Introduction

2103471 Internal Combustion Engine

Definition of Engine
Historically, the definition of ENGINE is any machine that does work, no matter how it is powered. This definition covers wind mills, water wheels, muscle-operated machinery, etc. The origin of the word engine is from Latin and Greek roots meaning invention. In modern times, the meaning has shifted to describe prime movers that operate automatically and continuously to convert some form of energy into useful mechanical power.

Heat Engine
1824 Sadi Carnot -Noted that work could be converted to heat and vice versa and there must be a fixed ratio between the two. However, the efficiency with which heat could be turned to work by any engine was limited by the degree of heat. Thus, he has essentially stated the first and second laws of thermodynamics. 1850 James Joule -Measured the fixed ratio between work and heat thus defining the first law. 1889 Wm. Rankine -Having already developed Carnot's ideas to lead to an "absolute" temperature scale, Rankine writes the first formalized thermodynamics textbook thus defining the second law Alternatives to steam engines were being developed in the 19th century (1800's).

SEARCH FOR NEW ENGINES: Mid-19th century.

Steam was not satisfactory for all purposes, despite generally good record of engineering development. Thermodynamics one reason. Allowed calculation of efficiency against theoretical standard. a. Steam looked poor, < 12% b. Somewhat unfair, idealistic view. Opportunity presented by new fuel. "Gas" (from coking ovens) in pipes. a. Supplied to cities as illuminant. b. Use as engine fuel tempting, but in steam engine? Market advantages. Steam required: a. Licensed operators. b. Lead & lag times for boilers. c. Fairly large size installations. d. Any machine avoiding these had possible market.

Stanley Steamer

Hot air engine

1807 George Cayley Builds a working hot air engine, then goes off and has a brilliant career in 1837 aerodynamics. In 1837, he patents an improved hot air engine and it is commercially produced in the 1860's and 1870's. -basically, the engine has an enclosed coal burner. Air is pumped into the combustion chamber and, by burning with the coal, it expands to hot combustion gases which raise engine pressure, forcing a piston up its cylinder. This internal combustion engine suffers from serious wear problems with coal cinders in the working cylinder.

Hot air engine

1816 Robert Stirling Develops a working external combustion hot air engine with a closed working fluid system (atmospheric air). 1840 The key to the success of this engine is an efficient regenerative heat exchanger ... easy to imagine but difficult to build, particularly in the early 1800's. Stirling built engines that produced up to 45 hp and were more efficient than steam engines. However, the materials did not allow a long life, particularly for the hot end of the engine. Various successors, particularly in Germany and the US built similar hot air engines with some applications such as powering fans and church organ air compressors being almost exclusively supplied by Stirling type machines.

Hot air engine

1826 John Ericsson External combustion, open cycle hot air engine. These engines were less efficient and noisier than the Stirling engines but better marketed and were fairly successful, with engines ranging from small portable to a 300 hp ship engine.

Hot air engine

The hot air engines were actually more efficient than steam engines but were not sufficiently reliable and long lasting due to poor materials for the hot end and poor lubricating & sealing materials for metal/metal/air joints. Also, with atmospheric air as the working fluid, it was hard to get high specific power.

Why Internal Combustion?

IC engines were thought to have a bleak future when first invented
You cant get people to sit over an explosion The automobile industry will surely burgeonbut this motor will not be a factor.
- Col. Albert A. Pope, largest automobile manufacturer at the turn of the century

History of I.C. Engine

1794 Robert Street Patented a reciprocating IC engine burning a gaseous fuel-air mixture (heated turpentine / air) 1801-1860 Philippe Lebon, Samuel Morey, and many others experimented with engines that burned fuel inside the piston/cylinder arrangement to produce work. All of their engines were failures but they gradually built up the basic technology necessary for engines.

EARLY ATTEMPTS.
Most of the earilest practical internal combustion engine of the 17th and 18th centuries can be classified as Atmospheric Engine. It drew in the fuel-air mixture during the first half of the stroke, then ignited the mixture which expanded during the second half of the stroke. Gunpowder was often used as the fuel. The trapped exhaust products was allowed to cool. As the gas cooled, it created a vacuum within the cylinder. This caused a pressure differential across the piston. As the piston move because of this pressure differential, it would do work by being connected to an external system.

Atmospheric Engine Process 1-2: Fuel air mixture introduced into cylinder at atmospheric pressure Process 2-3: Constant pressure combustion (cylinder open to atmosphere) Process 3-4: Constant volume cooling (produces vacuum) Process 4-5: Isentropic compression (vacuum pulls piston) Process 5-1: Exhaust process
VALVE Patm Po P 4 V 2 1 3 5

EARLY ATTEMPTS.
Lenoir in France produced the first practical internal combustion engine in 1860. By firing in every stroke on the piston, an internalcombustion engine on model of steam engine by Etienne Lenoir (2-stroke) led to more efforts. Lenoir-cycle engines were not very efficient and because the piston was double acting, and therefore was heated from both sides, they were limited to relatively small sizes that could be cooled by the cylinder water jacket.

History of I.C. Engine

1860 Jean Joseph Lenoir The first commercially produced internal combustion engine. -non-compression ... the engine sucked in air/fuel mixture during half the intake stroke and then ignited it. The expanding mixture shut the intake valve and produced enough pressure to push the piston down, rotate the engine through its exhaust stroke, and start the intake stroke again. In fact, the engine was also double-acting with a combustion chamber on each side of the piston. -due to lack of compression, his engines were very inefficient ... including mechanical inefficiencies, the consumption was given as 100 cu ft/ hp.hr of 500-600 btu/scf gas. This would be about 4 to 5 % efficient which was not bad compared to steam. (However, remember it now used coal gas (a refined fuel) rather than raw coal. Some energy had been used to produce the coal gas.)

History of I.C. Engine

1860 Lenoirs engine (a converted steam engine) combusted natural gas in a double acting piston, using electric ignition

Two-stroke Lenoir Engine Process 1-2: Fuel air mixture introduced into cylinder at atmospheric pressure Process 2-3: At half-stroke inlet valve closed and combustion initiated constant volume due to heavy piston producing high pressure products Process 3-4: Products expand producing work Process 4-5: At the end of the first stroke exhaust valve opens and blowdown occurs Process 5-1: Exhaust stroke

3 4

Po

5 V

History of I.C. Engine

1876 Nikolaus Otto patented the 4 cycle engine; it used gaseous fuel 1882 Gottlieb Daimler, an engineer for Daimler, left to work on his own engine. His 1889 twin cylinder V was the first engine to be produced in quantities. It used liquid fuel and Venturi type carburetor, engine was named Mercedes after the daughter of his major distributor 1893 Rudolf Diesel built successful IC engine which was 26% efficient (double the efficiency of any other engine of its time)

History of I.C. Engine

The internal combustion engine was first conceived and developed in the late 1800s The man who is considered the inventor of the modern IC engine and the founder of the industry is pictured to the right.Nikolaus Otto (1832-1891). Otto developed a fourstroke engine in 1876, most often referred to as a Spark Ignition, since a spark is needed to ignite the fuel air mixture.

EARLY ATTEMPTS.
Nicolaus August Otto, grocery salesman, impressed with this Lenoir-cycle engines. a. Made working model for study. b. How to control explosive combustion? Otto's solution: Use combustion to heat cylinder, then cool to allow atmospheric pressure to act on piston. a. Newcomen engine principle. b. Patented 1863. Otto formed partnership with Eugen Langen, sold 5000+ Otto & Langen engines. Design extremely limited. Poor power, fuel consumption, space requirements, noise, etc. Market peaked and declined.

Two-stroke Otto-Langen Engine Process 1-2: Fuel air mixture introduced into cylinder at atmospheric pressure Process 2-3: Early in the stroke inlet valve closed and combustion initiated constant volume due to heavy piston producing high pressure products Process 3-4: Products expand accelerating a free piston momentum generates a vacuum in the tube Process 4-5: Atmospheric pressure pushes piston back, piston rack engaged through clutch to output shaft Process 5-1: Valve opens gas exhausted
Disengaged output shaft

Engaged output shaft

1885 Schleicher-Schumm Built in Philadelphia, PA by the American licensee of Otto and the second oldest American, operating internal combustion engine. Two-horsepower at 180 rpm, single-cylinder, horizontal design.

Historical IC Engines

EARLY ATTEMPTS.
The impact on society is quite obvious, all most all travel and transportation is powered by the IC engine: trains, automobiles, airplanes are just a few. The IC engine largely replaced the steam engine at the turn of the century (1900s) Another important cycle is the Diesel cycle developed by Rudolph Diesel in 1897. This cycle is also known as a compression ignition engine.

EARLY ATTEMPTS : summary

Atmospheric engines Huygens proposed using gunpowder for providing motive power (1680) Papin described an engine design to the Royal Society of London (1688) Newcomen (1712) - first steam engine Engines with compression Lenoir (1860) Otto and Langen (1866) Otto silent engine - four stroke (1876) Robson - two stroke (1877) Daimler - workable power-to-weight ratio (1884) Diesel - diesel engine (1892)

Background on IC Engines
An internal combustion is defined as an engine in which the chemical energy of the fuel is released inside the engine and used directly for mechanical work, as opposed to an external combustion engine in which a separate combustor is used to burn the fuel. IC engines can deliver power in the range from 0.01 kW to 20x10^3 kW, depending on their displacement.

Background on IC Engines
Internal combustion engines are so called because the heat required to drive them is released by burning a fuel inside the engine itself. This approach has advantages and disadvantages, but is still the most popular for transport and small power generation plant. We will be looking at some common types of engine, examining some ways of analyzing their performance parameters, and some of the problems encountered in improving efficiency and output. All the engines we will examine contain the same basic activities: invest some work to compress a working fluid, inject heat into the fluid, recover a greater amount of work, return to initial conditions by removal of some heat.

Background on IC Engines
Actual processes by which this is done vary. Internal combustion engines "use up" the charge of working fluid each cycle. They therefore need to induce a fresh charge of working fluid and get rid of the spent gases at the end of the cycle. Internal combustion engines vary, and include systems which function like "closed" systems (e.g. petrol engines) or as "open" systems (e.g. gas turbines). All essentially perform the following basic processes

Typical Processes for an Internal Combustion Engine

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Internal Combustion Engine can be classified in number of different ways 1. Type of Ignition 2. Engine Cycle 3. Valve Location 4. Basic Design 5. Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines 6. Air Intake Process 7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engine 8. Fuel Used 9. Application 10. Type of Cooling

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Type of Ignition 1. Spark Ignition Generally homogeneous mixture Ignition by external source such as a spark Orderly flame propagation-premixed flame Controlled energy release Intake air throttled Limited variation in A/F ratio Distinct fuel requirements Limitations on compression ratio

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Type of Ignition 1. Spark Ignition
The Otto cycle SI engine has remained fundamentally unchanged, besides slight improvements, for over 100 years. Its popularity has continually increased because Relatively low cost Favorable power to weight ratio High Efficiency Relative simple and robust operating characteristics Improvements are mainly lower emissions and higher fuel efficiency

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Type of Ignition 2. Compression Ignition Nonhomogeneous mixture Ignition due to high temperature May not have flame propagation Uncontrolled burning (varies for engines) No throttling of intake air Wide range of A/F ratio Distinct fuel requirements Needs high compression ratio

Differences between design and operating Characteristics of SI and Diesel Engine Spark Ignition 1. Premixed charge drawn into cylinders 2. Mixture formed in intake system Diesel Only air drawn into cylinders Fuel injected into cylinder prior to combustion Load control by fuel metering; no throttling in diesel engines Spontaneous ignition of mixture; no external ignition source Generally distillate oil. Must ignite at lower temperatures.

3. Load control by throttling

4. Ignition by spark

5. Generally volatile fuel (gasoline); does not ignite spontaneously at Lower temperatures.

Differences between design and operating Characteristics of SI and Diesel Engine Spark Ignition 6. Lower compression ratio (knock limited) 7. Turbocharged in high performance engines Diesel Higher compression ratio (as high as 25, no knock limitation). Usually turbocharged (except in smaller size engines) to increase power. Heavier construction; limited rpm Lower fuel consumption

8. Lighter construction; higher rpm 9. Higher fuel consumption

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Engine Cycle 1. Four Stroke Cycle
Four strokes to complete the thermodynamic cycle : Intake process - one stroke (fresh mixture inducted in, work done by piston to induct mixture) Compression process - one stroke (mixture compressed almost adiabatically, work done by piston on mixture; process Pv = constant) Combustion and expansion - one stroke (mixture is ignited and burned through flame propagation in SI engine and the high pressure gases then expand producing work. In CI engine, ignition occurs after fuel injetion and a delay period, mixture is burned, and high pressure gases expand producing work output) Exhaust process - one stroke (the burned gases are purged out by opening the exhaust valve and moving the piston from BDC to TDC)

4-Stroke Engines

intake

exhaust

Four stroke Spark Ignition (SI) Engine

Stroke 1: Stroke 2: Stroke 3: Stroke 4:
A I R Fuel/Air Mixture

Fuel-air mixture introduced into cylinder through intake valve Fuel-air mixture compressed Combustion (roughly constant volume) occurs and product gases expand doing work Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve
FUEL Ignition

Combustion Products

Intake Stroke

Compression Stroke

Power Stroke

Exhaust Stroke

Four-Stroke SI Engine

Exhaust gas residual

IVO - intake valve opens, IVC intake valve closes EVO exhaust valve opens, EVC exhaust valve opens Xb burned gas mole fraction

Four stroke Compression Ignition (CI) Engine Stroke 1: Stroke 2: Stroke 3: Stroke 4:
A I R

Air is introduced into cylinder through intake valve Air is compressed Combustion (roughly constant pressure) occurs and product gases expand doing work Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve
Fuel Injector

Air

Combustion Products

Intake Stroke

Compression Stroke

Power Stroke

Exhaust Stroke

Four-Stroke CI Engine

Fuel mass flow rate

SOI start of injection EOI end of injection SOC start of combustion EOC end of combustion

Fuel mass burn rate

Four stroke Compression Ignition (CI) Engine

Stroke 1: Stroke 2: Stroke 3: Stroke 4:
A I R

Air is introduced into cylinder through intake valve Air is compressed Combustion (roughly constant pressure) occurs and product gases expand doing work Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve
Fuel Injector

Air

Combustion Products

Intake Stroke

Compression Stroke

Power Stroke

Exhaust Stroke

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Engine Cycle 2. Two Stroke Cycle In a two-stroke engine all the processes are the same but the cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston. Since there is one power stroke per revolution, one would expect the power output of a 2-stroke engine to be twice that of a 4-stroke engine for the same displacement.

Two Stroke Spark Ignition Engine Stroke 1: Fuel-air mixture is introduced into the cylinder and is then compressed, combustion initiated at the end of the stroke Combustion products expand doing work and then exhausted

Stroke 2:

* Power delivered to the crankshaft on every revolution

2-StrokeEngines

intake

Reed Valve 2-stroke

Two Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

Exhaust port Fuel-air-oil mixture compressed Check valve Expansion Crank shaft Exhaust Intake (Scavenging)

Fuel-air-oil mixture Compression Ignition

Scavenging in Two-Stroke Engine

Cross

Loop

Uniflow

Two-Stroke CI Engine

scavenging

EPO exhaust port open EPC exhaust port closed IPO intake port open IPC intake port closed

Exhaust area Intake area

Advantages of the two stroke engine: Power to weight ratio is higher than the four stroke engine since there is one power stroke per crank shaft revolution. Simple valve design Most often used for small engine applications such as lawn mowers, marine outboard engines, motorcycles.

Disadvantages of the two-stroke engine: Incomplete scavenging or to much scavenging Burns oil mixed in with the fuel

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Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Valve Location Valves in Head (overhead valve), also called I Head Engine. Valve in Block (Flat head), also called L Head Engine or T Head Engine. One valve in Head and one valve in Block, also called F Head engine.

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Inlet Valve and Head Configurations

L head

Wedge chamber

Hemispherical Head

Blow-in-piston chamber

Bath-Tub Head

Squish Zone Head

May Fireball-high Turbulence chamber

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Basic Design 1. Reciprocating Engines Linear motion of piston in a cylinder and conversion of linear into rotary motion using crankshaft. Advantages - better sealing of high pressure gases; ease of lubrication; lower surface area; less wear on rings/seals. Disadvantages - reciprocating mass and force unbalance; vibrations, lower power density (based on mass); larger physical size.

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Basic Design 2. Rotary Rotary motion of rotor-direct output at the shaft. Advantages - compact size power plant; higher power density; smooth, vibration-free operation; lower height. Disadvantages - sealing of high pressure gases and leakage; cost and durability of seals; lubrication of seals; larger surface area.

Wankel Engines
exhaust +: No valves needed Continuous motion less vibration -: Leaks through seals low compression ratio pollution (high levels of HC and CO) intake

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines Single Cylinder. In-Line V Engine Opposed Cylinder Engine W Engine Opposed Piston Engine Radial Engine

NUMBER OF CYLINDERS Single-cylinder engine gives one power stroke per crank revolution (2 stroke) or two revolutions (4 stroke). The torque pulses are widely spaced, and engine vibration and smoothness are significant problems. Used in small engine applications where engine size is more important Multi-cylinder engines spread out the displacement volume amongst multiple smaller cylinders. Increased frequency of power strokes produces smoother torque characteristics. Engine balance (inertia forces associated with accelerating and decelerating piston) better than single cylinder. Most common cylinder arrangements: - In-line 4-cylinder - In-line 6-cylinder - V-6 and V-8

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Air Intake Process Naturally Aspirated Supercharged Turbocharged Crankcase Compressed

Supercharger and Turbocharger These devices are used to increase the power of an IC engine by raising the intake pressure and thus allowing more fuel to be burned per cycle. Knock or autoignition phenomenon limits the amount of precompression. Superchargers are compressors that are mechanically driven by the engine crankshaft and thus represent a parasitic load.
Pint > Patm Patm

Compressor

Turbochargers couple a compressor with a turbine driven by the exhaust gas. The compressor pressure is proportional to the engine speed

Compressor also raises the gas temperature, so aftercoolers are used after the compressor to drop the temperature and thus increase the air density.

The peak pressure in the exhaust system is only slightly greater than atmospheric small P across turbine In order to produce enough power to run compressor the turbine speed must be very fast (100k-200k rev/min) long term reliability an issue It takes time for turbine to get up to speed so when the throttle is opened suddenly there is a delay in achieving peak power - Turbo lag Waste gate valve used to control the exhaust gas flow rate to the turbine It is controlled by the intake manifold pressure

EXHAUST FLOW

INTAKE AIR

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Method of Fuel Input for SI Engine Carburetted Multipoint Port Fuel Injection Throttle Body Fuel Injection

Fuel-Air Mixing
In spark ignition engines the air and fuel are usually mixed prior to entry

into the cylinder. The ratio of mass flow of air to the mass flow of fuel must be held roughly constant at about 15 for proper combustion. Initially a purely mechanical device known as a carburetor was used to mix the fuel and the air Most modern cars use electronic fuel-injection systems

62

Basic Carburetor
Air Flow

Venturi Fuel

Throttle

Mixture to manifold

Sketch of a Carburetor

Fuel Injection System

Throttle

ECU: Electronic Control Unit

Fuel Injection System

Air intake manifold

Throttle

Fuel tank

During start-up the components are cold so fuel evaporation is very slow, as a result additional fuel is added through a second injecting valve

Diesel Fuel Injection System With diesel engines fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinders power is varied by metering the amount of fuel added (no throttle) Diesel fuel injection systems operate at high-pressure, e.g., 100 MPa fuel pressure must be greater than the compression pressure need high fuel jet speed to atomize droplets small enough for rapid evaporation

Direct Injection (DI) Engine Hybrid engines that combines the best features of SI and CI engines: operate at optimum compression ratio (12-15) for efficiency by injecting fuel directly into engine during compression (avoiding knock associated with SI engines with premixed charge) ignite the fuel as it mixes (avoid fuel-quality requirement of diesel fuel) control engine power by fuel added (no throttling no pumping work)

Need bowl in piston design with high swirl in order to achieve rapid fuel-air mixing

Direct-Injection Stratified-Charge Engines Create easily ignitable fuel-air mixture at the spark plug and a leaner fuel-air mixture in the rest of the cylinder. Lean burn results in lower emissions. Following is an example of a torch or jet ignition engine

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Fuel Used Gasoline Diesel Oil of Fuel Oil Gas, Natural Gas, Methane LPG Alcohol Ethyl, Methyl Dual Fuel Gasohol

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Application Automobile, Truck, Bus Locomotive Stationary Marine Aircraft Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Type of Cooling Air Cooled. Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.

Introduction to the Internal Combustion Engines Components

Keys components Combustion chamber Intake and exhaust Ignition Conversion to rotary motion

I C Engines Components
Cylinder head Air cleaner Breather cap Rocker arm Valve spring Valve guide Pushrod Sparkplug Combustion chamber Tappet Dipstick Cam Camshaft Water jacket Wet liner Connecting rod bearing

Choke Throttle Intake manifold Exhaust manifold

Piston rings Piston Wrist pin Cylinder block Connecting rod Oil gallery to piston Oil gallery to head Crankcase Crankpin Crankshaft

Main bearing Oil pan or sump

CROSS SECTION OF OVERHEAD VALVE FOUR CYCLE SI ENGINE

Air cleaner

Carburetor

Camshaft

Rocker arm

Intake valve Cam sprocket Exhaust valve Piston Connecting rod Timing belt

Timing belt tensor

Crankshaft

Oil pump Crank sprocket Oil pickup

Crankshaft
Originally steel forged; however, large stiff crankshafts with relatively low stresses allowed cast iron to be substituted as a means to reduce cost How is crankshaft supported?

Piston Assembly
Piston: aluminum, cast steel or cast iron

Wrist pin: machined steel

Connecting rod: forged-steel or cast iron

Cylinder Head and Crankcase

Crankcase and cylinder block are usually cast iron; however, some have been assembled from welded steel plate Crankcase and cylinder are usually integral for greater rigidity

Cylinder block

Crank case

How is cylinder head made?

Cylinders
How are cylinders fabricated? Gray cast iron with cylinder bores machined to meet tolerance Why must a new engine be run-in / broken in? Cast iron forms a hard glazed surface when subject to sliding friction When first assembled, slow speeds and light loads should be used to facilitate forming this protective coating to give long engine life

Poppet Valve Actuation with Overhead Camshaft

Camshaft Spring Guide Stem Air manifold Valve head Valve seat

Spark plug

Piston

Camshaft and Cams

Camshaft and cams are usually made from steel

How are cams fastened?

Valves
Intake valve: a chromium-nickel alloy

Exhaust valve: a silicon-chrome alloy since it operates at higher temperatures (about 1200oF)

Engine Temperature Profiles

What two purposes does engine lubrication serve? minimize friction dissipate heat

How does your engine lubrication system work?

An oil pan seals the engine block, providing a reservoir for lubricating oil for most drivetrain components How is oil pan fabricated?
Oil gallery (for piston) Oil gallery

Dip stick

Oil pan

Automotive Fuel Needs

x1.1

x2.2

x2.5

After combustion and friction losses are considered, only After combustion and friction losses are considered, only about 1/6 of energy available in gasoline is actually used about 1/6 of energy available in gasoline is actually used