity to get into entrepreneurship.
Male 18-21, Youth Scout, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
South Africa
Because I have split personalities I would like a job where I can be involved in operations during the day and be like a theatrical godess by night.
Kenya
My dream is that I dont reach 28 years without a car

A permanent job, and being able to give back to the community.It must also be the kind of job where I can transfer my skills to the next person so that if I retire someone can carry on with my duties.
Zambia
Just work hard at what you want. That is my motto. I usually say I will be a sonko (rich person). I just want to finish college this year, I build myself and start helping my family.
My dream is that 2 years after I complete school, I want to be part of the Kenya National Team 15s (Rugby)
I think that this subject Technical Drawing is not very common in many schools like the school I go to. I really wanted to do it because I had these dreams of my future I wanted to be an engineer and my parents told me that then I needed to take TD, but now the school I go to its not there so I tried book keeping but you see I had no interest in the subject.
Male 14-17, Lusaka, Zambia
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Senegal
Similarly some kind of sponsorship for education is deemed necessary. In some countries like Ethiopia and Zambia, furthering education appears to be quite popular amongst the youth at all levels; aspiring to achieve more than they currently have. In terms of other sets of skills required for success, some youth talk about specific additional professional courses in line with their study discipline, while others recognize the importance of soft skills and personal characteristics and virtues such as good interpersonal skills, dressing and presentation, confidence, honesty, language fluency, among others. Due to their religious dispositions, there are also other youth who believe that God plays a big role in their success.
Yes there are many successful youth. Do you know the region of Luga? There are youth who are working in Spain, the best example is those Senegalese from Luga and Italy where one can succeed even as a youth.
Male 18-2,1 Thies, Senegal
I would like to be a doctor but it is too late! Because of my age they have said that if you are more than 20 years old you are not allowed to do medicine at University of Cheikh Anta Diop.
Male 18-21, Dakar, Senegal
What about fastracking their way to success? Do the youth think it is necessary?
Nigeria
Many youth would be happy to fastrack their way
Ive always wanted to be a hip hop artiste, but my parents never supported me, but school has made me educated enough to write and compose lyrics and the environment has boosted my ability to sing.
Male 18-21, Ikorodu, Nigeria
to success though many concede that this is generally not possible hence they simply have to go it the long way. The pressures of life particularly for the low income and rural youth seem to push them more towards the desire to fastrack as compared to middle and upper income youth whose immediate and family needs are already well taken care of. One of the possible ways of fastracking as mentioned by the youth is through having the right connections in order to get ahead. Also, having the resources at ones disposal to bribe or pay their way through in order to get there faster or conceding sexual favours. Some youth also get involved in the unconventional ways of earning a living such as drug peddling, prostitution, internet scams, and robbery since these are also deemed to be ways of earning quick and easy money.
In line with their dreams and aspirations, the definition of success is also related to wealth accumulation and higher education. Most of the youth however do not have very elaborate plans of how they are working towards achieving this success. For most it is simply about working hard and ensuring they complete their education in order to succeed in life. Also, there is the aspect of connections which a significant number of youth feel would be necessary for them to succeed particularly in getting jobs.
Corruption. If it can fade out then people can get jobs in a normal manner without using the other way that if you dont have relatives even if you have the papers you cant get anywhere. So if you dont know anyone you will not even be able to get a job in bank, you can even become a cashier yet you have a degree in accountancy.
Female 18-21, Lusaka Zambia
We start saving in secondary school so that when we finish, we have enough money to pay bribes so as to get jobs. For example at Kenya Ports one has to pay KES 20 to the watchman at the gate just so that he can let you in to go and ask for a job
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Some guy managed to hack into the system of a varsity and had himself registered as a proper student and according to the system paid his fees. The only mistake he made was to make it look like the varsity also owed him money. But instead of having him arrested some huge IT company offered him a job because he was that good.
e.g. single mothers. Mothers are also said to be supportive, caring, and nurturing and overall a great inspiration to their children. In some places like South Africa, grandmothers also receive the same accolades many of them having brought up these youth in the absence of their parents. Other family and relatives are also mentioned as role models such as fathers, uncles, aunts and older siblings. Various reasons are attached to this such as integrity, financial success and stature in the community, family support, among others. Nigeria is generally an exception in that there is little mention of family members as role models. Instead they tend to talk about internationally recognized personalities as their role models. Other types of role models across the different countries include teachers, religious leaders, actors, musicians, political leaders, athletes and other sports personalities, business magnates and activists of various causes. There are also some youth who have no role models. For some this is as a result of disillusionment having found out certain negative characteristics of people they once looked up to as role models while others prefer to select or learn from specific positive aspects of given personalities as opposed to taking the whole as their role model. This is evident even for a few youth who do mention specific people as their role models but qualify this in terms of the specific aspects for which they consider these persons as role models. As such a young person can end up with several role models based on different aspects of their life which they consider important.
I think there are a few times that you need to move fast. Like my friend, we were in the same class in Grade 9 but I dont know what happened, when we wrote Grade 9, right now he is doing Engineering but me I am still in Grade 12, so I really dont know what happened or what he did to get there. He is in college doing engineering. So I asked him but he told me that connections.. that he wrote, something like that So I mean the parents are already rich and they are pushing him to get that education so he is doing his last year now So there are times you can feel you want to do things fast but because of connections (lack of) you cant get there.
There are a few youth on the other hand who do not want to fastrack their way to success. According to them, there is value in going through the motions and processes to eventually succeed in life. This they feel is more sustainable because of the experience that one gains along the way. Some also prefer to avoid fastracking through bribery and connections as this would place a burden on them in terms of always owing someone a favour. Asked about role models, many youth across the countries of study have positive things to say about family members who they look up to. Mothers in particular receive a lot of mention due to their hardwork and sacrifice in order to provide for their children. They also say that their mothers are strong women who have succeeded in one way or another even in certain difficult circumstances
For my spiritual aspect and moral standards I take from my mum. She is a level minded person. She is a person I relate to everyday in whatever circumstances. She is the one who will tell you to shut up, wait for things to calm down before you take any step. Financially maybe Oprah Winfrey. She has just taken an aspect of just talking in the media and then she has been able to make so much from it. When it comes to developing other people and taking care of the people around me I would think of Nelson Mandela; 27 years in prison and then you come out and think about everybody before yourself. I dont know them personally so I take aspects of them that I know.
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You cannot just have one role model because there are many different role models, social, sports, professional, etc. In social terms my mother is my role model, in sports Drogba is my model, in religion Touba (religious teachers) is my model.
Male 18-21, Dakar, Senegal There are also those youth who generally prefer to believe only in themselves and live their lives in accordance to personal values without emulating anyone. Specific role models mentioned in the different countries are as follows:
Susumila is a Kenyan artist based in Mombasa. He has managed to produce two albums namely Ngangari Kinoma and Haki Iko Wapi. He was rated as one of Coasts hottest entertainers in 2009. His music is a fusion of dancehall and hip hop and apparently he has positioned himself as a controversial artiste which has worked very well for him. He speaks out on certain political issues in some of his music.
Photo: www.facebook.com/pages/SUSUMILA/150748817921
Kenya
z President Moi (former) brought about unity; ability to mobilize people towards a given cause; encouraged people not to be individualistic but nowadays all this is gone. (One day, God willing if I become President, I will be like Moi.) Nyayo milk for school kids. Not always strict but gave and reached out to the young ones approachable. z Oprah Winfrey Financial success z Nelson Mandela Developing other people and taking care of those around him; selflessness z Michelle Obama She is a strong woman z Bill Gates He is rich and also loves comps but mainly coz he is rich. Its all about the money z TI (musician) He is real; he is himself; doesnt pretend to be what he is not z Wangari Maathai for her role in environmental conservation z Elephant Man (reggae / raga musician) His style z Christiano Ronaldo likes how he plays football and how to handle rough players z Susumila (local musician) His music has a message, he is laid back, dresses decently and keeps good company.
Sheila Mwanyigha Has a dont care attitude; remains strong no matter what people say about her
Sheila
Mwanyigha
whose
stage name is Nikki is a Kenyan musician and radio presenter. She first appeared on the music scene in 1997. Since then she has written various pieces of music, sang back up for other celebrated Kenyan musicians or collaborated with them as well as featured on 2 Kenyan compilation CDs / albums with other artistes. Nikki has received national music awards such as the Kisima awards and been nominated on the international scene for the Channel O music awards. She once dated another Kenyan musician known as CMB Prezzo and this received mixed reactions from her fans some of who were altogether not pleased.
Photo: www.mziki.com
Chris Kirubi Great business acumen so would like to be like him; own companies and employ people.
Chris Kirubi is in the list of Kenyas richest. He is a businessman and entrepreneur owning or having large shares in various large companies in Kenya and properties. International Haco These Life include in House
Nairobi, Capital FM, DHL Kenya, Industries, Uchumi Supermarkets, among others. He was also recently referred
Photo: www.mziki.com 102
to as DJ CK on the media scene i.e. Capital FM where he got to do his thing. In certain one on one interviews, Chris Kirubi shares more on his interests public work; more or less trying to become an activist, and get the Government to change or improve policies, in order to create a conducive business environment. He feels that Kenyans need more training on business and entrepreneurship.
John Adoli is the founder and director of the Kibera Hamlets, a youth lead in community Kibera which organisation
he started after completing his secondary school in Mbale in 2002. He is also a member of the Sports Council at Carolina for Kibera. He is 22 years old and living in Gatwekera, Kibera. He
Ashina Kibibi Her talent in acting.
holds a diploma in community development and social work from Flopeze International College. He is pursuing a degree of the same. He has a passion for working with disadvantaged communities and touching lives of his fellow youth and children.
The late Ashina Kibibi is one of Kenyas reknowned actresses and script writers. Kibibi was well known for her popular television series Lea Mwana, which was aired by KBC and Asali, which was aired by KTN. She had Bachelors and Masters degrees from the University of Nairobi, which she joined in October 1989. She was one of 12 winners from across the globe selected for the 200405 University of Maryland Humphrey Fellowship at the Philip Merrill College of Journalism. Around 2001, she launched her own production company BNZ. Asali had its trial debut on KTN in early 2001. Kibibi came into the national limelight when she appeared as Nina in Zingatia and went on to captivate TV audiences in the soap Tausi. She also wrote and directed Kasheshe in which she appeared as Malkia. Kibibi won a British Comedy Writers Association movie script writing competition in December 2003. Her script My Wife scooped first prize. She also emerged tops in a class of 13 scriptwriters from across Africa who attended a three-week course in Zimbabwe. Kibibi exported her soaps to Tanzania, where her first appearance had police intervening to keep off thousands of fans who mobbed her upon learning she was in the country. Ms Ashina Kibibi, committed suicide on the afternoon of Mar. 30, 2005 by hanging herself. Family sources revealed that she had been unwell.
Photo: www.kenyanlist.com
Ethiopia
z Lionel Messi has worked very hard to achieve his dreams z Ronaldo has worked very hard to achieve his dreams z Barack Obama has worked very hard to achieve his dreams z Haile Selassie has worked very hard to achieve his dreams z Oprah Winfrey she is a good communicator and is successful in the media z Malcolm X He struggled for equality and peace for young people in America though he did not see the fruits of his struggle z Mahatma Gandhi able to change things about his society without violence z Martin Luther King able to change things about his society without violence
John Adoli Chairperson of Kibera Hamlets; admire how he teachers dance and other theatrical stuff and helps others; he is understanding. Aspires to also start own similar group when older and go out and teach others. z Nelson Mandela able to change things about his society without violence
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These days it seems so hard especially in Africa to bring about change without violence. People have become violent. I admire these people for being peaceful and not hurting people in their effort to change and preserve their rights.
Dr. Belay Abegaz, is an Ethiopian Pediatric Cardiologist. He has studied Medicine and specialized in Pediatric Cardiology, was certified and licensed by eligible authorities both in Ethiopia and the United States of America. Dr. Belay Abegaz, is permanently settled in Addis Ababa as a Consultant in the field of Pediatric Cardiology, owning and directing a flourishing medical practice-Brook Medical Services PLC and as a distinguished philanthropist with his CHILDRENS HEART FUND OF ETHIOPIA, where he is striving to promote a Cardiac Center setup in Ethiopia.
Photo: http://www.chfe.org.et/boardmembers.html
Tom Wright He comes up with very architectural designs from what he observes. I learn from him persistence and patience
Tom Wright is the architect and designer of the Burj Al Arab (tower of the Arabs) in Dubai, a self proclaimed 7 star hotel. It stands on an artificial island and is the second tallest hotel in the world.
Jane Goodall Would like to be an environmental activist like her because has great respect to nature and the environment
She is the founder of the Jane Goodall institute and has worked extensively on conservation and animal welfare issues. She is best known for her 45 year study of social and family interactions
Photo: http://www.tomwrightdesign.com/web/burj_al_arab.php
Sheikh Mohammed Al Amoudi He is the wealthiest person in Ethiopia. He helps people in his country and more so the needy.
of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. She is therefore considered to be the worlds foremost expert in chimpanzees.
Mohammed Al Amoudi is Ethiopias richest person and is ranked as one of the worlds richest persons by Forbes. He is mixed Ethiopin and Yemeni but he immigrated to Saudi Arabia in 1965 and became a Saudi citizen. He has recently been named as one of the Clinton Foundation Donors and has also made several donations to hospitals, NGOs and other causes in Ethiopia.
Photo: http://nazret.com/blog/index
Photo: http://en.wikipidea.org/wiki/jane_Goodall
South Africa
z Oprah Winfrey the way she dresses; very classy and elegant z Beyonce loves her music z Nelson Mandela Managed to fight for the country and causes like HIV, his contribution to the black struggle
Dr. Belay Abegas He is a cardiologist. He has done great for his country. He is patient and persistent. z Teko Modise A Bafana Bafana player. Loves the way he plays soccer.
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z Cheikh Anta Diop He loved Africa very much and

Modise was born in Meadows, Soweto and was raised by his mother in Diepkloof. He was recently Cheikh Anta Diop (19231986) was a historian, physicist, anthropologist, appointed ambassador by global company Mc Donalds for the 2010 FIFA World Cup and also the ambassador for Coca-Cola, Nike, Telkom and Samsung.
Photo: www.dispatch.co.za/2007/11/23/Sport/aalead.html
wanted it to flourish
and politician who studied the human races origins and pre-colonial African culture. He is regarded a modern champion of African identity and an important figure in the development of the Afro-centric viewpoint, in particular for his controversial theory that the Ancient Egyptians were Black Africans. He believed that only by re-examining Africas distorted, maligned and obscured place in world history could the physical and psychological shackles of colonialism
Zambia
z Nelson Mandela For his determination and politics z Tupac Shakur He spoke the truth z President Kenneth Kaunda (former) He fought for Zambia and his HIV work z Oprah Winfrey Helps people and children z President Rupiah Banda (RB) The way he flies in his plane, his command and his power. z Pastor Angala For the way he preaches and his comic nature. He is a local pastor in Lusaka in the SDA church. z Pastor John Carson Would like to preach like him. z
be lifted from the Motherland and Africans in diaspora. Cheikh Anta Diop University, in Dakar, Senegal is named after him. He is widely recognized as one of the greatest influencers of African thought in the 20th century.
Photo: www.nerrati.net
Yekini Wrestler
Ykini is the nickname of Yakhya Diop, a popular champion of the sport and for two decades now, has emerged the most successful professional wrestler since. His appearances are major news in his home country. His 2006 fight against and defeat of Mouhamed Ndao, alias Tyson, was billed in Senegal as the fight of the century, cementing the two as the best known exponents of the
Senegal
z Didier Drogba He is a talented football player z Michael Jordan He is a self made man; he started by himself and has become somebody z President Barack Obama Charisma and personality z Michael Jackson just like that z Akon He is a superstar who is a Senegalese z Zinadine Zidan He is a talented football player z
sport. As of March 2010, Ykini remains undefeated in fifteen years of professional bouts. Senegalese wrestling (La lutte sngalaise) is a type of folk wrestling traditional to Senegal and parts of the Gambia and is part of the larger West African traditional wrestling. Transcending ethnic groups, the sport enjoys the status of national support. Today it is very popular as an indication of male athletic strength and ability. Today it is organized by business promoters who offer prizes for the winners.
Photo: www.espace-martial.com/album/data/media/122/yekini6.JPG
Shahiri A famous Senegalese journalist who has a good mastery of the Senegal society and its challenges and knows how to articulate it
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Nigeria
z Martin Luther King He imparted a lot on humanity z David Beckam His football skills z Ronaldo His football skills z Bill Gates The fact that he dropped out inspires one that they can drop out and still make it in life z Didier Drogba His football skills z Ben Carson His skill as a neurosurgeon and how he has helped many z Tupac Shakur His inspiring music, his hard life z Triple 8 He is a boxer; his boxing style is admirable z Femi Kuti Took over his fathers legend and was able to sustain it
Jim Iyke The way he acts
Jim Iyke, is considered a role model for his acting skills. He has a degree in philosophy and after trying to find a job for a long time landed in acting. Apart from Nigerian movies, he has done some international movies. He also has a foundation that helps children with special needs.
Photo: ghananation.com
Yinka Quadri an actor and producer
Yinka Quadri is a Nigerian actor, director and producer of great repute.
Photo: izognmovies.com
He is the son of the legendary Fela Kuti, a Nigerian Afrobeat singer. He is considered a role model for having taken over his fathers legacy and managing to successfully build on it. He is a twice Grammy nominated musician who also is committed to social and political causes in his country.
Photo: passionweis.com
Genevieve The highest paid local actress
Genevieve Nnaji, 31 is an actress, model and singer in Nigeria. She has won many awards in her acting career and is one of Nollywoods best paid actors. She also started her own clothing label St.Genevieve in 2005. She was considered a role model because she acts well and speaks fluently. She is also considered to have a unique dressing style.
Photo: izognmovies.com
Wole Soyinka Love the way he writes and the story of his life
Wole
Soyinka
is
Funke Akindele actress
perhaps Nigerias best known author, poet and playwright. He Funke Akindele 34, is a was the first African to be awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1986. He is also a UNESCO Goodwill ambassador. He is considered a role model because of his life story and his style of writing.
Photo: hornbillunleashed.wordpress.com
Nigerian actress. She has also written and directed some Yoruba films. She was considered a role model because she takes on roles that make sense.
Photo: odili.net
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Omutola Jolade She is an actress
The youth interviewed were asked to describe any young people they know in their community or country that have made a difference in one way or another. Most youth across the countries struggled to find relevant local examples that they could share; the mentions were either of people who do not qualify as young, of international personalities far removed from the realities of life on the local scene, or of people who have accrued some personal financial success but not necessarily done anything to inspire or support the community. This implies that young people in Africa could be lacking relevant local role models that they can relate to. The few examples of young people making a difference on the local scene were as follows:
Omotola Jalade- Ekiende is a famous Nigerian actress and singer. She is married with four children and is involved in charity work. Apart from her acting skills, she was also considered a role model for her dressing style and the way that she sings and
Photo: nairaland.com
dances
Joke Silva actress
Cynthia Kanema Zambia Super Model

An 18-21 year old Lusaka Joke Silva has been acting for the last three decades. She has acted on stage, television, radio and film in Nigeria, England and south of France. She is also involved in advocating for womens and childrens issues. She was considered a role model female said that Cynthia had achieved a lot as a model and was also helping up coming models. According to her website profile, Cynthia was Miss Zambia 2003 to 2005. In 2004 she was Miss Africa International. Presently she is the Executive Producer of the popular reality show, Cynthia
Photo: sunnewsonline.com
because of her acting skill and also for the way that she expresses herself.
Kanemas Search for Zambias Super Model. She is also the executive Director of True Ebony Achievements and the CEO of True Ebony productions. She is also a spokeswoman for
Aliko Dangote For impacting a lot by providing jobs
Cervical Cancer in Zambia Programme.

(http://www.cynthiakanema.com)
Photo: http://www.women.sanook.com
Aliko Dangote For impacting a lot by providing jobs Alhaj Aliko Dangote was chosen as a role model for the way he has created jobs for many people. He is the CEO/ president of the Dangote Group which is the largest industrial company in Nigeria with interests in sugar, cement, salt, pasta, poly products, oil, gas, real estate, beverages and telecommunications. He is reputed to be the third richest person of African descent in the world.
Photo: thenewafricantimes.com
Esther Phiri 23, female light weight boxer

A 22-25 year old Lusaka male mentioned Esther because she has managed to get international belts. Recently in the news, Esther defeated brazilian Duda Yankovich to get her sixth title; WIBA welter weight world title. She also has held other world and intercontinental titles in the welter weight and feather weight categories. Former president Levi Mwanawasa once praised her for succeeding regardless of obstacles and challenges that
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were in her way. Esthers father died when she was a young child forcing the family into hard times. She lived with her grandmother in a low income area in Lusaka helping her to sell groceries and second hand clothes. She dropped of school at grade six and became a mother at the age of sixteen. She got involved in a youth centred HIV awareness project started by an NGO that was combining health education with sport. Despite being mocked she got into boxing where her talent was soon revealed. She was soon training with a professional boxer. Due to her success, she, her daughter and grandmother now live in a middle income house and she is now finishing her education. She is now a household name and she encourages women to join the sport. (http://www.wban.org/biog/ephiri.htm)
Photo: http://www.women.sanook.com
Perceptions
In order to establish what youth think of themselves and by extension how society perceives the youth, the respondents were asked to discuss some of the things they like and dislike about their age. Generally across the different age sets, youth seem to acknowledge that they have a lot of energy, and that they are at the point in their lives where they have a lot of potential to explore, develop and prove themselves at whatever opportunities exist. Since they are young, there is also room to make mistakes, learn from them and / or take corrective measures.
Emmanuel Mbola 16 year old footballer Totenham Hotspurs FC England

A 22-25 yr old Lusaka male an said had to youth that set the and Emmanuel example Zambian
I like it because I can still decide what I want to be as opposed to anolder person who is already say a teacher. I can still decide that I want to be a Psychologist in 5 years time, you can still be whatever you want to be
Male 14-17, Johannesburg South Africa
given hope that they could also make it in football. Born in 1993 in Kabwe, Emmanuel began playing with the Mining Rangers in 2007 and moved to Zanaco FC the next where he played for a year. From 2009 to early this year he played in Armenia for Pyunic Yerevun. In February 2010 he joined Totenham Hotspur FC as a leftback in a million pound deal. He also plays for the national team and is considered one of Africas most promising talents.
(http://www.daylife.com/topic/Emmanuel_Mbola)
Photo: http://www.ukzambians.co.uk
The youth also like that by virtue of their youthful nature, this is an age where they can have a lot of fun partying, traveling, exploring other hobbies and talents such as sports, without the limitations of the later years of life e.g. children and spouses, which come with certain responsibilities. In Kenya for example some rural female youth (22-25) acknowledged that they had been forced to grow up too fast as a result of having had children at an early age and therefore could not express similar enthusiasm for their youthfulness as could the single and childless youth. Independence and certain freedoms associated with attaining legal status is also quite appreciated by many youth. They said that they like being able to make their own decisions on a day to day basis e.g. those who are already living on their own, either studying or working. There is said to be less parental interference and control especially for those living on their own. The younger youth 14-17 and also some of the 18-21 females however complain of too much parental control though they also acknowledge that it is because their parents are afraid and dont want them to make costly mistakes. Some of the ways in which their parents impose restrictions is through things like curfews, demanding to know where they are going, with whom and for what purpose; also being forbidden to have boyfriends / girlfriends at certain ages. Despite the youth being happy about the freedom and independence that come with age,
There is a young man who used to work as a coach for a junior soccer team until he lost his job. Even when this meant that he also lost his livelihood it didnt discourage him as he returned to coach the boys again without a salary. Some of his boys now represent the country at the under 17s level.
Male 14-17, Johannesburg South Africa
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some of them, particularly the older ones are also conscious of the responsibilities that come with this and express fear of making wrong decisions that could easily have a great impact on their future. They therefore somewhat dislike attaining age of legal status as a result.
coping or interacting with the opposite sex. They are afraid of teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, drugs and alcohol abuse. Some of them also express difficulty in coping with physiological changes associated with adolescence and puberty. A few girls in Kwale, Kenya were however excited at the prospect of these changes as they signify a move from childhood to womanhood. Similarly in Senegal these changes were received very positively as it made the youth feel more physically attractive to the opposite sex. Society has both positive and negative perceptions of the youth. In terms of positives, there are places in Africa where the older generation generally depend on the youth in terms of livelihood and also as the hope for a better future hence tend to lay a lot of emphasis on the importance of the youth in getting an education. There are therefore various initiatives and efforts that have come up in the recent years by governments, other development organizations and communities related to education and livelihoods so as to help and uplift the youth. It appears however that these initiatives are yet to have the desired impact on the youth as a whole given that the reach is limited hence not all the youth have equitable access. Also much as the youth appreciate the efforts being directed towards them in terms of education and livelihoods, they sometimes feel stressed and overwhelmed due to the high expectations and demands for them to do well. In Zambia for example some youth were reported to be constantly angry at their parents who keep on pushing them for high academic performance; they sometimes feel that its the parents who have more to gain from it than they do hence why they push them so hard. There is generally a contradiction or irony of sorts in terms of what the society expects of the youth and the hope that they have vested in the youth for the future versus the current status quo where the older generation keeps holding on to livelihood opportunities rather than make room for the youth as discussed in the chapter on livelihoods. In addition older adults are also said on many ocassions to dismiss the youth as too young and inexperienced hence never really giving them a chance to make any important contributions. Many youth feel that they are hardly given a chance to participate in any meaningful development and decision making at various levels. However some Key Informants also pointed out that youth are not always proactive in seeking the opportunities to participate or contribute.
I think we are exposed to too much things and we end up making bad choices. Right now we need to be working hard to secure our futures instead of just being exited about weekends, and being promiscuous.
Youth in the older age sets also like being recognized as mature enough to be consulted and give their opinion on important family issues as compared to the younger ones who are not required to actively participate in such issues. Some however feel that they are still not being given enough room to contribute and are instead often seen as too young and too inexperienced hence would not add much value in any given situation. Others also feel that certain things are kept from them as they are deemed not to be mature enough to handle difficult situations; the parents tend to want to shelter them. Some youth are happy about the fact that they are still young enough to benefit from parental care where all their needs are taken care of as compared to the older youth (22-25) who are at a stage where they basically have to fend for themselves
As for me I am 14 years. I like that because life is too short. Yes it is good to be 23 years and have more freedom but there are also challenges. You will have to face your problems alone without the assistance of your parents. This is where life becomes hard. For that reason I would like to remain a child of 14 to 16 years so that my parents can care for me and provide me with whatever I want.
Male 14-17 Saly, Senegal
Other dislikes of being young particularly for the younger age set 14-17 is peer pressure and difficulty in
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The current youth in Zambia are very passive and that also makes it harder for adults to create space because we dont demand and ask why are we left out in things like community development, so other people just think that the youth have no business in such.
Key Informant, Lusaka, Zambia Based on discussions with both the youth respondents and Key Informants, it is apparent that society is also not sustainably preparing the youth for future life in a holistic manner. There is much more focus on getting the youth educated and employed so as to earn a good living and uplift the whole society out of poverty than there is on other things of significant importance to the personal development and growth of the youth. The youth are therefore still lacking in other softer aspects of their personal growth and development such as sexual and reproductive health issues, general platforms for open, free communication and self-expression, development and nurturing of creative skills and talents, assertiveness, among others. Some initiatives exist or are coming up but they are few and far between and many are still on a macro level; they fail to address the young individual needs at a more local level. For example some young people complain that their parents are unable to discuss sex and reproductive health issues with them hence they have to find other ways of getting this information often through the media which is not always sufficient, consistent or relevant to their situations. Advertisements on HIV/AIDs prevention are sometimes confusing and contradictory in the eyes of the
youth. There are those championing abstinence, others promoting safe sex through use of condoms while on the other hand there are various TV and Radio programs which explicitly or by implication promote irresponsible sexual behaviour. What should they follow? The life skills and orientation programmes recently introduced in schools are also yet to have the desired effectiveness and impact in terms of the topics covered, the methods of delivery, and the instructors who most youth are unable to relate to. There are also those youth who because of early parenthood and marriage are expected by society to conduct themselves in a certain way and not conform to youthful practices or indulge in youth activities. These youth especially girls are therefore expected to grow up very fast, rather than at their own pace; many feel burdened by these expectations and are forced to miss out on youth life.
Youth and Health

Young people today face many health-related challenges. Some of the health problems youth face are teenage pregnancies, abortion, STIs and HIV/AIDS, teenage marriage, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), lack of family planning services, lack of reproductive health services and education among others. Persistent behavioral risks, poor basic sanitation, and new and emerging diseases are contributing to a deadly mix that is changing the classic picture of a healthy youth. Particularly, adolescents in the SubSaharan region have low family planning utilization rates and limited knowledge about RH and services, and they account for a higher proportion of the regions new HIV infections, maternal mortality ratios, and unmet need for RH information and services (Population Reference Bureau, 2000). These circumstances can be attributed to a number of social, cultural, economic, and gender-related factors, many of which are avoidable problems. The youth population is burgeoning in some countries, and in these areas and elsewhere adolescents are confronting new situations and threats to their present health, moving towards a future in which their health status is likely to be compromised. The needs of young people are not homogenous or universal. Young people are mothers, students and sex workers. They are injection drug users and prison inmates. Young people have varying sexualities, lifestyles and definitions of the family. Young people living with HIV are studying, working, having sex and planning families. This
There are both positive and negative perceptions but the negative perceptions outshine the positive ones. Like they dont think that youth need information, youth need to take care of themselves. They just simply send them to school and thats all. But they have specific needs that require much attention in order to produce a fruitful generation. So people dont think that they need to be treated properly, they think that sending them to school is enough, no other things.
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therefore calls for a need to design policies and programs that are most relevant and effective at addressing their varying needs. Country as follows: by country summaries of youth reproductive health statistics in the countries of study are
Figure 7: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Kenya
Kenya
According to Kenyas National Youth Policy (2006), the youth face a myriad of health related problems, including widespread malaria, malnutrition, HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), drug and substance abuse as well as poor access to health services. The HIV/AIDS pandemic, among other diseases, has continued to negatively impact on the health of the youth. More than 75% of people infected with AIDS are aged 20 to 45 years. About 33% of all AIDS cases reported are of those aged 15-30. According to Kenya AIDS Indicators Survey 2007, women aged 15-24 years are 4 times more likely than their male counterparts to be infected with HIV (6.1% compared to 1.5%). A higher proportion of Kenyans aged 30-34 years are currently infected with HIV than in any other age category. According to Kenya Demographic Health Survey 2003, almost half of young women have sex by the time they turn 18. And more than one in ten (13%) have sex by the time they are 15. Young women start having sex at an earlier age. Sixty% have sex by age 18, and a quarter has sex by age 15. However, these statistics show that young people are waiting longer to start having sex than they did five years ago. Almost a quarter of young Kenyan women (age 15-19) are either pregnant with their first child or already mothers. Teenage motherhood has risen in recent years (Figure 7). Among young women aged 20-24, 4% are married by age 15, while 25% do so by age 18. Almost half are married by age 20. Men get married at a later age than women; among men aged 20-24, less than 3% are married by age 18 and only 6% are married by age 20. Most young women do not use any method of contraception. Only 17 percent of 2024 year olds use a modern method of family planning. Young married women are less likely to use a method of contraception than their unmarried, sexually active peers. Less than 2% of young women use male condoms. Youth aged 10 to 24 comprise about 35 percent of Ethiopias population (Population Reference Bureau, 2008). Ensuring their health and future is vital to the nation. Ethiopia has made progress in improving youths health. However, young women still suffer high rates of maternal injury and death due to childbirth without skilled assistance and unsafe abortion. Persistent gender inequalities and traditional harmful practices, including FGM and child marriage, contribute to these significant health challenges. In 2006, an Ethiopian Ministry of Health AIDS report estimated that AIDS accounts for 34% of all the deaths of young people aged 15-49 years. A community based verbal autopsy conducted at the BRHP in 2000 attributed 8.5% of all deaths in the highlands, 4.8% in the lowlands and 11.3% of all deaths in the urban areas to AIDS (Lulu et al., 2005). There is however a significant decline in HIV prevalence amongst youth under the age of 20 years. In this group the HIV prevalence was estimated at 13.7% in 2006 in comparison to 15.9% in 2005. HIV prevalence in the 20-24 year age-group in 2006 (28%) had also decreased in comparison to 2005 (30.6%). A decline in prevalence in the age group 1524 years is suggestive of a decline in the incidence (new infections). These statistics suggest a sustained change in behavior among young people including engaging in safer sexual practices such as being in mutually faithful relationships (UNGASS, 2007). The health status of youth is similar to that of the rest of the society. And it is described in relation to the countrys economic, social and cultural situation. The health coverage, which was 30% in the past decade, has now reached 61%. It would however be difficult to say that the youth health services coverage has increased at the desired type, quantity and standard, as is the
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(Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
Ethiopia
case with rest of the population. In particular, the failure to bring about attitudinal and behavioral changes in society regarding personal hygiene and environmental sanitation has remained to be a major challenge. The figure below presents the adolescents births per 1000 women since 2000 to 2007. Figure 8: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Ethiopia
of HIV compared to their male counterparts. Nearly 1 in 4 women aged 20-24 years in South Africa is infected with HIV compared to roughly 1 in 14 males of the same age. Among the 10% of South African youth who are HIV positive, 77% are women (RHRU, 2009). Pregnancy is not uncommon among sexually experienced young women with 33% of 15-19 year old and 59% of 20- 24 year old sexually experienced women reporting ever having been pregnant. However, the rate seems to decrease since 2000 as shown in Figure 9 below: Figure 9: Adolescents births per 1000 women in S. Africa
(Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0) (Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
Limited reproductive health services and information and education dissemination services are being rendered through governmental organizations and Non Government Organizations (NGOs). It is however impossible to assume that adequate services are being rendered. Moreover, the services do not specifically focus on youth. Nor are they easily accessible in terms of time and place. Adolescents may also experience resistance or even hostility and bad attitudes from adults when they attempt to obtain the RH information and services they need. They therefore may be at increased risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), HIV, unintended pregnancy, and other health consequences. For women aged 15 to 19, complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and unsafe abortion are the major causes of death. Young people aged 15 to 24 have the highest rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV and AIDS.
The youth have become more open about their sexuality, and although contraceptive use is generally high among teenagers, the use is inconsistent (RHRU, 2009). Overall, the contraceptive prevalence was 60% in 2004 as indicated below. The youth continue to be faced with lack of information especially on matters such as pregnancy, STDs, sexual intercourse and relationships. Figure 10: Contraceptive use in South Africa
South Africa
About ten percent (10.2%) of all young people aged 15-24 years are infected with HIV in South Africa. Although there is significant use of condoms among the youth, there is lack of consistency which exposes them to the risk of HIV infection. Women have roughly 3 times the prevalence
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Zambia
Most young people in Zambia have been affected by the HIV pandemic. This is because a lot of young people have lost bread winners as a result of HIV/AIDS while others are infected. In 2002, 7.7% of young people aged 15-24 years were living with HIV. In 2005, there was decrease in condom use among young people with females accounting 38% from 40% in 2003 while for the males it decreased from 35% in 2003 to 26% in 2005. 43.5% of young men and women aged 15-24 years could correctly identify ways of preventing HIV and reject major misconceptions about the transmission (Zambia UNGASS, 2005). The figure below shows that youth aged 15-19 years are becoming mothers at a higher rate. Although the rate has been coming down since 2000, the rates are still high. Figure 11: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Zambia
Senegal
Senegal is often regarded as a model in HIV prevention. Experts claim that HIV prevalence remains under 1% in adults partially due to the countrys early legalization of sex work, advocacy on HIV prevention from religious leaders and universal male circumcision. However, concentrated rates of infection amongst marginalized populations such as sex workers (30% prevalence), women (1.7%), and men who have sex with men (MSM) (21.5%) continue to rise. Many of these people are Senegals youth. 55.6% of Senegals total population is under the age of 20 (Senegal UNGASS, 2008) Accurate knowledge of HIV transmission is very low among Senegalese young people, at 22.7%, far from the UNGASS target of 90% by 2005 and 95% by 2010. This is largely due to the extremely low rates of secondary school attendance by young people, primarily due to unaffordable school fees. In Senegal, young people are still barely visible in programming and policy making, either as beneficiaries of services, or as active contributors. In addition, strides to promote safe sex among sex workers have failed to recognize the prevalence of illegal underage sex workers, whose covert lifestyles bar them from accessing sexual and reproductive health services and information. Moreover, condom promotion in Senegal does not take into account the socioeconomic and cultural reality of gender inequality. In the 2005 Senegal DHS, only about 5% of young women between the ages of 15 to 24 indicated that they used a condom with a regular partner, compared to approximately 50% of young men in the same age group. Young people in Senegal have a mixed level of understanding of HIV transmission. Data show that 88% of the young people understand that being faithful to one partner who is HIV negative can reduce the risk of HIV transmission, and 71.1% of them think that the condoms are an appropriate alternative. Statistics shows that young people ages 15-19 are less likely to use a condom than 2024 year olds. However, there are still false beliefs among young people. Indeed, 62.8% of young people believe that mosquito bites can transmit the HIV virus. Out of all Senegalese, young men (41.7%) and young women (37.4%) are most likely to have misinformation about HIV. 4% of Senegalese youth believe that witchcraft or supernatural means are the root cause of HIV infection. The HIV testing rates are low since 0.7% of Senegalese 15-19 year old have undergone an HIV test while 0.8% of 20-24 year olds, and 1.4% of 25- 49 year olds have gone for a test. 80% of those tested received their results (UNGASS, 2008).
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Yes they have adequate access but there are issues of youth friendlinessThere is this aspect of service providers. For instance if a young person walks into a health facility suspecting they have an STI they want to be screened, you know the first thing the nurse will say to them is you are naughty, why do you want to be treated? So you have been having sex? So you see just that judgemental attitude from the service providers makes the young people to shun the health facilities. Others think that traditional healers are better at the service because they know they will not be judged there. So I think that is the onlymajor issue that the country needs to address.
Table 16: Health statistics of Senegal
become mothers before they reach 20. The total fertility rate is 5.8 with only 8 per cent of married women aged 1549 practicing family planning (Population Reference Bureau, 2009). 19 per cent of all girls have been subjected to female genital mutilation while the population living with HIV/AIDS (aged 1549) is 3.9 per cent (UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008) Between 43% and 53% of youths are sexually active, most lacking adequate information and services to promote and protect their reproductive health. There is also the rapid rate of increase of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV and AIDS. Youths are the most vulnerable to infection and to inadequate care and treatment. Although the number of births per 1000 women among the adolescents has been decreasing, the numbers are still high. Figure 12 below presents this: Figure 12: Adolescents births per 1000 women in Nigeria
Total Population
12,400,000
Population of young people (10-24yrs) 4.1 million Prevalence of HIV (15-24yrs) Prevalence of HIV (15-49yrs) Physicians per 100,000 people 0.7% male, 0.9% female 0.7% 6
(Source: Population Reference Bureau, 2007)
The health structure is too expensive in Senegal. Those in the formal sector are deducted some amount of money in case they fall sick they can go to hospital but these are very few. There are only 20% of the Senegalese population so what about the rest who have to take care of themselves having in mind that they have no monthly salary?
People talk too much of AIDS, diabetes and other diseases. But the disease that kills the majority of Sengalese people is Malaria. That is how it is in Senegal. When the childs body feels excessively warm or hot parents say it is because of our normal hot climate. So they delay and will find out when the malaria is in advanced stages. This is when they rush the child to the hospital. Because of that we find that they reach there when the child is very tired and most of the time the child dies
Media is doing quite well when it comes to adverts on AIDS. The government is trying but they are not doing enough because the drugs and condoms should be available and cheap. I dont think it is that cheap.
Key Informant, Lagos Nigeria
Nigeria
With a rate of 112 births per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 in 2009, Nigerian adolescents have one of the highest levels of fertility in the world. About 12 per cent of teenagers have their first baby before the age of 15 and almost half
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Volunteers finish setting up one of the mobile clinic tents for free VCT services
Reaching out to the Youth with Mobile Clinic Heath Services through the Arts in Kisauni, Kenya
Background
The Mobile Clinic is an outreach activity held by the Likoni Youth Community Centre (LYCC) which is a program that runs under the LICODEP (Likoni Community Development Programme). LICODEP began as an umbrella organization of youth groups in Likoni with the objective of reducing poverty and enhancing access to basic human needs and respect for human rights envisioning a poverty free society enjoying basic human rights LYCC is supported by USAID under the Aphia II Coast Program. Their mission is to increase the access of sexual reproductive health information and VCT services to the youth. LYCC has since inception had a positive impact on young adults through TUYAZUNGUMZE (a Swahili word for lets talk about it) which is a mobilization campaign targeting unemployed youth or school droupouts. Its main objective is to empower the youth with sufficient information on sexual/reproductive LYCC is led by a vibrant team of young, qualified volunteers and staff capable of conducting youth-friendly strategies to optimally serve the youth. It enjoys the support of development partners, the local administration and the entire Likoni community. LYCC offers peer counseling, provides free library services, VCT services, community and magnet theatre drama outreach, youth festivals, recreational activities and picnics. It also offers psycho-social support and care for HIV positive youth to teach them how to live comfortably and as a way of fighting stigma and discrimination in the community. health, life skills, guidance and counseling so as to transform them into responsible global citizens. Mobile Clinic is magnet theatre conducted regularly in Kisauni and Likoni areas so to sensitize and reach out to the youth (10-25yrs) and the general community on health issues. This is an interactive drama where audience is invited to participate and add to the dialogue. The goal is to encourage people to participate in voluntary testing of HIV and/or bring their children for malaria vaccination. The vaccines are As a matter of principle, LYCC advocates for abstinence from sex and encourages positive (responsible) behaviour change amongst the youth as a way of addressing HIV/AIDS and drug abuse. These innovative approaches have restored confidence and encouraged the youth to go for voluntary testing and interact with others regardless of tribal and socioeconimic differences.
The Mobile Clinic (Tuyazungumze)
Services Offered
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Mobile Health Clinic: Truly well-rehearsed and synchronized; not a step or a beat out of place.
Mobile Health Clinic: Children from the neighbourhood crowd around to watch the action
offered at a heavily subsidized price. It seems therefore that indeed Malaria, HIV and drug abuse are the major health challenges facing the youth in the area as shared by Key Informants and youth respondents interviewed in the study. We meet with part of the team (in a UN van) at the Likoni ferry at around 2:30 pm. There is a regional office near there where the youth volunteers are waiting for the van. They one by one come carrying the equipment for the day which includes speakers, tents, a PA system, music, medical supplies and gifts. Each of them seems to know their role and they work as a team. The youth volunteers male and female are 18-25 years old. They are paid an allowance for these outreache exercises and this helps them to meet their needs. Kate who is the secretary of one of the youth CBOs and also a youth representative in the community aids committee tells us that she has studied business management but meanwhile volunteers, hoping to build her CV in the process. By their dressing they seem to belong to the Chanukaad group since although the area residents are wearing lessos over their dresses, the girl volunteers are mostly dressed in jeans and t-shirts. One girl is even wearing her jeans with a hijab. As soon as everything is in the van all the volunteers get in and we drive to the venue. By 3:00pm we are at Kisauni. The houses in the area are middle to low income some constructed with cement blocks while others from mud and stone. The selected site is in the middle of a small junction where several paths meet. As soon as we get there each of the youth volunteers get into their role. As some of them fix tents others work on the PA system, some put up the banners as the nurses (who are hired for the day) get their medical facility ready. Only little children quickly run to the place immediately we arrive but soon older people stream in one by one,
especially when the music is turned on and the MCs start to make announcements. The event officially kicks off at around 3.30 pm in the heart of Kisauni area with 2 MCs, DJs and other staff from the LICODEP program. The show if done in the morning is scheduled for around 9:00 am because by 11:30 am the women will have to go home to cook. In the afternoon the show is at 3:00 pm and ends by 5:30 pm for the same reason. There is a group of young men who are playing a game of chess around a bench nearby. For a while they seem unmoved by the hullabaloo but as the activities get intense they too start participating. There are also young men who are busy hawking merchandise on wheelbarrows in the neighborhood. The girls and women appear to be more than the men in the crowd although the girls (probably in their teenage to 20s) try to hide themselves in the crowd as much as possible while still trying to get the jist of the event. The MCs keep talking about the main goal of the event which is to provide medical services. Every so often they remind the crowd about the medical tents and try to convince the people to visit them. The youth volunteers have various talents in arts and drama and are acquiring skills in community mobilization. They worked as a team, some emceeing, others going out along the paths distributing pamphlets and others manning the tents. There are two tents for those who require medical assistance. One is for those who wish to be tested for HIV while the other is for dispensing dewormer medication at KES 20 (EUR 0.2). The VCT is free. Other consultation charges are KES 100 (EUR 1) for adults and KES 50 (EUR 0.5) for children. Towards the end of the event the consultation costs are lowered, perhaps to encourage more people to take advantage of the medical services before closing.
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The DJ and MCs run the show with dancing competitions, talent search, dance routines as well as performances from the crowds. The competitions range from chakacha (Swahili dance), to bongo (Tanzanian music genre) and hiphop perfomances among others. The crowds throng by the hour with approximately 200300 people in attendance of mixed ages and gender. Throughout majority of the audience is female. This is probably because most of them are idle many are housewives or altogether unemployed. Many of them are also accompanied by children, an indication of the high rate of early marriage, motherhood or teenage pregnancies at the Coast. The show nurtures local young talent as evidenced by the dance competition and displays. The audience determines who wins (a soda). There are separate competitions for the boys and girls. One can tell that the girls are quite shy as it takes a lot of convincing and pushing for them to go up and dance. The women are called upon to display their dance and chakacha talent but they seem content to just watch by the side lines. One young woman keeps coming on to the arena and shying off due to the boos by the multitude. Clearly she wants to dance but something is holding her back. The younger girls have no such inhibitions however. The younger the girls therefore, the less shy they are and the more accepted they are by the audience as dancers. At some point the woman who wants to dance joins a group of younger girls in the competition and the boys/ men seated behind us take serious offence. Anajipa huyu they say, meaning the young woman is throwing herself at the men. They keep shouting at her to leave the dance floor. They seemingly interpret her behavior as that of a loose woman. This is because culturally, Swahili/Islams partriarchal tendencies condemn females and therefore restrict them from public selfexpression. In stark contrast, her female counterparts cheer her on with admiration as they long to do the same but are not brave enough. Eventually she is forced to shyly run away from the dance floor. When invited to participate, the boys are more outgoing than the girls. The boys have their own CD and they every so often tell the DJ which track they want played. The idea behind all the entertainment is to keep the crowd occupied so that whoever wants to secretly sneak into one of the tents for HIV testing Tuyazungumze emerges as a launching pad for young aspiring artists (wasanii) who use every available opportunity to showcase their talent, ready to be criticized or cheered by a free audience. The crowds are on the whole fairly controlled and civil. In typical Coastal hospitality, the hosts offer us front row (VIP) seating which the crowds respect. Pushing and shoving is minimal and children sit in one area. There are no incidents of theft, pickpocketing, bullying or hooliganism typically experienced in similar events in Nairobi. Overall, this drive is quite an effective and creative way of assembling the youth, communicating and tackling pertinent social and health issues affecting them. It also turns out to be a forum for youth expression. Kisauni outreach: No. of Clients Attended = 14 (Male 6, Female 8) No. of youth 10-24yrs = 9 (Male 4, Female 5) VCT Clients Tested (19-29yrs) = 21 (Male 6, Female 15) No. tested Positive = 1 (Male 1, Female 0) Likoni outreach: No. of Clients Attended = 28 (Male 13, Female 15) No. of Youth 10-24yrs = 18 (Male 8, Female 10) and medical care can do so discreetly. This works quite well because although the exact numbers of turnout are not yet released by close of day, we are told that overall a good number of people have made use of the VCT services. There is even an incident of one teenager (who had earlier been in the crowd) taking a test and another girl tries to peep into the tent but is told off by the nurse. Past statistics of those who made use of the medical facilities are however availed and they are as follows:
Mobile Health Clinic: Magnetic theatre at its best
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Chapter Five | Media and Communication
ICTs, such as conventional radio, landline telephones, newspapers, TV and libraries, and modern or new, ICTs such as mobile phones, computers, internet and fax, have defined the youth life of today where they continue to access variety of information. As ICTs are by definition a means of communication and information sourcing and manipulation, it is important to include traditional information source institutions, such as libraries and post offices, in areas where the general level of access to ICT is still growing. Libraries are often well placed and accessible for members of the community, forming logical deployment points for ICT facilities. The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) is skyrocketing. Notwithstanding the immense diversity in living environments, an unprecedented and unifying global media culture
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CTs include a range of technologies and facilitate communication, processing and transmission of information by electronic means. Both traditional
has developed that challenges and often surpasses such traditional forms of socialization as family and school. This complex cultural situation has been called the informational age, while others prefer the term techno-culture or technocapitalism, global media culture, or simply globalization. The idea behind all these terms is that across the globe, ICTs are playing a central role in young peoples lives and in society at large (Beck, 2002). The assumptions that underlie the role of ICT is that one, the proliferation of these technologies is causing rapid transformations in all areas of life and two, ICT function to unify and standardize culture. It is on the basis of these assumptions that the term media culture, incorporating the phenomena of globalization came into play. In the world of young people, the media are saturated by popular culture and penetrate politics, the economy, leisure time and education. Media culture is pervasive; its messages are an important part of the everyday lives of young people, and their daily activities are structured around media use. The stories and images in the media become important tools for identity construction (Willis, 2000). A pop star provides a
model for clothing and other style choices, and language used by a cartoon character becomes a key factor in the street credibility of young people. Under the present
Mobile Phones
Mobile phones introduce a range of new possibilities for social networking and communication, media use and production, political activism, as well as education. Young people in South Africa have adopted a range of innovative communicative practices, notably those which exploit low-cost mobile applications, as well as a growing host of rich-media and Internet-based applications. Mobile This phones have long surpassed traditional landlines as the most common voice communication technology. is particularly due to the marked growth in new mobile phone users in most developing countries (Feldmann, 2003). In South Africa, a country still trying to escape its legacy of dramatic racial inequalities, mobiles have enjoyed spectacular growth over the past decade, with more than 60% of all South Africans above the age of 16 already owning a phone themselves (RIA, 2009). Mobile phones provide access to personal communication to millions who were previously marginalized especially in the rural areas. The high usage patterns and expenditures on conventional telephony are particularly surprising given the low income levels that prevail in these areas. Interpersonal communication is the most common use of
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circumstances, there are few places left in the world where one might escape the messages and meanings embedded in the televised media culture. The emergence of digitalized communication and the commoditization of culture have significantly altered the conditions under which life and culture are experienced. Although conversing with one another through face-to-face is still a favorite of many especially those who live in a close-knit local environment, digital communication is gradually undermining this traditional approach. Mobile phones, TV, radio, film, magazines, music, commercial dance, style, fashion, and commercial leisure venues are the major realignments. World media landscape for children and youth immediately presents two opposing themes: opportunities and risks. For example, globalization of media brings opportunities to broaden childrens outlooks and provide more equal access to information, but it also threatens cultural identification and values. Technological advances bring the promise of new skills and greater youth participation in society, but also increase the risk of child exploitation and informational divides.
phones, with most people making calls or sending SMS messages on a typical day. Despite the near-universal use of cell phones a significant minority do not own personal handset. However, there is no significant difference in phone usage patterns among this group who borrow other peoples phones to communicate. The youth can now access the Internet via their phones. The popularity of Web access, instant messaging, Facebook, Twitter and other web applications indicate the changes of traditional media among the youth. In 2008 Kenya had more than 15.0 million mobile subscribers, with a mobile penetration rate of 39%. The subscriber base is expected to rise to 29.28 million, or 66.7% penetration, by year-end 2013 (ICT Newslog, 2009).
be constantly in touch with their social networks and are simply able to fit in.
Like there was this time that I would go out with my friends and there is no money, the clothes are almost worn out and I have no phone. So when you go out you feel like the friends are looking down on you. As life went on, things got better and I even saw their approach changed. The respect was back and they even informed me everyday on the updates but when I had no phone I just had to look for them wherever they would be.
Male 22-25, Lusaka Zambia
Mobile phone ownership and access

Most youth especially low to mid income youth Majority of youth interviewed either had their own mobile phone or access to one that belongs to a family member such as parents, older siblings or other relatives that they live with. In both rural and urban areas of study almost all the youth in the older age sets owned a mobile phone i.e. 18-21 and 22-25. Some of the younger ones in some countries also had their own phones especially where mobile phones are permitted in schools e.g. Senegal, South Africa and Ethiopia. In Kenya mobile phones are strictly prohibited in majority of schools hence even those who own them can only use them outside of school. There were also a few youth in Kwale, Kenya who were married and were sharing a mobile phone with their spouses; more often than not the husband would have the phone during the day and the wives would access in the evening when the husbands get home from work. Youth acquire their phones in different ways. Some are purchased for them as gifts from their parents. Sometimes when older siblings or parents decide to upgrade i.e. buy a new / better mobile phone the youth also benefit as the older phones tend to be handed down to them. Other youth on the other hand especially the older ones 18-21 and 22-25, save over time or purposely do some business or casual work so as to get enough money to buy a mobile phone. Those who have regular forms of employment are also able to afford their own mobile phones. Generally owning a mobile phone is considered to be quite important amongst the youth hence regardless of socio-economic status, they all desire and strive to own one. Owning a mobile phone means that they are able to
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tend to own low end phones with limited features mainly because they cannot afford to buy the more expensive phones with more capabilities. A good number of youth who own high end phones admit that they are not genuine hence why they were able to afford them. A few youth said that they simply prefer to buy a cheap phone because phone loss and theft is very common hence no point in investing in a high end phone. It is close to impossible to recover a lost mobile phone; there are limited tracking possibilities hence the most one can do is to block the phone using the IMEI so as to render it useless to whoever has stolen it. Overall most youth who participated in the study had Nokia handsets and expressed preference for the same due to durability, simplicity and / or ease of use.
Mobile phone usage

In order to understand phone usage amongst the youth, the respondents were asked to fill in a questionnaire on the different features they have on their phones, which ones they use or do not use, how often, which ones they hardly use but would still like to keep and reasons thereof, and features they would like to have in future. Also incorporated were questions on unique or creative ways that they have devised of using their phones as well as anything they would particularly like to be able to personalize on their phones. The following features were discussed:
Voice Calls:
All have access Many use it daily or several times a day | Some say it is cheaper than SMS due to recently reduced call charges; especially for very short messages | Main option for some due to language constraint that is not enabling for SMS (Ethiopia Amharic alphabet) Some use it less often due to cost and general preference for SMS | | Some increased usage at night due to lower tariffs More use related to important or more formal calls as opposed to social calls | Have devised creative ways of saving on credit e.g. a tailor made morse code of sorts through flashing or beeping | Limited use for those sharing phones or borrowing from family member
Some say it is cheaper than voice calls
Other suggestions: | | See the person sending you the SMS Receive 3D messages
I would like to receive my text messages in 3D format

18-21 Thies, Senegal
Some do not use it due to literacy challenges and language (Amharic alphabet) | Also limited use for those sharing phones or borrowing from family member Many youth have resorted to acquiring various SIM
cards from various operators so as to benefit from lower tarrifs within certain networks and during certain times of day. As such many youth desire to own mobile phones with multi-SIM capabilities to avoid the hassle of changing sims every time the need arises or having to acquire extra handsets.
My friends and I have devised a way of communicating without necessarily using our credit. If I get to campus I flash her once and then if she is there she will flash me back twice that way I know that she is also on campus and I seek her out
Female, Youth Insights Pre-Study, Kenya
Internet:
Limited access many young peoples phones do not have the capability | Many however desire to have this feature and use it get news and information from around the world, and can send and receive mail. Those with enabled phones (mainly urban for most countries) use it daily or several times a day | Mainly social usage facebook and other social networking sites and applications e.g. Mxit (very popular in SA and recently launched in Kenya), twitter, | Young people spend a significant amount of time on the internet some can go to extremes of all day (in cases where they are on school holidays) or all night and forfeit their sleep. | Also for content downloading music and ringtones. Some also for movies and video clips. | Many prefer mobile internet as opposed to PC internet more accessible and convenient, not as conscious about the cost as perhaps at a cyber cafe or home internet solutions.
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SMS:
All have access Many use it daily or several times a day | Very popular amongst youth especially amongst their peers and social circles | Have devised their own text messaging language helps save credit by cutting down on number of characters e.g. Tuonane (Kiswahili for See you later) would be written as 2O8 i.e. 2 (Tu) O (o) 8 (nane); 8 is nane in Kiswahili, Great would be GR8, and G9T is goodnight. Other than saving on credit it is also quite cool to use this language and it enables faster texting.
Some also desire mobile WiFi connections in future enjoy free access where possible; some operator connections are sometimes poor
Video recorder:
Few have this feature | Most use it occassionaly for special moments
Those using family members phones are limited to what they can use usually limited to quick voice calls and SMS to save on credit and time spent with the phone. This also limits possibility of learning how to use it.
I use my video recorder less often because of limited memory space on my phone
Female 18-21 Nairobi, Kenya
Radio:
Most have access | Many of those who dont have the feature desire to have it in future Most listen daily or for long durations at particular times of the day | Commuting, doing chores, relaxing after school or work, during breaks at school or work, or throughout the night (even when asleep) | Mainly for music, though some also listen to news and shows with interactive discussions on relationships integrated with music | Some youth have attempted to participate in interactive radio but are often disappointed since the lines are too busy hence never get through; SMS is an option though not guaranteed that the radio host will acknowledge it and read it. | Some prefer mobile radio to home radio sets as this accords them a level of privacy and ability to exercise choice of what they want to listen to and when. Significant number have the feature and a significant other do not Those who have cameras claim to use them quite often daily or weekly | Capture images of anything or anyone that strikes them as that which they would like to save and remember Few have this feature Some desired to have it in future though it would most likely be a feature that they thought they would use less often | | For recording sounds and music For recording certain conversations that they want to save and listen to in future | To record certain situations for security reasons or evidence | To record languages of interest and playback so as to learn | Most have a few basic games on their phones | Some claim not to have a single game on their phones Some want better games with better graphics; the ones they have are said to be boring Many desire to have the camera feature in future Other suggestions ability to personalize your photos once taken e.g. like photoshop Others seemed neutral or altogether felt that it is not necessary for them at the moment | | A few desire to have it in future | Handy for recording or capturing special moments To record classes and lectures To record certain situations for security reasons or evidence
I would want a video recorder to record all my modeling events in future

Female 18-21 Lusaka Zambia
Camera:
Audio recorder:
Games:
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I dont like them They bore me!

Female 14-17 Limpopo South Africa With the exception of Ethiopia majority of youth in the other countries are not enthusiastic about games on their phones hence play them less often | Dont have time for games or simply not interested | Considered to be rather juvenile
Voicemail:
All have access Majority do not use it | Some think it is unneccessary and would be happy to do without it in future | Some have difficulty in retrieving messages long process
Memory card:
Few have this on their phones Many desire to have it in future | Increased storage for music, videos and other content
TV:
None currently have TV on their phones Majority greatly desire to have this feature in future | Easy and convenient access to favourite programs and shows at whatever time and place commuting, long distance traveling, | Mobile TV as compared to home TV sets would enable a level of privacy and ability to exercise choice of what they want to watch and when | For when there is no electricity as power outages are quite a big problem in many African countries
Video calls:
None have access currently Some desire to have this in future: | | Ability to see who is calling and where they are Others also wish for video conferencing so as to have visible mobile conversations with groups of people
Media player:
Few have this on their phones Many desire to have this in future | | As an alternative to radio play select music Other suggestions one that can play music in any format
Drawing and graphics applications:

None have such features currently A few desire this for future phones | Nurturing their drawing talents
Security lock: Bluetooth:

Many do not have this feature Some desire to have it in future | Mainly for transferring and sharing music files and video clips | Some creative usage writing notes and sharing them via BT as opposed to SMS | A few also mentioned Infrared for the same reasons | Few are aware of this feature in most of the countries Significant mention in Senegal desire to have this feature | To increase privacy of data and content on their mobile phones Other suggestion ability to lock specific aspects such as gallery and SMS that one wants to keep completely private.
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Computers
Ownership and access
There is generally limited ownership of computers amongst the young people interviewed both rural and urban. Cost is still quite prohibitive hence majority of those who use computers (mainly urban youth) often access them at cyber cafes, educational institutions or work places. For instance in Lusaka Zambia second hand laptops go for about EUR 240 while new ones can cost up to EUR 560 which is too expensive for majority of the youth. In addition original software purchases and updates are quite expensive hence even those who own computers copy from their friends. As discussed earlier under the education section, access to computers is quite limited most public schools and educational institutions as a whole have limited number of computers that cannot satisfy the entire student populations. As such, many students graduate from the various schools without having the benefit of IT literacy. It is largely a learn-by-self system for majority of the youth who have used computers through cyber cafes or the few who have access from a family member or neighbour. The desire to learn and use computers is however very strong amongst the youth; they are eager to utilize any possible opportunities for this. Many are aware that ICT literacy is very relevant for them as young people in what is commonly referred to as a technological age. They need to acquire the necessary skills which they can utilize to satisfy certain educational needs and requirements, for livelihoods and for purposes of keeping abreast with information on a global level and social exchange. Some of the uses specifically mentioned by the youth for computers were: playing music, watching movies, sending and receiving e-mail, accessing social networking sites such as facebook, typing school assignments and term papers, research for educational purposes or personal interests, playing games, downloading music and other content of interest.
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I have a problem with the chat rooms. I think we chat a lot. I log in only once a week. As the youth we tend to forget that there are other things that we need to be doing with our time that are a lot more important than spending hours in the chat rooms everyday.
Female 22-25, Johannesburg, South Africa There are various initiatives by African governments and other development partners trying to address ICT access and certain infrastructural challenges. For example in South Africa there are multi-purpose community centres (MPCC), telecentres, cyber labs, personal information terminals (PITs), department of communication web internet laboratories (DoCWILs), citizens post offices and public digital libraries all of which are quite useful in providing the youth with access and necessary skills and experience of ICT usage since they serve as access points for the community on a part-time and/ or full-time basis. In Senegal the government has also encouraged the establishment of community telecentres or tele boutiques that provide public telephones, fax services, computers and internet access since individual access can be quite costly. There are also some initiatives underway in the other countries of study as well as plans supported by ICT policies which are now in place though the current situation is still dire.
Internet access and usage

The table below reveals that internet penetration in Africa is poor (6.8%). However, South Africa is at 9.4% followed by Kenya (8.6%) with Nigeria and Senegal accounting for 7.4%. Nigeria accounts for 16.3% of total users in Africa. Table 17: Internet usage in Africa
Countries Ethiopia Kenya Nigeria Senegal S. Africa Zambia TOTAL AFRICA
Population (2009 Est.) 85,237,338 39,002,772 149,229,090 13,711,597
Internet Internet Users Penetration User Growth % Users Users Latest Data (% Population) (2000-2009) in Africa Dec/2000 (June 2009) 10,000 200,000 200,000 40,000 360,000 3,359,600 11,000,000 1,020,000 4,590,000 700,000 67,371,700 0.4 % 8.6 % 7.4 % 7.4 % 9.4 % 5.9 % 6.8 % 3,500.0 % 1,579.8 % 5,400.0 % 2,450.0 % 91.3 % 3,400.0 % 0.5 % 5.0 % 16.3 % 1.5 % 6.8 % 1.0 %
49,052,489 2,400,000 11,862,740 20,000
991,002,342 4,514,400
1,392.4 % 100.0 %
(Source: www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm)
In 2006, 3.65 million people in South Africa had access to the internet in comparison to year 2003, which recorded 13.6% of households who could access computers and on average only 9.1% of all households had access to the internet. The price of PCs remains a barrier to private access to this type of ICT for the majority of the population and affordability is the main issue for those who are still not connected to the internet. Most of the young people interviewed who had access to internet were able to gain access through cybercafs which charge from as low as EUR 0.3 to 0.6 per hour in Kenya, EUR 0.8 per hour in Nigeria, EUR 4.8 per hour in Zambia, EUR 0.4 to 1.1 per hour in Ethiopia, and EUR 1.5 to 2 per hour in Senegal. A few university students who have their own laptops were also able to access free limitless internet within their campuses through wireless connections. This is often however catered for within the tuition fee to enable the universities offer it as such. A few youth who were formally employed also gained free access to the internet at work. With the exception of Senegal, many rural youth in the other countries had never used the internet but had a fairly good idea of what they might be able to do with it based on what they had heard from others. They knew that they would be able to get information from different places in the world and be able to communicate with other people in far off places through some kind of mail. In some places there is also belief that the internet is the preserve of the highly educated hence this holds back some youth from taking up the opportunity; nonetheless access is quite limited hence even opportunities for use are quite few. Some young girls in Zambia (14-17) were however skeptical about the internet and strongly believed that its usage would bring about a lot of social ills such as pornography. Similarly in Ethiopia some youth are not allowed to use the internet on their own; even for educational purposes, it must be done under parental supervision. This was also the case amongst some girls (14-17) in Senegal. Most youth did not have any information that they sought on the internet and were unable to find. Overall, many youth preferred mobile internet to PC internet due to convenience, speed and ease of access and in some instances cost. Many said that they would only resort to PC use when they have to download large files or print documents. For music and radio, mobile phones were also preferred due to portability. The main concern for some was having to use ear phones to listen to radio and wished to be able to play it out loud using the speakers especially since they may sometimes want to listen with their friends as a social activity.
Mass Media
Arguably, the proliferation and globalization of media are among the key factors that have shaped and defined the current generation of young people. In many countries, youth have access to a greater number of multi-media choices than ever before for example, conventional, satellite and cable TV channels; radio stations; newspapers and magazines; the internet and computer and video games. In addition, many are exposed to the same programs, the same characters and the same marketed spin-off products. Today there is greater availability of foreign programming and media, and less official censorship and control in many parts of the world. Information, email and images flow around the world faster and more freely than ever. Indeed, mass media are making the world smaller, and culture and media are increasingly inextricable, especially for young people. The main broadcasting ICT media utilized in most African countries are television and radio. In South Africa there are now over 3000 radio stations, with over 100 community radio stations, broadcasting in many different languages. Their scope and reach varies enormously - from the half-a-million Joburgers who make up the audience of Jozi FM to, for example, the mere one thousand people who listen to Ilitha Community Radio in the Eastern Cape town of Maclear. Community radio is a crucial part of the South African broadcasting landscape, providing diversity for listeners and much-needed skills for the commercial radio sector. In Kenya, there are youth community radio stations for the youth. These stations are started and run by youth for the youth. Good examples are Koch FM which targets youth in slums and Pamoja FM in Kibera which was one of the sites for a workplace immersion during fieldwork.
TV viewership
Watching TV is a favourite pastime for many youth. Most watch TV daily at home in the evenings after school especially those who are day scholars. Other youth especially in the rural areas and low income informal settlements who do not have TV sets at home usually access TV at pay to view halls for specific programmes and movies that have large following. Youth in boarding
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schools also have less opportunity to watch TV, they are most likely to view on weekends if the school policy allows. Overall there is more time spent watching TV over the weekends and during school holidays. Most youth enjoy watching TV with friends and family though they sometimes also do it solo depending on the time and situation. Some of the popular programmes that youth watch on TV are music shows, sports, soap operas and movies. Some youth especially the older ones (22-25) also actively seek information through news broadcasts. Most youth tend to watch a higher proportion of western programmes (American, British, South American) as compared to African and local content though appreciation for the latter is also growing at a considerable rate for example Nollywood productions. In South Africa the youth actually seem to prefer more of local productions (South African) as compared to others. In some countries interactive TV is in place and viewers have the opportunity to call in or send text messages with requests, questions or comments and get some kind of feedback; there are some programs specifically targeting the youth which have interactive aspects. There is however hardly any mention by the youth respondents about having ever participated in interactive TV. As much as the youth enjoy watching TV, there is a growing preference for DVDs i.e. movies and TV programs especially the series kind. There is increased availability of these (mostly pirated) hence youth prefer to watch on DVD also because they can exercise more choice and do not have to wait to watch their favourite series week after week.
is more readership some places much higher than others e.g. in Nigeria where there is a wide variety of newspapers available. In Kenya and Zambia there are specific pullouts available in the newspapers on certain days of the week which are quite attractive to the youth hence readership is much higher on these days. Most youth however do not buy the papers for themselves; they often access a family copy if any or at school, work place or other social place such as hairsalon or local shop. With the exception of South Africa, Nigeria and Ethiopia, most youth in the other countries rarely read magazines. Magazines and topics of interest are mostly entertainment, sports, fashion, horoscopes, and some politics. Magazines are actually more popular than newspapers because of the content which also tends to retain relevance longer than the information in newspapers and some newspapers e.g. in Senegal are mostly tabloids that many youth find too sensational and focus too much on scandal. The deterrent to increased readership of magazines is mainly access most youth cannot afford to buy their own magazines; they often settle for older copies wherever they can access them. In some countries local content and local magazines are limited yet the youth are eager for information and stories that are relevant to them.
Social Networks
Social media tools like wikis, weblogs, Facebook, Flickr, YouTube, Twitter, and mashups are increasingly being used to organize and share information among the youth. The youths have become very active playing the roles of citizen journalists, reporting the on goings of where they live and express their thoughts online. Social
Radio listenership
As discussed earlier under mobile phone features, majority of youth listen to radio. The variety of radio stations is large and ever growing and many can access radio at whatever time of day through their mobile phones. Radio is also listened to at home with friends and family.
media provides an opportunity for citizen participation in any discussion online. Most Kenyans do not have access to social media (Makinen and Kuira, 2008). This is because only 3.2% of the population has Internet access, and cyber cafs are available mainly in urban areas. The world of citizens media is familiar to the educated and wealthy population in the same way as in other societies. Therefore, a majority have limited possibilities for participating in Web-based
Print
Newspaper readership is somewhat low amongst youth in rural Kenya, Zambia, Senegal, and Ethiopia. The main problem is limited distribution in rural areas, low literacy rates and affordability. In urban areas though, there
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discussions. However the growing awareness of the new media has enabled public discussions and information sharing. Social media have a strong expatriate influence. Many sites and weblogs are managed by citizens living overseas and by foreigners residing in a given country. Until
recently, most African Web content was designed to cater to the needs of foreigners, visitors, and investors, and the elites. Locally relevant Web sites are few (Chivhanga 2005). Although the influence of contributions from outside is still noticeable, today, social media, such as weblogs, show more local contributions. In addition, mobile phones which can access internet are being used as social media tools. Some of the highly used Kenyan weblogs include Mashada, Kwani, ThinkersRoom, AfroMusing, and AllAfrica. In all countries, the social networking sites are accessed by youths as they continue to become popular with time. Across Africa, Nigeria is placed fourth among top countries with Facebook users. Nigeria comes behind Morocco which is the third and South Africa being the first and seconded by Egypt. More males (577,580) access it compared to females (313,560). Facebook usage is wildly popular in South Africa with more than half (50.4%) of Internet Users in South Africa represented on Facebook. Tunisia has 45% of its Internet Users registered with Facebook, Ghana 29%, Egypt 17%, Kenya 15.2%, Morocco 10.2%, and Nigeria 8.2% (Web Trends, 2009). In Ethiopia, AddisEthio.com is a social network where one can connect with friends, get songs, news or chat. In addition, Ethiomeet.com provides social networking site where Ethiopians hang out to communicate, network, form relationships and for entertainment. There are different types of networks and interactions that youth form and maintain. Some are with family, teachers at school, older generation (so as to learn from their experience), young children (to teach or impart some knowledge to them), peers, girlfriends and boyfriends, colleagues, among others. Friends or peers are particularly important to the youth as compared to the other interactions, sometimes even more important than family. Young people benefit significantly from moral support and understanding and in some cases financial support from their friends.
There are also other benefits attached to social networks such as career development and progression and young people are aware of this and appreciate these networks for the value they can add.
I have to work hard on my social interaction because I know what I want to become requires it very much. (Journalist).
Female 14-17, Dakar, Senegal The social groups that the youth form and join give them some kind of identity or character formation. The groups are more or less formed along common values and interests, hence the youth feel that they belong or fit in to a particular group as opposed to another. Most often, there is a natural genesis to the formation of these groups without any one person making a conscious effort to pick out one or the other but instead finding oneself naturally fitting in with certain persons. Regular interactions with friends with whom one shares certain values, beliefs and interests, also helps to keep them in check from wandering off the boundaries of what is acceptable to oneself and his / her friends. There are thus unwritten rules that govern the groups and everyone generally knows what is expected of them. Amongst friends there is the expectation that everyone must respect one another and maintain a level of confidentiality within the group. Many youth said that no one necessarily gets expelled from a social group and that more often than not, this will also happen naturally when someone opts out when he or she no longer subscribes to the groups way of thinking and doing things or altogether have done something completely unacceptable to the group. Alternatively the group members may also ostracize a given individual until they realize that they have to opt out. There are also other groups which are somewhat formal that young people belong to and these are specifically formed for a particular purpose for example special clubs or interest groups such as music, theatre, or merry go rounds (self-help). The structure is more formal in these groups with certain rules that the members need to adhere to failure of which they are likely to be expelled from the group. For example attendance of meetings, contributions if any, punctuality, respect for other peoples opinions and ideas and overall adherence to specific rules and resolutions passed by the group or its leaders.
Friends help in being famous or being known, friends are needed in life because when one is down, one can find comfort in a friend or in them during such moments Because there are things I cannot tell my sisters, my mother and father so at least when I have a problem he is there (boyfriend) to talk to.
Female 14-17, Dakar, Senegal
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Interactions are quite regular particularly the social ones with friends and peers in general. They meet daily face to face especially at school or with those who live in the same neighbourhood. Interactions with family and other individuals such as teachers and colleagues are also quite regular and face to face at home and at school.
Other reasons why young people like to join social networks over and above moral support, financial support or other include: Opportunity to keep on sharing and learning new things and ideas Business opportunities arise there is possibility of advertising and selling to the people in your network and also connecting to other people in your friends network (friends of friends) Good way to spend their pastimes having fun with their friends or doing an activity of interest together listening to music, watching movies, partying, etc. Many youth have an inherent fear of missing out (FOMO) hence are constantly seeking ways of keeping in touch with their friends. Facebook for instance is therefore an integral part of many young peoples lives today as it has given them the possibility of being in the know all the time.
I too have some links with some teachers who are both friends or relatives. We visit one another, call on the phone or send messages because according to us we are one family.
Male 18-21, Thies, Senegal
Other modes and means of communication with social networks include phone calls, emails, text messages, letters and through social networking sites such as facebook. Some youth in Senegal also said that they communicate through telepathy! The youth generally said that there are differences in peoples behaviour depending on the mode of communication. For example when speaking on phone, they often tend to be brief and to the point because they are trying to save air time while if they are face to face there is more opportunity to talk more and share more detail and information which many youth like. Also some youth said that communication options that are not face to face e.g. phone, SMS or SNS enables them to be more confident and brave to say certain things that they would not ordinarily say face to face and they would not feel too bad if someone else said something rude to them for instance. Specifically on SNS youth said that their friends seem to be quite different and take on personas that are not what they know them to be in reality.
I think we have grown so fond of our phones and it keeps us entertained. So when my phone is off I wonder if people are trying to reach me and I am out of coverage. So you switch it on hoping to get some missed calls but when you dont you really get upsetI feel like no one cares I feel neglected.
Female 18-21, Lusaka, Zambia
Most of my friends like in school, on facebook we can actually talk and comment on each other but when you meet it is just hi or hello.
Female 18-21 Lusaka Zambia
There are times like maybe I am staying in the room and none of my friends visit the whole day since we have different times when we go to classes. I come back from class and I see none of them or even hear from any of them over the phone. But then someone tells you I saw your friends go out, I definitely feel bad.
Female 18-21 Lusaka Zambia Exposure to other cultures, beliefs and values and hence gaining a better understanding of the same Group dynamics enhanced ability to communicate and share more as a group as opposed to two individuals who may not feel close enough to talk freely when left to interact one on one yet there is
If you are the one who has updated your status on Facebook, and people start commenting on it, you have to stay with it to the very end you cannot quit until all has been said
18-21 Male, Nairobi, Kenya
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plenty they could learn from each other. The presence of other group members enables such persons to share and talk to each other. Security whereby young people feel safer operating in groups as opposed to solo for example when going out partying or for some other kind of activity it is important for them to go and come as a group. Some things that the youth dislike about social networks and interactions are: Peer pressure fear of being influenced by the wrong group of people; those who do not have constructive conversation and activities Judgemental persons within groups Pretentious personalities especially on platforms such as the internet i.e. social networking sites where people tend to take on personalities that are not genuine or a true reflection of who they are. As such people get deceived in one way or another or undergo negative experiences as a result. Group dynamics can sometimes bring about confrontations, arguments and disagreements which many young people fear and would like to avoid their desire is to have peaceful interactions but this is not always the case. Danger of loss of self identity and individuality. Some youth tend to subscribe wholly to their groups way of thinking and acting and completely lose any reserve for self.
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Chapter Six | Conclusions
e sought out to discover who the African youth are as they constitute the vanguard of Africas twined
creatives. They are embracing various forms of technology and are quick to adapt and incorporate these into their day to day activities. This has also provided the youth with more opportunity to interact with global cultures. As a result it is emerging that young Africans are now seeking to create their own new identity borrowing from the global knowledge, experiences and values, and retaining some of their African ones. The youth need to be empowered more and supported so as to spread further the positive aspects that are coming to play and which can quite likely drive socio-economic development in Africa. There are various key players in this respect who all need to be involved in one way or another. They include parents, relevant role models and professionals (mentors) in various fields, life coaches, employers, governments, private sector, educational institutions / providers, publishers, curriculum developers, the young people themselves, among others. The following is a brief summary and conclusion of the various challenges that African youth face in terms of education, employment and entertainment (3 Es) in form of problem statements and some of the issues to take into consideration when coming up with possible solutions for the development and empowerment of these youth.
demographic transformation. The study has given us an understanding of youth in terms of emerging social behaviours and lifestyles, ICT use, dreams and aspirations, education and livelihood challenges. The socio-economic and development challenges in Africa which continue to be discussed in various fora at a global level are also identified in this study. Though there is often a gloomy outlook as a result, this study has found that the youth are facing the various day to day challenges with determination, hope and creativity. With very limited resources, youth are trying to find workable and sustainable solutions to the problems that they face. They are going to school and getting an education albeit with its imperfections. They are coming out into a saturated job market that is struggling to accommodate them and they are responding by exercising their creativity to come up with entrepreneurial ventures to earn a living. African youth are also exploring various avenues to nurture and develop their personal skills and talents i.e the
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Education
1. Corruption - The legitimacy of education certificates is an issue in some countries e.g. Nigeria. Youth reported that education certificates are not trusted from Nigerian educational institutions and prefer to get accreditation from non-Nigerian universities. Needs / issues: 2. False certificates Leaked exams Resources - Several of the governments/citizens of the countries studied face various challenges in having or securing sufficient resources to secure a good education for their youth Needs / issues: Affording school fees is a problem for many families Number of schools are too few for students (especially in the higher education levels) Schools are poorly equipped classrooms, books, technical equipment, science labs, boarding schools (hostels have to be shared) Education can be digitized to help solve this Learning in shifts is a common practice in some countries (morning/afternoon) Easier ways of putting up private schools and selftutoring can be options 3. Teachers - The quality and quantity of teachers is an issue of concern in all the countries Needs / issues: Serious shortage of qualified teachers | | Untrained teachers are common especially in the rural schools Teachers are too few hence class sizes are very large Teachers dont have sufficient skills to develop the students inherent gifts and talents Lack of recognition or appreciation of teachers as role models Youth dont connect with old teachers Teachers are lowly paid and demotivated How can the profession be given more prestige and recognition?
4.
Post school avenues - The youth find few opportunities to pursue further development of various activities that they were involved in after completing traditional high school
Needs / issues: There is not a wide variety of training alternatives once a student has completed school. There are few opportunities e.g. in sports and arts for youth development. 5. Vocational institutions are few and poorly equipped There is also stigma associated with attending vocational institutions Building connections and information channels to employers for attachment, internships, etc Readily availing job market information to the youth School clubs - Some schools host student clubs to tap and nurture student interests and extra-curricular activities though the emphasis is more on academic achievement Needs / issues: Clubs are formed in schools around academic subjects e.g. maths, science Arts clubs are also a common feature e.g. drama and music (choir) and some sports teams e.g. football or other 6. Personal development - Students need various individuals and counsellors to aid them in career decisions and planning Needs / issues: There is a lack of distinct career mentors and many schools dont have course counsellors or guides Interaction with industry professionals is low As a consequence many youth are not prepared to think about their career planning until a very late stage There is no gift/talent profiling to assess student strengths whether at home or at school Widespread emphasis on academics over extra-curricular activities How can role models and education content owners be used? 7. ICT use - ICTs have not yet been effectively integrated into education systems. ICTs are still viewed as an end rather than a means.
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Needs / issues: ICT tools that are available are outdated old computers The necessary infrastructure is not in place e.g. electricity Access to ICT tools is low, very few schools have any computers and those that do dont have enough to cater for the large student population 8. The teacher literacy to train in ICT use is low System relevance - Getting an education does not translate into the empowerment or gainful employment that it is supposed to bring
Needs / issues: Lack of career guides Entrepreneurship is not nurtured from an early age There is an insufficient link/access to experts or professionals in the field There is little practical application of what is learned in school; life skills are taught theoretically Life skills are taught but are shallow and dont adequately address many of the current life needs of the youth (e.g. sex education, HIV) How can games or other fun and creative ways be used to teach life skills? 11. Human factors
Needs / issues: There are several school drop-outs along the way due to the decreasing number of institutions as you go higher. They end up with no alternatives/skills for livelihoods Students are not really educated in skill application but cultured in memorization Creative thinking is not developed, no room to think outside the box or beyond exams In some cases there are competing curricula within the same country. Youth within the same country can have two drastically different education experiences Elimination curriculums The skills that students go with to the job market do not match those that employers expect to get in their new recruits 9. Language - The language of instruction is a key factor in the delivery of education Needs / issues: Local languages are used in education delivery at the lower levels in many countries but this leaves students without good command of international languages required for job placement Development of the international languages (e.g. English, French) is desirable 13. Poverty - Poverty is a general problem affecting 10. Life skills - There is a gap in the impartation of life-skills to students Needs / issues: The low exposure to information and what one can be or do in life
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Needs / Issues: The age/phase of development Negative influences Bullying and negative attitudes Religion and superstitions Late entry and delivery of some skills and information Community Cultural development Sexual harassment How can the super strong emphasis on academic qualifications be balanced to look at other life areas as well? 12. Community service - The culture of individualism is being perpetuated through the education system with students not willing to give to their communities without getting anything back in return Needs / issues: There is a need to break the western culture and trends of industrial evolution from a capitalistic, consumptive culture to one of sustainable livelihoods Encouraging youth to give to their communities e.g. the bright students can help the younger ones. Both in terms of life skills and assisting in formal education/ tutoring
of
practical
subjects
from
school
education in various dimensions
Poverty as a mentality; thinking small Shaping and building cultures; nonproductive cultures A victim mentality of blame Leads to a quick money mentality e.g. in Senegal
Employment
1. Formal employment
Needs / issues: Formal employment as a true indicator of success; it is the it Fixation with employment in MNCs/Big companies Limited opportunities | Too much emphasis and benchmarking on formal employment; should foster and build value in alternatives and personal strengths | Celebrate and give visibility to successful local start-ups and the likes Limited time and flexibility to nurture talent Processes that stifle creativity & vibrance of youth in the work place Tools and techniques that empower the youth to be creative, to express themselves and to be heard; older generations should find a sense of security in the process and be RMs/mentors 2. Creative and unconventional businesses
14. School drop outs - High number of youth dropping out of school early due to poverty, disillusionment hence disinterest, inaccessibility to schools, limited spaces available Needs / issues: School dropouts due to boredom in class. Make lessons more interactive w ICTs Schools are located far from homes in rural areas bring lessons closer to the people Secondary and university levels are especially affected Get the school drop outs back to official/ unofficial education 15. Networking communication Needs / issues: Peer certification Negative association with corruption Breaking boundaries (access, international) Visibility Job market realities Public-private partnerships Social networks are key to progressing in professional life 16. Negative role models Needs / issues: Drugs are available to students in schools Negative influences lead to bad decisions (from prostitution, beachboys, gangsters) Some of these role models seem to have made it without getting a formal education they seem to make more money and interact with the young people and impact their daily thinking and decisions Bullying
Needs / issues: Agriculture as a business and not just subsistence | | | | 3. Economies of scale or vertical farming to build agriculture as a business Global markets Redirect or legalize unconventional livelihood activities that demonstrate skill, entrepreneurship and brilliance Build talents and crafts Creative economies
Experience and exposure
Needs / issues: Lack of | Information on industrial attachments and opportunities to apply oneself Taking the initiative to find/create the opportunity to learn and practice (it does not necessarily need to happen at some big company) | Methods to share newbie experiences and to model and experience a typical day in a career of interest Travelling to other regions and communities | Exchange programmes, virtual tours, bring your child to work, career days at the companies
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4.
Community and family
8.
Resources
Needs / issues: Family expectations to meet certain responsibilities and mentality of what you get is ours not yours | Family ties that hold the subject captive Societal norms that hinder creative and unconventional micro-entrepreneurial opportunities | Societal prejudices to non-white-collar jobs
Needs / issues: Initial capital Cost of information devices/channels Provision of government subsidies e.g. seeds to start farming 9. Employment opportunities
Culture as a commodity for rural communities & markets/avenues for this Needs / issues: Limited and far between Access to global markets | Networking locally and internationally to access knowledge and recommendation Corruption, nepotism and the need to network Racism Structural | employment (specialized education without everyday application areas e.g. astronauts) Application of formal education Fields not catered for formal education (no training or degrees) 10. The self Needs / issues: Want to have it all and now Dependency and lack of self esteem Exposure to the market realities on desired careers Luxurious lifestyle mentality and fixation on physical wealth Education effort not translating into the wealth Self branding, networking and marketing Fear of failure and not wanting to excel beyond level of peers Personal development and mentality change
5.
Economies
Needs / issues: Capacity Nature of export/import ratio Corruption Government and other policy makers are key in decision making, influencing and positive turn around 6. Information, access and Internet
Needs / issues: 7. Availability of information on all relevant areas like job markets, entrepreneurship, etc Access channels and devices to use media Absent rural infrastructure and lack of know how e.g. with internet Internet syndrome Marketing self and start-ups/micro-enterprises Focusing blog content and value addition Self-employment Needs / issues: Business mentorship from an early age | How to start now, grow and sustain Talent building and monetization of the same How to start (information, resources, mentorship, etc) Micro-business prejudices | Creating esteem in micro-entrepreneurship amongst multiple micro-
Entertainment
1. Socialising and fun - Young people like to connect with each other and share fun experiences together Needs / issues: Recording content from other media e.g. radio, TV, computers to mobile Creating game-like experiences for phone use
Global markets access Cooperation/synergy | entrepreneurs and in global markets Synergy and expansion avenues
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Building in competitive and fun aspects to mobile use e.g. job search, browsing, communicating, etc Gaming new and improved games for youth even for low cost devices Improve social networking by building in contextual information to profiles Cost Youth need to socialize and network at minimum possible costs Type of phone Low end phones may not have the necessary features that enable maximum socialization like internet, camera 4.
Editing possibilities to incorpororate contextual information to literature e.g. pictures, music, video
| | |
Archiving of oral literature/local culture and knowledge Text to audio translation Ways of improving grammar, spelling, pronunciation
Edutainment options e.g. theatre plays which often have social messages Games are currently too simple or basic. There need to be more advanced, interactive games. Users dont have the right devices Content sharing
Network issues This might have a lot to do with infrastructure and mobile service providers but options such as the messenger may provide a solution
Youth categories Most youth categories fail to interact with each other yet they could actually create synergy from socialization and also share ideas. There needs to be a breakdown an increase of interaction of such groups for the betterment of individual members of these groups as they share ideas
Needs / issues: Movies on memory card e.g. as done in India (content sold on cards) Pay-to-view options Access to mobile TV and movies is limited to a certain number of phones. It is currently costly
2.
Talent building and self-expression - There is a lot of creative energy and potential in the young people. They frequently lack adequate tools to express themselves or to know what they are capable of. This can also be a channel for livelihoods.
Needs / issues: Music tools Video: easy to use tools or videos that can be shared Building book clubs, poetry clubs, and other similar platforms for sharing Collective creation: | Art works e.g. contributing design to local artists work such as music and videos adding own touch | Appreciation and recognition e.g. for good business ideas and initiatives and providing a platform for people to actually do this in a fun and creative way 3. Build a gaming culture Content creation - Provision of tools to allow young people to express their creativity and knowledge Needs / issues: Access to relevant literature and books | Dictionaries, thesauri or encyclopaedias
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CHAPTER TWO: EDUCATION

CHAPTER THREE: LIVELIHOODS

CHAPTER FOUR: LIFESTYLE

CHAPTER FIVE: MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS

Tables and Figures

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

Chapter One | Study Background

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

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Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

Urban and Rural Locations

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

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Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

Jane Furse, Limpopo, South Africa

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

1. Focus Group Discussions (Mini Groups)

Research Methodology and Techniques

Table1: Kenya focus group discussions composition

14-17 Male Nairobi Mid to upper income Secondary school

18-21 Male Mid to upper income College Church group

22-25 Male Low to mid income Technical institute

Low to mid income Primary school students

Low to mid income College students Married with children / Single

Casual jobs / Unemployed / Unemployed Informally employed

Table2: Ethiopia focus group discussions composition

Low income Preparatory School Out of school

Low to mid income

Vocational Secondary school institution students

Table3: South Africa focus group discussions composition

Table 4: Zambia focus group discussions composition

Table 5: Senegal focus group discussions composition

Low to mid income Mid to upper income University Primary School

Table 6: Nigeria focus group discussions composition

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

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2. General Observations and Immersions

Table 7: Types of immersions / observations

Zambia: z z Youth Consultant (Lusaka) Social Worker (Chikankata)

Nigeria: z z Pastor (Lagos) Community Youth Leader (Ikorodu)

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

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Table 8: Information areas

Immersions Youth Scouts x

Report structure and content

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa

Nokia Research Center

Chapter Two | Education

Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa