CHAPTER-I INTRODUCTION TO GSM

1.1 Introduction GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION) is the worlds most widely deployed and fastest growing digital cellular standard. Currently here are over 200 million GSM subscribers world-wide - two-thirds of the worlds digital mobile population - and this figure is increasing by nearly four new users per second. GSM covers every continent, being the technology of choice for over 360 operators in more than 137 countries. But this is only the beginning of the wireless revolution. The industry predicts that there will be nearly 600 million GSM customers by 2003. Internet use has grown at an almost parallel exponential rate to GSM subscriptions, fuelling the growth of GSM and its development towards 3rd Generation multimedia services. GSM is leading the way in this evolution, moving far beyond the traditional mobile telephone offering to embrace a whole range of services that provide unrivalled benefits to users, operators and investors alike. GSMs been able to grow, develop and adapt to meet changing user demands across a wide range of markets around the world. This is due to the unique co-operation of manufacturers, operators and standards bodies world-wide, working together to develop and market GSM. As a result, since its first commercial rollout GSM has led to the development of a global multi-vendor market, stimulating competition, cost reduction and technological advances based on open standards. International roaming is a key feature unique to GSM, which allows users to stay in touch wherever they travel. Users can also access data services such as the unique SMS (Short Message Service), fax transmission and e-mail access on the move. GSM has also enabled regulators to successfully introduce competition in mobile services worldwide. GSM offers voice and data services to users on the move world-wide. Pre-paid services have also been a key driver behind GSMs success, opening up mobile services to new subscriber groups in established and developing markets alike. In many cases, pre-paid subscriptions have overtaken traditional subscriptions, as users recognize the flexibility and control that pre-paid services can offer. Mobile users are already heavily exploiting the data services
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available on GSM. Business users are sending faxes and accessing e-mail facilities via their GSM terminals as they travel. Business and private users are exploiting SMS for quick communication and to receive information such as stock quotes, sports headlines and news bulletins. As GSM develops towards 3rd Generation services, new opportunities will continue to make GSM the most attractive choice. SIM cards - the thumbnail or credit card-sized module that contains subscription related data as well as security management and personal telephone books - allow users to change handsets to get one with the latest design or one with additional features. The SIM has proven to be a driver of quality and innovation from both manufacturers and operators, which have benefited customers and the entire industry. SIM cards have also proved to be invaluable for future evolution into 3rd Generation services, where special protocols and tool kits offer possibilities to download and run applications and/or features on the handset or card with embedded personal data for management and security. In addition, operators and service providers can easily and cost-effectively upgrade feature-sets or capabilities by issuing new cards to users without affecting handsets. 1.2 GSM Standards The system specifications for GSM networks are: Frequency Band: Uplink: 890MHz-915Mhz

Downlink: 935MHZ-960MHz The GSM system is originally specified to operate in the 900MHz band, so even before a commercially viable system could be in place governments of various countries were told to reserve the frequency band for GSM. The frequencies are arranged into pairs so that unique sets can be defined. There are 125 channels in GSM 900, however only 124 are used the first pair are not used, as it is employed as a Guard Band. Shown below is the GSM frequency band, although this is not the only band over which GSM operates it also operate in the 1800Mhz and 1900Mhz band also.

Figure 1.1 GSM Uplink and Downlink At this moment it would be important to mention here the need to use a lower frequency for uplink. The reason is, since this carries the information from the MS to the BTS over the Air Interface, using a higher frequency means higher attenuation. Secondly to compensate for the attenuation we need to send the signal at a higher power, which consumes more battery, power and leading to a smaller talk time. Duplex Distance: 45MHz

This is the standard distance between the uplink and the downlink frequencies. This is not constant for all versions of GSM however the separation between the uplink & downlink bands is constant to 20kHz. Carrier Separation: 200kHz

Figure 1.2 Carrier Separation In GSM we have uplink and downlink carriers. These individual carriers are separated 200kHz apart; therefore we get 125 uplink & downlink carriers. These carriers are then so arranged so that we get 124 ARFCNs (absolute radio frequency carrier numbers), for GSM

900 they start form 1-124. Henceforth any mention of channels will be done using their ARFCN. The figure below shows the carriers. Each carrier frequency is then divided according to time using a TDMA scheme. Each of the carrier frequencies is divided into a 120ms multiframe. A multiframe is made up of 26 frames. Two of these frames are used for control purposes, while the remaining 24 frames are used for traffic as shown:

Figure 1.3 TDMA Multiframe Modulation: Gaussian Minimum Phase shift Keying(GMSK)

The modulation method used in GSM had to be very specific, according to the needs of communication and also to cater for the anomalies in the radio interface. However this would be taken in detail in a later section of this report. Transmission Rate: 270kbps Access Method: Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)

TDMA is used in GSM in conjunction with FDMA to allow voice communication. The 200Khz channel is divided into 8 slots and each slot represents a call. However the whole channel is available to the caller, were a caller gets particular time duration in a round robin fashion to proceed with his call as described in the figure below.

Figure 1.4 TDMA Frame Speech Coder: Rapid Pulse Excitation linear Predictive Coder coding at 13kbps

In modern landline telephone systems, digital coding is used. The electrical variations induced into the microphone are sampled and each sample is then converted into a digital code. The voice waveform is then sampled at a rate of 8 kHz. Each sample is then converted into an 8 bit binary number representing 256 distinct values. Since we sample 8000 times per second and each sample is 8 binary bits, we have a bit-rate of: 8kHz * 8 bits = 64kbps This bitrate is unrealistic to transmit across a radio network since interference will likely ruin the transmitted waveform. In GSM, speech encoding works to compress the speech waveform into a sample that results in a lower bitrate using RPE-LPC. The actual process will be discussed later in the section, where the journey from speech to radio waves is considered. Over The Channel Bit Rate: 22.8kbps Slow Frequency Hopping: 217hops/second

GSM can use slow frequency hopping where the mobile station and the base station transmit each TDMA frame on a different carrier frequency. A form of slow frequency hopping is used by GSM to help combat the multipath burst errors characteristic of cellular environments. Each base station has its own pattern for hopping from one carrier frequency to another from slot to slot, with mobiles using that base station following suit. This frequency hopping also reduces the incidence of co-channel interference between clusters of cells. The frequency-hopping algorithm is broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel. Since multipath fading is dependent on carrier frequency, slow frequency hopping help mitigate the problem. Frequency hopping is an option for each individual cell and a base station is not required to support this feature. Synchronisation Compensation: 223sec Equalisation Limit: Up to 16sec time dispersion Typical Base Station Transmit Power: 320W Frame Duration: 4.615ms Channel Coding: Half-Rate Convolutional Coder
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1.3 GSM Bands

E-GSM: This represents an extension of the lower end of the two sub blocks by 10MHz

adding 50 More ARFCNs to the Primary GSM (P-GSM). Uplink Frequency: 880MHz-915MHz

Downlink Frequency: 925MHz-960MHz DCS 1800: At a late stage in GSM development the existing technology was modified to meet the need for PCN networks. This involves changes to the radio interface, which moves spectrum allocation up to around 1.8Ghz. More spectrum is available in this frequency range, for two sub-blocks of 75Mhz with duplex spacing of 95Mhz, giving a total of 374 carriers. Uplink Frequency: 1710Mhz-1785Mhz

Downlink Frequency: 1805Mhz-1880Mhz PCS 1900: Used in the USA. The FCC has split the designated spectrum into six duplex blocks. The USA has been divided into 51 Major Trading Areas and 493 Basic Trading Areas. An MTA is broadly equivalent in size to a state, whilst a BTA approximates to a large city. Each MTA has access to 3x15MHz block and each BTA has access to 3x5MHz blocks. 1.4 Features of GSM The GSM services are grouped into three categories: 1. Teleservices (TS) 2. Bearer services (BS) 3. Supplementary services (SS) 1.4.1 Teleservices Regular telephony, emergency calls, and voice messaging are within TS. Telephony, the old bidirectional speech calls, is certainly the most popular of all services. An emergency call is a feature that allows the mobile subscriber to contact a nearby emergency service, such as police, by dialing a unique number. Voice messaging permits a message to be stored within the voice mailbox of the called party either because the called party is not reachable or because the calling party chooses to do so.
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1.4.2 Bearer Services Data services, short message service (SMS), cell broadcast, and local features are within BS. Rates up to 9.6 kbits are supported. With a suitable data terminal or computer connected directly to the mobile apparatus, data may be sent through circuit-switched or packetswitched networks. Short messages containing as many as 160 alphanumeric characters can be transmitted to or from a mobile phone. In this case, a message center is necessary. The broadcast mode (to all subscribers) in a given geographic area may also be used for short messages of up to 93 alphanumeric characters. Some local features of the mobile terminal may be used. These may include, for example, abbreviated dialing, edition of short messages, repetition of failed calls, and others. 1.4.3 Supplementary Services Some of the SS are as follows: Advice of charge. This SS details the cost of a call in progress. Barring of all outgoing calls. This SS blocks outgoing calls. Barring of international calls. This SS blocks incoming or outgoing international calls as a whole or only those associated with a specific basic service, as desired. Barring of roaming calls. This SS blocks all the incoming roaming calls or only those associated with a specific service. Call forwarding. This SS forwards all incoming calls, or only those associated with a specific basic service, to another directory number. The forwarding may be unconditional or may be performed when the mobile subscriber is busy, when there is no reply, when the mobile subscriber is not reachable, or when there is radio congestion. Call hold. This SS allows interruption of a communication on an existing call. Subsequent reestablishment of the call is permitted. Call waiting. This SS permits the notification of an incoming call when the mobile subscriber is busy. Call transfer. This SS permits the transference of an established incoming or outgoing call to a third party. Completion of calls to busy subscribers. This SS allows notification of when a busy called subscriber becomes free. At this time, if desired, the call is reinitiated.

Closed user group. This SS allows a group of subscribers to communicate only among themselves. Calling number identification presentation/restriction. This SS permits the presentation or restricts the presentation of the calling partys identification number (or additional address information).

Connected number identification presentation. This SS indicates the phone number that has been reached. Free phone service. This SS allocates a number to a mobile subscriber, and all calls to that number are free of charge for the calling party. Malicious call identification. This SS permits the registration of malicious, nuisance, and obscene incoming calls. Three-party service. This SS permits the establishment of conference calls.

CHAPTER-II

GSM Network Architecture and GSM Channels

2.1 GSM Network Architecture GSM network architecture is divided into following three categories: Mobile Station (MS): This consists of the mobile telephone, fax machine etc. This is the part of the network that the subscriber will see. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): This is the part of the network which provides the radio interconnection from the MS to the land-based switching equipment. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): This consists of the Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC) and its associated system-control databases and processors together with the required interfaces. This is the part which provides for interconnection between the GSM network and the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Network Management System: This enables the network provider to configure and maintain the network from a central location. 2.1.1 Mobile Station (MS) In GSM there is a difference between the physical equipment and the subscription. The mobile station is piece of equipment, which can be vehicle installed, portable or hand-held. In GSM there is a small unit called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), which is a separate physical entity e.g. an IC-card, also called a smart card. SIM and the mobile equipment together make up the mobile station. Without SIM, the MS cannot get access to the GSM network, except for emergency traffic. While the SIM-card is connected to the subscription and not to the MS, the subscriber can use another MS as well as his own. This then raises the problem of stolen MS, since it is no use barring the subscription if the equipment is stolen. We need a database that contains the unique hardware identity of the equipment, the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The EIR is connected to the MSC over a signalling link. This enables the MSC to check the validity of the equipment. An non-type-approved MS can also be barred in this way. The authentication of the subscription is done by parameters from AUC.

Fig. 2.1 GSM Network Architecture

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2.1.2 Base Station Subsystem(BSS) The GSM Base Station System is the equipment located at a cell site. It comprises combination of digital and RF equipment. The BSS provides the link between the MS and the MSC. BSS communicates with the MS over the digital air interface and with the MSC via 2 Mbit/s links.

Fig. 2.2 Base Station Subsystem The BSS consists of three major hardware components: Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a particular cell. This is the part of the GSM network which communicates with the MS. The antenna is included as part of the BTS.

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Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC as its name implies provides the control for the BSS. The BSC communicates directly with the MSC. The BSC may control single or multiple BTSs.

Transcoder (TC): The Transcoder is used to compact the signals from the MS so that they are more efficiently sent over the terrestrial interfaces. Although the transcoder is considered to be a part of the BSS, it is very often located closer to the MSC. The transcoder is used to reduce the rate at which the traffic (voice/data) is transmitted over the air interface. Although the transcoder is part of the BSS, it is often found physically closer to the NSS to allow more efficient use of the terrestrial links.

BSS Configurations

Fig 2.3 BSS Configurations

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BSC may control several BTSs, the maximum number of BTSs which may be controlled by one BSC is not specified by GSM. BTSs and BSC may be either located at the same cell site co-located, or located at different sites Remote. In reality most BTSs will be remote, as there are many more BTSs than BSCs in a network. Another BSS configuration is the Daisy Chain. A BTS need not to communicate directly with the BSC which controls it, it can be connected to the BTS rather than all the way to BSC. Problems may arise when chaining BTSs, due to the transmission delay through the chain, the length of the chain therefore should be kept sufficiently short to prevent the round trip speech delay becoming too long. 2.1.2.1 Base Transceiver Station BTS is the hardware component in the GSM architecture. It provides an interface between Mobile Station (MS) and Base Station Subsystem (BSS). The BTS provides radio channels (RF carriers) for a specific RF coverage area. The radio channel is the communication link between the MSs within an RF coverage area and the BSS. The BTS also has a limited amount of control functionality which reduces the amount of traffic between the BTS and BSC. 2.1.2.2 Base Station Controller Any operational information required by the BTS will be received via the BSC. Likewise any information required about the BTS (by the OMC for example) will be obtained by the BSC. BSC incorporates a digital switching matrix, which it uses to connect the radio channels on the air interface with the terrestrial circuits from the MSC. The BSC switching matrix also allows the BSC to perform handovers between radio channels on BTSs, under its control, without involving the MSC. The purpose of the BSC is to perform a variety of functions. Some of them are listed below: Controls the BTS components. Performs Call Processing. Performs Operations and Maintenance. Provides the O&M link between the BSS and the OMC. Provides the A Interface between the BSS and the MSC. Manages the radio channels.

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Transfers signaling information to and from different mobile stations (MS).

2.1.2.3 Transcoder Transcoder is required to convert the speech or data output from MSC(64 kbit/s PCM) into the form specified by GSM specifications for the transmission over the air interface, that is, between BSS and MS (64 kbit/s to 16 kbit/s and vice versa).The 64 kbit/s Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) circuits from MSC, if transmitted on the air interface without modification, would occupy an excessive amount of radio bandwidth. This would use the available radio spectrum inefficiently. The required is therefore reduced by processing the 64 kbit/s circuits so that the amount of information required to transmit digitized voice falls to a gross rate of 16 kbit/s. The transcoding function may be located at the MSC, BSC or BTS. 2.1.3 Network Switching Subsystem The Network Switching System includes the main switching functions of the GSM network. It also contains the databases required for subscriber data and mobility management. Its main function is to manage communications between the GSM network and other

telecommunications networks. Various components of the Network Switching System are listed below: Mobile Switching Centre Home Location Register Visitor Location Register (MSC) (HLR) (VLR)

Equipment Identity Register (EIR) Authentication Centre Inter Working Function Echo Canceller (AUC) (IWF) (EC)

In addition to the more traditional elements of a cellular telephone system, GSM has Location Register network entities. These entities are the Home Location Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), and the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The location registers are database-oriented processing nodes which address the problems of managing subscriber data and keeping track of a MS location as it roams around the network. Functionally, the Interworking Function and the Echo Cancellers may be considered as parts of the MSC, since

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their activities are inextricably linked with those of the switch as it connects speech and data calls to and from the MSs. 2.1.3.1 Mobile Switching Centre MSC is included in the GSM operation for call-switching. Its overall purpose is similar to that of any telephone exchange. MSC carries out several different functions depending upon its position in the network. When MSC provides interface between the PSTN and the BSSs in the GSM network, it will be known as a Gateway MSC. In this position it will provide the switching required for all MS originated or terminated traffic. Functions carried out by MSC are written below: Call Processing Includes control of data/voice call setup, inter-BSS and inter-MSC handovers and control of mobility management (subscriber validation and location). Operations and Maintenance Support

Includes database management, traffic metering and measurement, and a manmachine interface. Internetwork Interworking

Manages the interface between the GSM network and the PSTN. Billing

Collects call billing data. 2.1.3.2 Home Location Register HLR maintains a permanent register of all the subscribers, for instance subscriber identity numbers and the subscribed services, that is, the services the subscriber is allowed to use. In addition to the fixed data, HLR also keeps track of current location of its customers. Also, MSC asks for routing information from HLR if a call is to be set up to a mobile station (mobile terminated call). HLR further consists of two more network elements as listed below: Authentication Centre (AuC) Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

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2.1.3.3 Authentication Centre The Authentication Centre provides security information to the network, so that we can verify the SIM cards (authentication between the mobile station and VLR and cipher the information transmitted in the air interface between the mobile station and Base Transceiver Station (BTS)). The Authentication Centre supports the VLRs work by issuing so-called authentication triplets upon request. . It will normally be co-located with the Home Location Register (HLR) as it will be required to continuously access and update, as necessary, the system subscriber records. The AUC/HLR centre can be co-located with the MSC or located remote from the MSC. The authentication process will usually take place each time the subscriber initializes on the system. 2.1.3.4 Equipment Identity Register Similar to Authentication Control, the Equipment Identity Register is used for security reasons. But while the Authentication Control provides information for verifying the SIM cards, the EIR is responsible for checking IMEI (checking the validity of the mobile equipment). When performed, the mobile station is requested to provide the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. This number consists of type approval code, final assembly code and serial number of the mobile station. The EIR consists of three following lists: White List

Contains those IMEIs which are known to have been assigned to valid MS equipment. Black List

Contains IMEIs of MS which have been reported stolen or which are to be denied service for some other reason. Grey List

Contains IMEIs of MS which have problems (for example, faulty software). These are not, however, sufficiently significant to warrant a black listing. The EIR database is remotely accessed by the MSCs in the network and can also be accessed by an MSC in a different PLMN. As in the case of the HLR, a network may well contain more than one EIR with each EIR controlling certain blocks of IMEI numbers. The MSC contains a translation facility, which when given an IMEI, returns the address of the EIR controlling the appropriate section of the equipment database.
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2.1.3.5 Visitor Location Register (VLR) VLR is a database which contains information about the subscribers currently being in the service area of the MSC/VLR, such as: Identification numbers of the subscribers. Security information for authentication of the SIM card and for pipelining. Services that the subscriber can use.

The VLR carries out location registrations and updates. It means that when a mobile station comes to a new MSC/VLR serving area, it must register itself in the VLR, in other words perform a location update. A mobile station must always be registered in a VLR in order to use the services of the network. Also, the mobile stations located in the own network is always registered in a VLR. The VLR database is temporary, in the sense that the data is held as long as the subscriber is within the service area. It also contains the address to every subscribers home location register (HLR). This function eliminates the need for excessive and time-consuming references to the home HLR database. The additional data stored in the VLR is listed below: Mobile status (busy/free/no answer etc.). Location Area Identity (LAI). Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI). Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN).

2.1.3.6 Interworking Function (IWF) The IWF provides the function to enable the GSM system to interface with the various forms of public and private data networks currently available. The basic features of the IWF are listed below. Data rate adaption. Protocol conversion.

Some systems require more IWF capability than others and this depends upon the network to which it is being connected. The IWF also incorporates a modem bank, which may be used when, for example, the GSM Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) exchanges data with a land DTE connected via an analog modem.
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2.1.3.7 Echo Canceller (EC) An EC is used on the PSTN side of the MSC for all voice circuits. Echo control is required at the switch because the inherent GSM system delay can cause an unacceptable echo condition, even on short distance PSTN circuit connections. The total round trip delay introduced by the GSM system (the cumulative delay caused by call processing, speech encoding and decoding etc.) is approximately 180 ms. This might not be apparent to the MS subscriber, but for the inclusion of a 2-wire to 4-wire hybrid transformer in the circuit. This is required at the land partys local switch because the standard telephone connection is 2-wire. The transformer causes the echo. This does not affect the land subscriber. 2.1.4 Network Management Subsystem The NMC offers the ability to provide a hierarchical network management of a complete GSM system. It is responsible for operations and maintenance at the network level supported by the OMCs which are responsible for regional network management. The NMC is therefore a single logical facility at the top of the network management hierarchy. The NMC has high level view of network, as a series of network nodes and interconnecting communications facilities, the OMC, on the other hand, is used to filter the information from the network equipment for forwarding to the NMC, thus allowing it to focus on the issues requiring national co-ordination. The functions of NMS are listed below: Monitors nodes of the network. Monitors GSM network element statistics. Monitors OMC regions & provides information to OMC staff. Passes on statistical information from one OMC region to another to improve problem solving strategies. Enables long term planning for the entire network.

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2.1.4.1 Network Management Center

Fig 2.4 Network Management Subsystem 2.1.4.2 Operations and Maintenance Center (OMC) The OMC provides a central point from which to control and monitor the other network entities (i.e. base stations, switches, database, etc) as well as monitor the quality of service being provided by the network. There are two types of OMC as follows: OMC (R) OMC controls specifically the Base Station System. OMC (S) OMC controls specifically the Network Switching System.
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The OMC should support the following functions as per ITS-TS recommendations: Fault management Configuration management Performance management

These functions cover the whole of the GSM network elements from the level of individual BTSs, up to MSCs and HLRs. Fault Management

The purpose of fault management is to ensure smooth operation of the network and rapid correction of any kind of problems that are detected. Fault management provides network operator with the information about the current status of alarm events and maintains a history database of alarms. The alarms are stored in the NMS database and their database can be deleted according to the criteria specified by the network operator. Configuration Management

The purpose of configuration management is to maintain up-to-date information about the operation and configuration status of all the network elements. Specific configuration functions include the management of radio network, software and hardware management of network elements, time synchronization and the security operations. Performance Management

In performance management, the NMS collects measurement data from the individual network elements and stores in a database. On the basis of these data, the network operator is able to compare the actual performance of the network with the planned performance and detect both good and bad performance areas within network. 2.2 Interfaces used in GSM

Following are the interfaces used in GSM network: Um: The air interface is used for exchanges between an MS and a BSS. LAPDm, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, is used for signalling.

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Abis: This is the internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency allocation in the BTS.

A: The A interface is between the BSS and the MSC. The A interface manages the allocation of suitable radio resources to the MSs and mobility management.

B: The B interface between the MSC and the VLR uses the MAP/B protocol. Most MSCs are associated with a VLR, making the B interface "internal". Whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding an MS located in its area, it interrogates the VLR using the MAP/B protocol over the B interface.

C: The C interface is between the HLR and a GMSC or an SMS-G. Each call originating outside of GSM (i.e., a MS terminating call from the PSTN) has to go through a Gateway to obtain the routing information required to complete the call, and the MAP/C protocol over the C interface is used for this purpose. Also, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR after call clearing.

D: The D interface is between the VLR and HLR, and uses the MAP/D protocol to exchange the data related to the location of the MS and to the management of the subscriber.

E: The E interface interconnects two MSC's. The E interface exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSC's using the MAP/E protocol.

F: The F interface connects the MSC to the EIR, and uses the MAP/F protocol to verify the status of the IMEI that the MSC has retrieved from the MS.

G: The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSC's and uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure.

H: The H interface is between the MSC and the SMS-G, and uses the MAP/H protocol to support the transfer of short messages.

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Fig 2.5 Interfaces used in GSM I: The I interface (not shown in Figure) is the interface between the MSC and the MS. Messages exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS. 2.3 GSM Channels

There are two types of channels used in GSM network namely, physical channels and logical channels. The physical channel is the medium over which the information is carried, in the case of a terrestrial interface this would be a cable. The logical channels consist of the information carried over the physical channel.

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2.3.1 Physical Channels A single GSM RF carrier can support up to eight MS subscribers simultaneously. The diagram opposite shows how this is accomplished. Each channel occupies the carrier for one eighth of the time. This is a technique called Time Division Multiple Access Time is divided into discrete periods called timeslots. The timeslots are arranged in sequence and are conventionally numbered 0 to 7. Each repetition of this sequence is called a TDMA frame. Each MS telephone call occupies one timeslot (07) within the frame until the call is terminated, or a handover occurs. The TDMA frames are then built into further frame structures according to the type of channel. For such a system to work correctly, the timing of the transmissions to and from the mobiles is critical. The MS or Base Station must transmit the information related to one call at exactly the right moment, or the timeslot will be missed. The information carried in one timeslot is called a burst. Each data burst, occupying its allocated timeslot within successive TDMA frames, provides a single GSM physical channel carrying a varying number of logical channels between the MS and BTS. 2.3.2 Logical Channels Logical channels are further classified into two main groups namely traffic channels and control channels. 2.3.2.1 Traffic Channels (TCH) The traffic channel carries speech or data information. GSM traffic channels can be half-rate or full-rate and may carry either digitized speech or user data. When transmitted as full-rate, user data is contained within one TS per frame. When transmitted as half-rate, user data is mapped onto the same time slot, but is sent in alternate frames. That is, two half-rate channel users would share the same time slot, but would alternately transmit every other frame. Full-Rate TCH Full-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/FS)

The full-rate speech channel carries user speech which is digitized at a raw data rate of 13 kbps. With GSM channel coding added to the digitized speech, the full-rate speech channel carries 22.8 kbps.

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Full-Rate Data Channel for 9600 bps (TCH/F9.6) The full-rate traffic data channel carries user data which is sent at 9600 bps.With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 9600 bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps.

Full-Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/F4.8) The full-rate traffic data channel carries user data which is sent at 4800 bps.With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 4800 bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps.

Full-Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/F2.4) The full-rate traffic data channel carries user data which is sent at 2400 bps.With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 2400 bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps.

Half-Rate TCH Half-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/HS) The half-rate speech channel carries user speech which is digitized at a raw data rate of 6.5 kbps. With GSM channel coding added to the digitized speech, the half-rate speech channel carries 11.4 kbps. Half-Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/H4.8) The half-rate traffic data channel carries user data which is sent at 4800 bps.With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 4800 bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps. Half-Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/H2.4) The half-rate traffic data channel carries user data which is sent at 2400 bps.With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 2400 bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps. 2.3.2.2 Control Channels (CCH) Control channels are further subdivided into three categories: Broadcast Channels (BCH) Common Control Channel (CCCH) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
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2.3.2.2.1 Broadcast Channels (BCH) The broadcast channel operates on the forward link of ARCN within the cell and transmits data only in the first time slot (TS 0) of certain GSM frames. There are three types of BCH as shown below: Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) The BCCH is a forward control channel that is used to broadcast information such as cell and network identity and the operating characteristics of the cell. The BCCH also broadcasts a list of channels that are currently in use within the cell. Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) The FCCH is a special data burst which occupies TS 0 for every first GSM frame and is repeated every ten frames within a control channel multiframe. The FCCH allows each subscriber unit to synchronize its internal frequency standard to the exact frequency of the base station. Synchronization Channel (SCH) SCH is broadcast in TS 0 of the frame immediately following the FCCH frame and is used to identify the serving base station while allowing each mobile to frame synchronize with the base station. The frame number (FN) is sent with the base station identity code (BSIC) during SCH burst. 2.3.2.2.2 Common Control Channels (CCCH) Paging Channel (PCH) The PCH provides paging signals from the base station to all the mobiles of the cell and notifies a specific mobile of an incoming call which originates from the PSTN. The PCH transmits IMSI number of the target subscriber along with a request for the acknowledgement from the mobile unit on the RACH. Random Access Channel (RACH) The RACH is a reverse link channel used by the subscriber unit to acknowledge a page from the PCH and is also used by the mobiles to originate a call. The RACH uses slotted ALOHA access scheme.

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Access Grant Channel (AGCH) The AGCH is used by the base station to provide forward link communication to the mobile to operate in a particular physical channel with a dedicated control channel. The AGCH is used by the base station to respond to a RACH sent by a mobile station in a previous CCCH frame.

2.3.2.2.3 Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) There are three different types of dedicated control channels as shown below: Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels (SDCCH) Slow-associated Control Channels (SACCH) Fast-associated Control Channels (FACCH)

The stand-alone dedicated control channels (SDCCH) are used for providing signaling services required by the users. The slow and fast associated control channels are used for supervisory data transmissions between the mobile station and the base station during a call. Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels(SDCCH) The SDCCH carries the signaling data following the connection of the mobile station with the base station and just before the assignment of TCH is issued by the base station. The SDCCH ensures that the mobile station and the base station remain connected while the base station and MSC verify the subscriber unit and allocate resources for the mobile. Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) The SACCH is always associated with a traffic channel or a SDCCH. On the forward link, the SACCH is used to send slow but regularly changing control information to the mobile, such as transmit power level instructions and specific timing advance instructions for each user on the ARFCN. The reverse SACCH carries information about the received signal strength and quality of the TCH as well as BCH measurement results from the neighboring cells. Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) FACCH carries urgent messages and contains essentially the same type of information as the SDCCH. A FCCH is assigned whenever a SDCCH has not been dedicated for a particular user and there is an urgent message.

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2.4 GSM Burst Concept

Fig 2.6 GSM Burst Concept 2.4.1 Multiframes The 26-frame Traffic Channel Multiframe The 12th frame (no. 13) in the 26-frame traffic channel multiframe is used by the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) which carries link control information to and from the MSBTS. Each timeslot in a cell allocated to traffic channel usage will follow this format, that
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is, 12 bursts of traffic, 1 burst of SACCH, 12 bursts of traffic and 1 idle. The duration of a 26frame traffic channel multiframe is 120 ms (26 TDMA frames). When half rate is used, each frame of the 26-frame traffic channel multiframe allocated for traffic will now carry two MS subscriber calls (the data rate for each MS is halved over the air interface). Although the data rate for traffic is halved, each MS still requires the same amount of SACCH information to be transmitted, therefore frame 12 WILL BE USED as SACCH for one half of the MSs and the others will use it as their IDLE frame, and the same applies for frame 25, this will be used by the MSs for SACCH (those who used frame 12 as IDLE) and the other half will use it as their IDLE frame. The 51-frame Control Channel Multiframe The BCCH/CCCH 51-frame structure illustrated on the opposite page will apply to timeslot 0 of each TDMA frame on the BCCH carrier (the RF carrier frequency to which BCCH is assigned on a per cell basis). In the diagram, each vertical step represents one repetition of the timeslot (= one TDMA frame), with the first repetition (numbered 0) at the bottom. Looking at the uplink (MSBSS) direction, all timeslot 0s are allocated to RACH. This is fairly obvious because RACH is the only control channel in the BCCH/CCCH group which works in the uplink direction. In the downlink direction (BSSMS), the arrangement is more interesting. Starting at frame 0 of the 51-frame structure, the first timeslot 0 is occupied by a frequency burst (F in the diagram), the second by a synchronizing burst (S) and then the following four repetitions of timeslot 0 by BCCH data (B) in frames 25. The following four repetitions of timeslot 0 in frames 69 are allocated to CCCH traffic (C), that is, to either PCH (mobile paging channel) or AGCH (access grant channel). Then follows a timeslot 0 of frames 10 and 11, a repeat of the frequency and synchronising bursts (F and S), four further CCCH bursts (C) and so on. Note that the last timeslot 0 in the sequence (the fifty-first frame frame 50) is idle. 2.4.2 Superframes and Hyperframes This number of TDMA frames is termed a superframe and it takes 6.12 s to transmit. This arrangement means that the timing of the traffic channel multiframe is always moving in relation to that of the control channel multiframe and this enables a MS to receive and decode BCCH information from surrounding cells. If the two multiframes were exact multiples of each other, then control channel timeslots would be permanently masked by traffic channel timeslot

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activity. This changing relationship between the two multiframes is particularly important, for example, to a MS which needs to be able to monitor and report the RSSIs of neighbour cells (it needs to be able to see all the BCCHs of those cells in order to do this). The hyperframe consists of 2048 superframes, this is used in connection with ciphering and frequency hopping. The hyperframe lasts for over three hours, after this time the ciphering and frequency hopping algorithms are restarted.

Fig. 2.7 GSM Frames

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2.5 GSM Bursts The burst is the sequence of bits transmitted by the BTS or the MS, the timeslot is the discrete period of real time within which it must arrive in order to be correctly decoded by the receiver.

Fig. 2.8 GSM Bursts

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There are various types of bursts as shown below: Normal Burst The normal burst carries traffic channels and all types of control channels apart from those mentioned specifically below. (Bi-directional). Frequency Correction Burst This burst carries FCCH downlink to correct the frequency of the MSs local oscillator, effectively locking it to that of the BTS. Synchronization Burst So called because its function is to carry SCH downlink, synchronizing the timing of the MS to that of the BTS. Dummy Burst Used when there is no information to be carried on the unused timeslots of the BCCH Carrier (downlink only). Access Burst This burst is of much shorter duration than the other types. The increased guard period is necessary because the timing of its transmission is unknown. When this burst is transmitted, the BTS does not know the location of the MS and therefore the timing of the message from the MS cannot be accurately accounted for. (The Access Burst is uplink only.)

2.6 Error Protection and Detection To protect the logical channels from transmission errors introduced by the radio path, many different coding schemes are used. The diagram overleaf illustrates the coding process for speech, control and data channels; the sequence is very complex. The coding and interleaving schemes depend on the type of logical channel to be encoded. All logical channels require some form of convolutional encoding, but since protection needs are different, the code rates may also differ. Three coding protection schemes: Speech Channel Encoding The speech information for one 20 ms speech block is divided over eight GSM bursts. This ensures that if bursts are lost due to interference over the air interface the speech can still be accurately reproduced.
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 Common Control Channel Encoding 20 ms of information over the air will carry four bursts of control information, for example BCCH. This enables the bursts to be inserted into one TDMA multiframe. Data Channel Encoding The data information is spread over 22 bursts. This is because every bit of data information is very important. Therefore, when the data is reconstructed at the receiver, if a burst is lost, only a very small proportion of the 20 ms block of data will be lost. The error encoding mechanisms should then enable the missing data to be reconstructed. 2.6.1 Speech Channel Coding The BTS receives transcoded speech over the A-bis interface from the BSC. At this point the speech is organized into its individual logical channels by the BTS. These logical channels of information are then channel coded before being transmitted over the air interface. The transcoded speech information is received in frames, each containing 260 bits. The speech bits are grouped into three classes of sensitivity to errors, depending on their importance to the intelligibility of speech. Class 1a Three parity bits are derived from the 50 class 1a bits. Transmission errors within these bits are catastrophic to speech intelligibility, therefore, the speech decoder is able to detect uncorrectable errors within the class 1a bits. If there are class 1a bit errors, the whole block is usually ignored. Class 1b The 132 class 1b bits are not parity checked, but are fed together with the class 1a and parity bits to a convolutional encoder. Four tail bits are added which set the registers in the receiver to a known state for decoding purposes. Class 2 The 78 least sensitive bits are not protected at all. The resulting 456 bit block is then interleaved before being sent over the air interface.

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Fig. 2.9 Speech Channel Coding 2.6.2 Control Channel Encoding BTS it is received as a block of 184 bits. These bits are first protected with a cyclic block code of a class known as a Fire Code. This is particularly suitable for the detection and correction of burst errors, as it uses 40 parity bits. Before the convolutional encoding, four tail bits are added which set the registers in the receiver to a known state for decoding purposes. The output from the encoding process for each block of 184 bits of signalling data is 456 bits, exactly the same as for speech. The resulting 456 bit block is then interleaved before being sent over the air interface.

Fig. 2.10 Control Channel Encoding

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2.6.3 Data Channel Encoding Data channels are encoded using a convolutional code only. With the 9.6 kbit/s data some coded bits need to be removed (punctuated) before interleaving, so that like the speech and control channels they contain 456 bits every 20 ms.The data traffic channels require a higher net rate (net rate means the bit rate before coding bits have been added) than their actual transmission rate. For example, the 9.6 kbit/s service will require 12 kbit/s, because status signals (such as the RS-232 DTR (Data Terminal Ready)) have to be transmitted as well. The output from the encoding process for each block of 240 bits of data traffic is 456 bits, exactly the same as for speech and control. The resulting 456 bit block is then interleaved before being sent over the air interface.

Fig. 2.11 Data Channel Encoding 2.7 Mapping Logical Channels onto the TDMA Frame Structure Interleaving Bitstream into bursts can be transmitted within the TDMA frame structure. It is at this stage that the process of interleaving is carried out. Interleaving spreads the content of one traffic block across several TDMA timeslots. The following interleaving depths are used:
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Speech 8 blocks Control 4 blocks Data 22 blocks

This process is an important one, for it safeguards the data in the harsh air interface radio environment. Because of interference, noise, or physical interruption of the radio path, bursts may be destroyed or corrupted as they travel between MS and BTS, a figure of 1020% is quite normal. The purpose of interleaving is to ensure that only some of the data from each traffic block is contained within each burst. By this means, when a burst is not correctly received, the loss does not affect overall transmission quality because the error correction techniques are able to interpolate for the missing data. If the system worked by simply having one traffic block per burst, then it would be unable to do this and transmission quality would suffer. It is interleaving that is largely responsible for the robustness of the GSM air interface, thus enabling it to withstand significant noise and interference and maintain the quality of service presented to the subscriber. 2.8 Transmission Timing To simplify the design of the MS, the GSM specifications specify an offset of three timeslots between the BSS and MS timing, thus avoiding the necessity for the MS to transmit and receive simultaneously. The diagram opposite illustrates this. The synchronization of a TDMA system is critical because bursts have to be transmitted and received within the real time timeslots allotted to them. The further the MS is from the base station then, obviously, the longer it will take for the bursts to travel the distance between them. The GSM BTS caters for this problem by instructing the MS to advance its timing ((that is, transmit earlier) to compensate for the increased propagation delay. This advance is then superimposed upon the three timeslot nominal offset. The timing advance information is sent to the MS twice every second using the SACCH. The maximum timing advance is approximately 233 s. This caters for a maximum cell radius of approximately 35 km. 2.9 Multipath Fading Multipath Fading results from a signal travelling from a transmitter to a receiver by a number of routes. This is caused by the signal being reflected from objects, or being influenced by atmospheric effects as it passes, for example, through layers of air of varying temperatures and humidity. Received signals will therefore arrive at different times and not be in phase with each
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other, they will have experienced time dispersion. On arrival at the receiver, the signals combine either constructively or destructively, the overall effect being to add together or to cancel each other out. If the latter applies, there may be hardly any usable signal at all. The frequency band used for GSM transmission means that a good location may be only 15 cm from a bad location! GSM offers five techniques which combat multipath fading effects: Equalization. Diversity. Frequency hopping. Interleaving. Channel coding.

The equalizer must be able to cope with a dispersion of up to 17 microseconds. Equalization

Due to the signal dispersion caused by multipath signals the receiver cannot be sure exactly when a burst will arrive and how distorted it will be. To help the receiver identify and synchronize to the burst, a Training Sequence is sent at the centre of the burst. This is a set sequence of bits which is known by both the transmitter and receiver. When a burst of information is received, the equalizer searches for the training sequence code. When it has been found, the equaliser measures and then mimics the distortion which the signal has been subjected to. The equalizer then compares the received data with the distorted possible transmitted sequences and chooses the most likely one. There are eight different Training Sequence codes numbered 07. Nearby cells operating with the same RF carrier frequency will use different Training Sequence Codes to enable the receiver the discern the correct signal. Diversity When diversity is implemented, two antennas are situated at the receiver. These antennas are placed several wavelengths apart to ensure minimum correlation between the two receive paths. The two signals are then combined and the signal strength improved.

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Fig. 2.12 Multipath Fading Frequency Hopping Frequency hopping allows the RF channel used for carrying signalling channel timeslots or traffic channel (TCH) timeslots to change frequency every frame (or 4.615 msec). This capability provides a high degree of immunity to interference, due to the effect of interference averaging, as well as providing protection against signal fading. The effective radio channel interference averaging assumes that radio channel interference does not exist on every allocated channel and the RF channel carrying TCH timeslots changes to a new allocated RF channel every frame. Therefore, the overall received data communication experiences interference only part of the time. All mobile subscribers are capable of frequency hopping under the control of the BSS. To implement this feature, the BSS software must include the frequency hopping option. Cyclic or pseudo random frequency hopping patterns are possible, by network provider selection.

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CHAPTER-III

GSM BASIC CALL SEQUENCE & ANTENNA

3.1 In the MS to Land direction The BTS receives a data message from the MS which it passes it to the BSC. The BSC relays the message to the MSC via C7 signaling links, and the MSC then sets up the call to the land subscriber via the PSTN. The MSC connects the PSTN to the GSM network, and allocates a terrestrial circuit to the BSS serving the MSs location. The BSC of that BSS sets up the air interface channel to the MS and then connects that channel to the allocated terrestrial circuit, completing the connection between the two subscribers.

Fig. 3.1 MS to Land direction

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Step-wise details of Mobile to Land sequence are shown below: Subscriber presses the send key initiating a Channel Request message from MS to BSS. This is followed by the assignment of DCCH by the BSS and the establishment of signaling link between the MS and BSS The message Request for Service is passed to MSC which relays it to VLR. The VLR will carry out the process of authentication if the MS has been previously registered on this VLR and if not, then the VLR will have to obtain authentication parameters from HLR. If authentication is successful, call will continue. If ciphering is to be used, this is initiated at this time as a setup message contains sensitive information. The message Set-Up is sent by the MS to MSC accompanied by the call information. The message is forwarded from the MSC to the VLR. The MSC may initiate the MS IMEI check. This check may occur later in the message sequence. In response to the message Set-Up (sent at step 4 above), the VLR sends the message Complete Call to the MSC, which notifies the MS with Call Proceeding. The MSC then assigns a traffic channel to the BSS (Assignment Command) which in turn assigns an air interface traffic channel. The MS responds to the BSS with Assignment Complete. An Initial and Final Address Message (IFAM) is sent to the PSTN. Ring tone is applied at the MS in response to Alerting, which the MSC sends to the MS when the PSTN responds with an Address Complete Message (ACM). When answered (Answer (ANS) from PSTN), the message Contact is forwarded to the MS by the MSC, stopping the MS ring tone. The MSC then connects the GSM traffic channel to the PSTN circuit, thus completing the end to end traffic connection. Conversation takes place for the duration of call.

3.2 In the Land to MS direction The MSC receives its initial data message from the PSTN (via C7) and then establishes the location of the MS by referencing the HLR. It then knows which other MSC to contact to establish the call and that MSC then sets up the call via the BSS serving the MSs location.

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Fig 3.2 (A) Land to MS direction A C7 Initial and Final Address Message (IFAM) arrives the gateway MSC (GMSC). The MS to be called is identified by its MS-ISDN. Using the message Send Routing Info, still tagged by the MSs MS-ISDN, the GMSC requests routing information from the HLR. This forwards the message, now retagged with the MSs IMSI, to the VLR serving the LAI in which the MS is currently located. The requested information will enable the GMSC to identify the MSC to which the IFAM must be directed. The VLR responds with the message Routing Information Acknowledgement, now tagged with an MSRN which is either newly drawn from its pool of MSRNs or already
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associated with the MS being called, the GMSC now sends an IFAM to the MSC serving the MSs location, tagged with the MSRN. The visitor MSC then requests call-setup information from the VLR (Send Info for Call Setup). The VLR response is the Page message back to the MSC, containing the required information. The MSC then sends Paging Request to the MS via the appropriate BSS. The MS responds and requests a dedicated control channel from the BSS (Channel Request) and the air interface signaling link is established. Once established, this dedicated control channel carries Paging Response to the BSS which relays it to the VLR via the MSC.

Fig. 3.2 (B) Land to MS direction (Contd.)

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The MS subscriber is authenticated and cipher mode is set (opt). The Complete Call message is then sent to the MSC from the VLR. This is relayed to the MS via the BSS as the message Setup.

The MS sends the message Call Confirmation to the MSC. This indicates that the MS is capable of receiving a call and the MSC sends an Address Complete Message (ACM) to the GMSC which relays it to the PSTN. The landline subscriber will now hear the ringtone.

The MSC then assigns a traffic channel to the BSS (Assignment Command) which in turn assigns an air-interface traffic channel. The MS responds to the BSS (which Responds in turn to the MSC) with Assignment Complete. The MS now rings sending the message Alert to the MSC as a confirmation.

When the GSM subscriber answers, the MS sends the message Connect to the MSC. The MSC acknowledges this (Connect Ack) and sends Answer (ANS) to the GMSC and PSTN. The landline subscribers ring tone stops and the GMSC and MSC connect the GSM traffic channel and the PSTN circuit together.

Conversation takes place for the duration of call. The MS initiates the clearing of the call by sending the Disconnect message to the MSC. The MSC will then send a Release message to the PSTN which will then start to release the fixed network circuits associated with the call. The MSC will also send a Release message to the MS to indicate that it may clear down the call.

3.3 MS initiated Call Clearing Sequence

When the MS receives the message, it will release the call and respond with the Release Complete message. The PSTN will also respond with a Release Complete message.

The MSC now initiates the freeing up of air interface radio resources and the Ainterface terrestrial resources related to the call. The MSC will then send a Clear Command to the BSS. The BSS in turn will send a Channel Release on to the MS and this will start the release of radio resources used for the call. The BSS will then respond to the MSC with the Clear Complete message indicating that it has released the radio and terrestrial resources.

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The BSS will now complete the release of the radio resources by sending the DISC message to the MS. The MS will respond with an Unnumbered Acknowledgement (UA) message.

The MSC will now initiate the release of the signaling connection related to the call. The MSC will send the Released message to the BSS, which will respond with the Release Complete message.

The call is now cleared and all the resources are available for another subscriber.

Fig. 3.3 MS initiated Call Clearing Sequence

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3.4 Inter-BSS Handover Sequence

Fig. 3.4 Inter-BSS Handover Sequence The MS is in the conversation state and is continuously compiling measurements both of the current transmission and the broadcast control channels of up to thirty surrounding cells. The measurements from the six best cells are reported back to BSS after every 480 ms.

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When a handover is requires, due to low Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) or poor signal quality, the existing originating BSS (oBSS) notified the MSC (Handover Required).

The target or new BSS (nBSS) is alerted with the message Handover Request tagged with the TMSI. The new BSS allocates a Handover Reference Number which it uses to determine whether the correct MS gains across to the air interface channel which it allocates and acknowledges the MSCs request with Handover Request Ack. This is tagged with the HO reference number. The nBSS assigns a traffic channel.

The MSC via the oBSS orders the MS to change to the new channel with the message Handover Command on FACCH. There is an information interchange between nBSS and MS. This uses the FACCH channel but an access burst is used. The messages and the information carried depend upon the type of handover being performed.

Once all the necessary information has been transferred the message Handover Complete is sent to the MSC. The MSC now sends a Clear Command to the oBSS due to which the radio resources for another MS are freed. The channel is not cleared until this point in case the new BSS cannot accommodate the MS being handed over.

The MS, still in conversation mode, then continues to prepare periodic measurement reports and sends them to the new BSS.

3.5 Location Area Update A location update is initiated by the MS when it detects that it has entered into a new location area. The location area is transmitted on the BCCH as the LAI. The MS will be assigned an SDCCH by the BSS, the location updating procedure will be carried out using this channel. One the SDCCH has been assigned, the MS transmits a Location Update Request message. This message is received by the MSC which then sends the new LAI and the current MS TMSI number to the VLR. The information will be sent to the HLR if the MS has not previously been updated on the network.
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Authentication and ciphering may now take place if required. The VLR will now assign a new TMSI for the MS, this number will be sent to the MSC using Forward New TMSI message. The VLR will now initiate the Location Update Request message which will transmit the new TMSI and LAI to the MS.

Once the MS has been stored both the TMSI and the LAI on its SIM card will be send the TMSI Relocate Complete message to the MSC. The MSC will then send the TMSI ACK message to the VLR to confirm that the location update has been completed.

The SDCCH will then be released by the MS.

Fig. 3.5 Location Area Update

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3.6 Authentication and Ciphering Authentication may be executed during call setup, location updating and supplementary services. The HLR/AUC produce the authentication parameters (SRES/RAND/Kc) are called triples. Triples are sent to the VLR where the MS is registered. These triples are sent in groups of six and stored in the VLR. This ensures that the VLR can carry out the authentication and that it will not have to contact the HLR. The VLR initiates the authentication by sending the message Authenticate to the MSC. The MSC will repackage this message and send it on to the MS. The message is an Authentication Request and contains the random number RAND.

Fig. 3.6 Authentication and Ciphering

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Authentication may be executed during call setup, location updating and supplementary services. The HLR/AUC produce the authentication parameters (SRES/RAND/Kc) are called triples. Triples are sent to the VLR where the MS is registered. These triples are sent in groups of six and stored in the VLR. This ensures that the VLR can carry out the authentication and that it will not have to contact the HLR.

The VLR initiates the authentication by sending the message Authenticate to the MSC. The MSC will repackage this message and send it on to the MS. The message is an Authentication Request and contains the random number RAND.

The MS responds with the Authentication Response message which contains the signed response (SRES). If the authentication is successful, the VLR will request that the MSC start ciphering procedures using the Start Ciphering message. This message contains information indicating whether ciphering is required.

The MSC will start ciphering procedures by sending the Cipher Mode Command message to the BSS. This message contains the encryption information required by the BSS. The BSS will respond with the Cipher Mode Complete message.

3.7 Antenna 3.7.1 Introduction Antennas form an essential part of radio communication systems. An antenna is a structure capable of receiving and transmitting electromagnetic waves. It is generally a metallic object used to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. Functioning of an antenna can be said to be analogous to open circuited transmission line and when electrical energy travels through open circuited transmission line, electrical and magnetic fields will set-up. A part of this energy will be radiated, depending upon impedance matching of free space and the line. An antenna can be viewed as a transitional structure between the free space and the transmission line (such as a co-axial cable). An important property of an antenna is its ability to focus and shape the radiated power in space like it enhances the power in some wanted directions and suppresses the power in the other

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directions. Many different types of antennas exist. Each type is specifically designed for special purposes. 3.7.2 Antenna Types In mobile communication two main categories of antenna are used: Omni-directional Antenna Directional Antenna

Omni-directional Antenna

Omnidirectional antennas used mostly in rural areas. In all the horizontal direction these antennas radiate with equal power. In the vertical plane these antennas radiate uniformly across all azimuth angles and have a main beam with upper and lower side lobes. Directional Antennas

Directional antennas are most widely used in the mobile cellular systems to get higher gain compared to omnidirectional antennas and also to minimize the interference effects in the network. In the vertical plane, these antennas radiate uniformly across all the azimuth angles and have a main beam with upper and lower side lobes. In these type of antennas, the radiation is directed at a specific angle instead of uniformly across all the azimuth angles as in case of omnidirectional antennas. The unit for the measurement of antenna is decibel (db). It is ten times logarithmic of relative power, that is, Db=10 log(P1/P2) Where, P1=Power to be measured P2=Relative power with respect to which P1 is to be measured 3.7.3 Antenna Characteristics There are various antenna characteristics. Some of them are listed below: Radiation pattern Antenna gain Front-to-back Ratio First Null Beamwidth Polarization
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Antenna Impedance Radiation Pattern

This is one of the main characteristics of an antenna. The antenna pattern is a graphical representation in three dimensions of the radiation of an antenna as a function of angular deviation. Antenna radiation performance is usually measured and recorded in two orthogonal principal planes i.e. E-plane and H-plane or vertical and horizontal planes. The radiation pattern of an antenna consists of many lobes out of which there is only one main lobe and several minor lobes also termed as side lobes as shown in fig. 3.3.1 below. A side lobe which occurs in a direction opposite to that of main lobe is called as a back lobe and this back lobe is responsible for reduction in power radiated by the main lobe.

Side lobes Back Lobe

Main Lobe

Fig. 3.7 Radiation Pattern of an antenna Antenna Gain Antenna gain is the ratio of power radiated by the test antenna in a particular direction to the reference antenna at same input power. Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW)

It is the angular span during which the antenna radiates half to that of the maximum power or 3 db less than the power radiated in the main lobe axis. Front-to-back Ratio (FBR)

It is ratio of maximum directivity of an antenna in the forward direction to its directivity in rearward or backward direction. The power taken in the numerator as well as the denominator is in db. Antenna Impedance

When potential is applied at the two ends of an array structure of antennas, then the ratio current produced at both the ends is known as the antenna impedance. When antenna
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impedance matches the cable impedance then maximum power is coupled into the antennas. Typically its value is 50 ohms. Polarization

Polarization is the orientation of electric field vector in a specified direction. It is of four types namely, horizontal, vertical, circular (elliptical) and cross polarization. But in mobile cellular communication, the most widely used types of polarization are vertical polarization and cross polarization. Frequency Bandwith

Frequency bandwith is the range of frequencies within which the performance of an antenna, with respect to some characteristics, conforms to the specified standard. 3.7.4 Antenna Downtilting Network planners often have the problem that the base station provides an over coverage. If an overlapping area between the two cells is too large then switching occurring between the base station (handover) increases. There may even be an interference of a neighbouring cell with the same frequency. In general, the vertical pattern of an antenna radiates the main energy towards the horizon. Only that part of energy which is radiated below the horizon can be used for the coverage of sector. Antenna downtilting limits the area covered by an antenna by reducing the field strength in the horizon. Antenna downtilting is the downward tilt of the vertical pattern towards the ground by a fixed angle measured with respect to the horizon. Downtilting of an antenna changes the position of half power beamwidth and the first null relative to the horizon. Normally the maximum gain is at 0 degrees and never intersects the horizon. A small downtilt places the beam maximum at the cell edge. With appropriate downtilt, the received signal strength within the cell improves due to the placement of the main lobe within the cell radius and falls off in the regions approaching the cell boundary and towards the reuse cell. There are two methods of downtilting: Mechanical downtilting Electrical downtilting

3.7.4.1 Mechanical Downtilting Mechanical downtilting consists of physically rotating an antenna downward about an axis from it vertical position. In mechanical downtilt as the front lobe moves downward the back

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lobe moves upwards. This is one of its drawback as compared to the electrical downtilt because coverage behind the antenna can be negatively affected as the back lobe rises above the horizon. Its advantage is that the power of the side lobes and the back lobe gets added into the main lobe thus increasing the power radiated in the main lobe. 3.7.4.2 Electrical Downtilting Electrical downtilt uses a phase taper in the antenna array to angle the pattern downwards. This allows the antenna to be mounted vertically. Electrical downtilt is the only practical way to achieve pattern downtilting with omnidirectional antennas. Electrical downtitlt affects both front and back lobes. If the front lobe is downtilted the back lobe is also downtilted by an equal amount. It also reduces the gain equally at all the angles on the horizon. Variable electrical downtilt antennas are very costly.

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CHAPTER-IV

BTS INSTALLATION
4.1 Introduction Cell site consist of a BTS and antenna system to transmit and receive in a particular geographical location ranging from 200m to 25 km. Cell Site consists of: Tower Antennas Shelter BTS Transmission Rack PIU SMPS Battery Bank Alarm Sensors Earthing Cables Connectors Generator 4.2 Requirements Information Material Tool 4.2.1 Information Required Basic information Site ID Site address Customer no Owners no and address Key info Activity to be performed Site layout ACTIVITY : i. Microwave antenna: Frequency(near end far end) Power RSL Even Capacity Height
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 ii.

Degree Microwave hop size Radio type Polarization GSM Height Degree Electrical tilt Mechanical tilt Number of sectors

4.2.2 Tools Required: SPANNER SET LINER TESTER SCREW DRIVER SET HAND CRIMPING TOOL CABLE CUTTER MULTIMETER ADJUSTABLE SPANNER MULTI BIT SET RATCHET SET BNC TOOL ELPRESS TIE CUTTER DRILL MACHINE MALLET HAMMER SMALL HEXA SOLDERING IRON ROUGH FILE H/D PLIER PUNCH ROUND FILE KNIFE KRONE TOOL L-KEY RJ-45 TOOL NOSE PLIER BIG HEXA SITE ANALYZER

4.3 Base Transceiver Station (BTS) The BTS network element consists of the hardware components, such as radios, interface modules and antenna systems that provide the Air Interface between the BSS and the MSs. The BTS provides radio channels (RF carriers) for a specific RF coverage area. The radio channel is the communication link between the MSs within an RF coverage area and the BSS. The BTS also has a limited amount of control functionality which reduces the amount of traffic between the BTS and BSC.

Functions of BTS are as below: Channel Allocation Radio Channel Management Channel configurations Handover Control Frequency Management
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Traffic Channel Management Encryption, Encoding Timing Advance Paging

BTS Parts

BASEBAND UNIT RF UNIT

COMMON CONTROL UNIT POWER UNIT

4.3.1 BTS Configurations BSC may control several BTSs, the maximum number of BTSs which may be controlled by one BSC is not specified by GSM. Individual manufacturers specifications may vary greatly. The BTSs and BSC may either be located at the same cell site co-located, or located at different sites Remote. In reality most BTSs will be remote, as there are many more BTSs than BSCs in a network. Another BSS configuration is the daisy chain. A BTS need not communicate directly with the BSC which controls it, it can be connected to the BSC via a chain of BTSs. Daisy chaining reduces the amount of cabling required to set up a network as a BTS can be connected to its nearest BTS rather than all the way to the BSC. Problems may arise when chaining BTSs, due to the transmission delay through the chain. The length of the chain must, therefore, be kept sufficiently short to prevent the round trip speech delay
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becoming too long. Other topologies are also permitted, including stars and loops. Loops are used to introduce redundancy into the network, for example if a BTS connection was lost, the BTS may still be able to communicate with the BSC if a second connection is available.

Fig. 4.1 BTS Configurations

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4.3.2 RBS 2216

Fig. 4.2 Dual Radio Unit

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The DRU consist of two GSM TRXs, hybrid combiner, two TX filters, two duplex filters, and two bias injectors. Up to six DRUs can be installed in one RBS 2216, enabling up to 12 TRXs per cabinet. Various versions of the DRU exist for different frequency bands. All DRUs support all time slots for General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (EDGE). The integrated hybrid combiner is used to increase the number of TRXs per antenna, but it can be bypassed (to get higher output power) when setting the configuration. The DRU also supports Transmitter Coherent Combining (TCC), which provides an increased cell radius for the downlink. TCC mode means that the same signal is transmitted through both TRXs in the DRU, inside which the signals are added coherently in a hybrid combiner. The result is 6 dB more signal output power compared with the combined version. To compensate for the improved downlink and fully balance the link budget when TCC is used, it is also possible to configure 4- Way Receiver Diversity (4WRD) and combining uplink reception from four separate RX antenna branches. This gives improvements both from increased RX antenna areas (~3 dB) and from better compensation of fast fading (~1.3 dB). The duplex filters allow both receiver and transmitter path connections to a common antenna. The duplex configurations also minimize the number of feeders and antennas required. 4.3.3 RX Splitter

Fig. 4.3 RX Splitter RX splitters enable RX signals to be shared, thereby minimizing the number of TMAs required in configurations with six or more carriers in a sector. RX splitters are also used for RX sharing between the RBS 2216 and other RBSs

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4.3.4 Tower-Mounted Amplifier Control Module

Fig. 4.4 Tower-Mounted Amplifier Control Module The TMA-CM monitors and controls the TMAs, to which it also supplies power through the bias injectors in the DRUs. The TMA-CM: Supplies power to up to six TMAs through the bias injectors Monitors the TMAs Controls the TMAs Supervises indicators Provides short circuit protection Supervises cables

Number of units: 0-3

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4.3.5Distribution Switch Unit

Fig. 4.5 Distribution Switch Unit The DXU is the system interface for 2 Mbps (E1) or 1.5 Mbps (T1) transmission links. It also cross-connects individual time slots to certain TRXs and extracts the synchronization information from the PCM link to generate a timing reference for the RBS. The DXU supports: Link-Access Procedures on D-Channel (LAPD) multiplexing LAPD concentration Multi-drop Four transmission ports (E1/T1) Synchronized radio network, through an external GPS receiver Transceiver Group (TG) synchronization Extended RBS holdover time

Number of units: 0-2

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4.3.6AC and DC Connection Units

Fig. 4.6 AC and DC Connection Units An ACCU or DCCU is the single connection point for power. It distributes the power to the PSUs. The ACCU is used for 200.250 V AC. The DCCU is used for 48 V DC. +24 V configurations do not require PSUs, nor is there any need for an ACCU/DCCU. +24 V supply is connected directly to the IDM. ACCU: AC Control Unit DCCU: DC Control Unit

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4.3.7Power Supply Unit

Fig. 4.7 Power Supply Unit PSUs rectify or convert incoming power to the regulated +24 V DC system power and are available in two versions: AC (200.250 V) and DC (48 V). This means the RBS can be powered directly from the mains or from an existing 48 V DC power supply. No PSU is required when the RBS is powered from a +24 V DC power supply. PSUs are connected in parallel at the secondary side and can be configured with N+1 redundancy. When using a battery backup system, an additional PSU is recommended to reduce batterycharging times. An unused PSU can of course also be used for this purpose. Number of units: 0-3 Four configuration types are available to choose from depending on the way the transmitter signals are combined: combined, uncombined, mixed (combined and uncombined), and TCC/4WRD. Combined mode means that the GSM carriers are subject to hybrid combining inside the DRU. The output power is 3.5 dB lower than in uncombined mode. The advantage is that combined mode reduces the number of feeders and antennas, for large configurations. This is why it is normally used for high-capacity coverage in dense

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urban areas. Combined capacity is added in steps of two carriers per sector. Configurations based on combined mode are sometimes referred to as capacity mode. Uncombined mode means that the GSM carriers are not subject to any combining. The output power is 3.5 dB higher than in combined mode. The drawback is that uncombined mode requires more feeders and antennas than combined mode, which is why it is normally used for coverage in rural, road, and suburban environments. Uncombined capacity is added in steps of two carriers that can be in either one or two sectors. Configurations based on uncombined mode are sometimes referred to as coverage mode.

TCC/4WRD mode means that two GSM carriers are coherently combined in one GSM carrier that has almost double the output power of uncombined mode. To achieve a balanced link budget, 4WRD can be used on the uplink together with TMAs, resulting in uplink improvements of 3.6 dB. Configurations based on TCC/4WRD are sometimes referred to as supreme coverage mode. To achieve a balanced link budget, bear in mind the following: DRUs provide only one GSM carrier instead of two. The minimum configuration is two DRUs per cell because four RX paths are needed . using only TCC requires only one DRU. The minimum antenna system is four feeders and four antenna ports per sector (TCC can be used with 2WRD and only two antennas per sector). Using 4WRD requires using TMAs.

Mixed mode uses a combination of combined and uncombined modes, as described above. One DRU can e.g. be used for two sectors, resulting in one uncombined carrier in each of the sectors. The advantage of smart range is that it allows smaller capacity expansions, in steps of two carriers per sector, than in combined mode alone. A sector using mixed mode has at least three TRXs.

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PROCEDURE 1 ACTIVITY: Site survey for BTS, M/W & GSM Installation. STEPS: Draw a layout for shelter with present status with labeled space measurement. Check BTS space availability Check M/W Antenna height availability Roxtec entry space for new feeders Power availability i.e (MCB free or not) if free, note it rating MMU space is available at transmission rack or not Feeder Routing space at inner and outer cable ladder Measure feeder cable ,if cable, and power cable length Space at EGB IGB Owner issue In case of MBC , check type of antenna present Pole mount is present at given GSM antenna height or not Make a report and shelter layout

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PROCEDURE 2 ACTIVITY: Installation of a site STEPS: Install indoor cable tray, put four l angles to the four edges and fix cable tray with wall mounted channels at the both sides. Connect both trays at both end and door side and rear wall. Distance 100m from sidewall and 100m below roxtec. Install Tx rack and BTS cabinet. Tx rack n 150m from sidewall and 30m-50m from backside wall. Mark holes with marker , drill put fastener, place rack and tight nuts. Put two l supports on the top of Tx rack, similarly place BTS. Install DDF as per customer plan. Connect DDF cable to BTS equipment. Install the battery bank as per layout plan. Make sure all inter connected strips are tightend. Place SMPS on top of battery bank and tight it with nut bolts. Install cable cut for battery bank and SMPS cabling. Connect the RBS power supply cable to the RBs and route it to the SMPS and connect ot to the load port and neutral bar. Then connect the battery i/p cable tray of battery end. Connect the ac cable from PIU to the SMPS in the MCB. Route alarm cable from SMPS to DDU and connect according to the need. Route power cable from SMPS to Tx rack. Do the earthing of each equipments as per points. All to be labeled with printed sticker. Place krone block 4 inch downward DDU and AMM at 1.5 foot top from Tx rack. Install fan unit, attach with AMM and connect power cable from DDU. Insert MMU at AMM a lot and give+24v dc. Place pulley and rope at tower at given GSM height and degree. Tide the GSM antenna with rope, make a large angle with tower and then drag the rope. Place the antenna at given height and tight the nut bolts at clamp.
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Set the degree with the help of compass and set tilt. Cut the feeder cable and make feeder connectors at both end .tape them properly and route the feeder on VCT and hct from antenna to BTS with the help of clamps. Provide a proper drip loop near the Roxtec and there should not be any bend less than 120 degree. Do the feeder earthing near the 1m above the VCT and near the Roxtec. Similarly place the m/w antenna at near and far end and check its polarization, degree, height. Route the IF cable from m/w to MMU. Make a loop of 3m if cable and tie it near the m/w for further extension. Do if earthing same as feeder cable. Now go for alignment. Turn on the MMU at both ends and feed the frequency, power, RSl at both ends. Place the multimeter at m/w both ends. At far end go for horizontal alignment and then for vertical alignment and lock the position with max value. Repeat the same at near end till the desired value is achieved. Check for all punch points, if clear go for commissioning.

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REFERENCES

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