Chapter 2

Frequency Distributions and Graphs

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Outline

2-1 Introduction 2-2 Organizing Data 2-3 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives 2-4 Other Types of Graphs

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Objectives

Organize data using frequency distributions. Represent data in frequency distributions graphically using histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives.
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Objectives

Represent data using Pareto charts, time series graphs, and pie graphs.

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2-2 Organizing Data

When data are collected in original form, they are called raw data. When the raw data is organized into a frequency distribution, the frequency will be the number of values in a specific class of the distribution.
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2-2 Organizing Data

A frequency distribution is the organizing of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies. The following slide shows an example of a frequency distribution.
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2-7

2-2 Three Types of Frequency Distributions

Categorical frequency distributions can be used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as nominal- or ordinal-level data. Examples - political affiliation, religious affiliation, blood type etc.
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2-8

2-2 Blood Type Frequency Distribution - Example

C lass A B O AB Frequency 5 7 9 4 Percent 20 28 36 16

Relative frequency

Relative frequency is computed as class frequency divided by total frequency

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2-9

2-2 Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

Ungrouped frequency distributions can be used for data that can be enumerated and when the range of values in the data set is not large. Examples - number of miles your instructors have to travel from home to campus, number of girls in a 4-child family etc.
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2-10

2-2 Number of Miles Traveled Example

Class 5 10 15 Frequency 24 16 10

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2-11

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Grouped frequency distributions - can be used when the range of values in the data set is very large. The data must be grouped into classes that are more than one unit in width. Examples - the life of boat batteries in hours.
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2-12

2-2 Lifetimes of Boat Batteries Example

upper class limit

Lower class limit

Class limits 24 - 30 31 - 37 38 - 44

Class Frequency Cumulative Boundaries frequency 23.5 - 30.5 30.5 - 37.5 37.5 - 44.5 4 14 7 4 18 25

Lower class boundary

upper class boundary

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2-13

2-2 Terms Associated with a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Class limits represent the smallest and largest data values that can be included in a class. In the lifetimes of boat batteries example, the values 24 and 30 of the first class are the class limits. The lower class limit is 24 and the upper class limit is 30.
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2-14

2-2 Terms Associated with a Grouped Frequency Distribution

The class boundaries are used to separate the classes so that there are no gaps in the frequency distribution. The lower class boundary of the first class is 23.5. The upper class boundary of the first class is 30.5
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2-15

2-2 Terms Associated with a Grouped Frequency Distribution

The class width for a class in a frequency distribution is found by subtracting the lower (or upper) class limit of one class minus the lower (or upper) class limit of the previous class. The class width on the duration of boat batteries is 7, found by subtracting 31 24 = 7
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2-2 Terms Associated with a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Class midpoint is obtained by adding the lower and upper boundaries and dividing by 2, or adding the lower and upper limits and dividing by 2:

Lower boundary upper boundary Xm 2

or

The midpoint of the first class with boat batteries is (24+30)/2 = 27 or (23.5+30.5)/2=27
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Lower limit Upper limit Xm 2

2-16

2-2 Guidelines for Constructing a Frequency Distribution

There should be between 5 and 20 classes. The class width should be an odd number. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
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2-17

2-2 Guidelines for Constructing a Frequency Distribution

The classes must be continuous. The classes must be exhaustive. The class must be equal in width.

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2-18

2-2 Procedure for Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Find the highest and lowest value. Find the range. Select the number of classes desired. Find the width by dividing the range by the number of classes and rounding up.
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2-19

2-2 Procedure for Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Select a starting point (usually the lowest value); add the width to get the lower limits. Find the upper class limits. Find the boundaries. Tally the data, find the frequencies, and find the cumulative frequency.
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2-20

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

In a survey of 20 patients who smoked, the following data were obtained. Each value represents the number of cigarettes the patient smoked per day. Construct a frequency distribution using six classes. (The data is given on the next slide.)
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2-21

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

10 22 11 13 5 8 13 9 12 11 6 17 18 15 16 14 19 14 15 11

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2-22

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

Step 1: Find the highest and lowest values: H = 22 and L = 5. Step 2: Find the range: R = H L = 22 5 = 17. Step 3: Select the number of classes desired. In this case it is equal to 6.
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2-23

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

Step 4: Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes. Width = 17/6 = 2.83. This value is rounded up to 3.

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2-24

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

Step 5: Select a starting point for the lowest class limit. For convenience, this value is chosen to be 5, the smallest data value. The lower class limits will be 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 20.
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2-25

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

Step 6: The upper class limits will be 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, and 22. For example, the upper limit for the first class is computed as 8 - 1, etc.

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2-26

2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

Step 7: Find the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each lower class limit and adding 0.5 to the upper class limit.

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Grouped Frequency Distribution Example

Step 8: Tally the data, write the numerical values for the tallies in the frequency column, and find the cumulative frequencies. The grouped frequency distribution is shown on the next slide.
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Note: The dash - represents to.

Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency Cumulative Frequency

05 to 07 08 to 10 11 to 13 14 to 16 17 to 19 20 to 22

4.5 - 7.5 7.5 - 10.5 10.5 - 13.5 13.5 - 16.5 16.5 - 19.5 19.5 - 22.5

2 3 6 5 3 1

2 5 11 16 19 20
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Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

The three most commonly used graphs in research are: The histogram. The frequency polygon. The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (pronounced o-jive).
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Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to represent the frequencies.

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Example of a Histogram
6 5

Frequency

4 3 2 1 0 4.5 7.5 10.5 13.5 16.5 19.5 22.5

N u m b e r o f C ig a re tte s S m o k e d p e r D a y

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Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

A frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted for frequencies at the midpoint of classes. The frequencies represent the heights of the midpoints.
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Example of a Frequency Polygon

Frequency Polygon
6 5

Frequency

4 3 2 1 0 1.5 4.5 7.5 10.5 13.5 16.5 19.5 22.5 25.5

Number of Cigarettes Smoked per Day

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Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

A cumulative frequency graph or ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.

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Example of an Ogive
Ogive
20

Cumulative Frequency

10

0 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26

N umber of C igarettes Smoked per D ay

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Other Types of Graphs

Pareto charts - a Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable.

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Other Types of Graphs-Pareto Chart

When constructing a Pareto chart Make the bars the same width. Arrange the data from largest to smallest according to frequencies. Make the units that are used for the frequency equal in size.
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Example of a Pareto Chart

Pareto Chart for the num ber of Crim es Inves tigated by Law Enforc ement Officers in U.S. National Parks During 1995. 250 200 100

150 100 50 0

60 40 20 0 164 68.3 68.3 34 14.2 82.5 29 12.1 94.6 13 5.4 100.0

Defec t

Count Perc ent Cum %

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Percent

Count

80

Other Types of Graphs

Time series graph - A time series graph represents data that occur over a specific period of time.

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Other Types of Graphs - Time Series Graph

P O R T AU T H O R IT Y T R AN S IT R ID E R S H IP
89

Ridership (in millions)

87 85 83 81 79 77 75 1990 1991 199 2 19 93 1994

Y ear
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Other Types of Graphs

Pie graph - A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution.

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Other Types of Graphs Pie Graph

Pie Chart of the Number of Crimes Investigated by Law Enforcement Officers In U.S. National Parks During 1995 Robbery (29, 12.1%) Rape (34, 14.2%)

Homicide (13, 5.4%)

Assaults (164, 68.3%)

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Stem and Leaf Plots

It is a method of organizing data and is a combination of sorting and graphing. It has the advantage over grouped frequency distribution of retaining the actual data while showing them in graphic form.

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Example

At an outpatient testing center, a sample of 20 days showed the following number of cardiograms done each day. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data. 25 31 20 32 13 14 43 02 57 23 36 32 33 32 44 32 52 44 51 45
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Solution

Step 1: arrange the data in order: 02, 13, 14, 20, 23, 25, 31, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33, 36, 43, 44, 44, 45, 51, 52, 57 Step 2: separate the data according to the first digit, as shown. 02 13,14 20,23,25 31,32,32,32,32,33,36 43,44,44,45, 51,52,57
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Solution
Step 3: A display can be made by using the leading digit as a stem and the trailing digit as the leaf
Leading digit (stem) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Trailing digit (leaf) 2 3 4 0 3 5 1 2 2 2 2 3 6 3 4 4 5 1 2 7
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