Chapter 3: Presenting Data 2

Chapter 3: Presenting Data 2

3.1 Constructing Frequency Distribution

 The frequency distribution is a summary table in which the data are arranged into
numerically ordered classes.
 You need to construct the frequency distribution in order to help you to draw the
histogram, polygon, and ogive.

Profit Frequency Relative Frequency

$ 200 up to $ 600 8 0.044
$ 600 up to $ 1,000 11 0.061
$ 1,000 up to $ 1,400 23 0.128
$ 1,400 up to $ 1,800 38 0.211
$ 1,800 up to $ 2,200 45 0.250
$ 2,200 up to $ 2,600 32 0.178
$ 2,600 up to $ 3,000 19 0.106
$ 3,000 up to $ 3,400 4 0.022
Total 180 1.000

Key terms to understand:

Class: Each category of the frequency
Frequency: The number of data values falling within each class
Class limit: The boundaries for each class.
Class width/interval: The difference between the lower limit of the class and the
lower limit of the next higher class.

Example: A storekeeper randomly selects 20 customers and records their age

24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27
Describe the distribution of customer’s age, based on the frequency distribution.
To construct a frequency distribution:
Step 1: Decide on the number of classes

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Formula: 2 >n
k

k = number class suggested

n = number of observation
Step 2: Determine the class interval or width

Formula: i ≥ (H – L) / k
i = class interval
H = highest observed value
L = lowest observed value
K = number of classes

* In practice this interval size is usually rounded up to some convenience number, such as
multiple of 10 or 100.

Step 3: Set the individual class limits

A guideline to set the lower limits of the first class is a multiple of the class interval.
Sometimes this is not possible but at least be rounded and get a convenient class.

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Step 4: Tally and count the number of items in each class

Class Frequency Relative frequency Percentage

Relative Frequency = Frequency of the class / total frequency

Percentage = relative frequency x 100%

3.1.1 Constructing Histogram

 A vertical bar chart of the data in a frequency distribution is called a histogram.
 In a histogram there are no gaps between adjacent bars.
 The class limits are shown on the horizontal axis.
 The vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or percentage.
 The height of the bars represents the frequency, relative frequency, or percentage.

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3.1.2 Constructing Frequency Polygon

 A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of each class represent the
data in that class and then connecting the sequence of midpoints at their respective
class percentages.
Class Frequency Mid-Point Relative Percentage (%)
Frequency

Total

* We need to add 2 more extra class (frequency of 0) in order to complete the frequency
polygon.
In this case:

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3.1.3 Cumulative Frequency Polygon / Ogive

 The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive, displays the variable of interest along
the X axis, and the cumulative frequencies along the Y axis. To provide additional
information, can present cumulative percentages on Y axis on the right.
 Ogive is constructed by plotting upper boundaries of the class as x-axis with the
cumulative percentage of that class as y-axis.
 Same as polygon frequency, an extra class (frequency = 0) needed to complete the
ogive.

Class Upper Limit Frequency Percentage (%) Cumulative

Percentage

10 but less than 20

20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60
Total

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3.2 Cross Tabulations

 Used to study patterns that may exist between two or more categorical variables.
 Example to study the importance of brand name to consumer
 Cross tabulations can be presented in:
 Tabular form: Contingency Tables
 Graphical form: Side by Side Charts

3.2.1 Contingency Table

 A cross-classification (or contingency) table presents the results of two categorical
variables. The joint responses are classified so that the categories of one variable are
located in the rows and the categories of the other variable are located in the columns.

 The cell is the intersection of the row and column and the value in the cell represents
the data corresponding to that specific pairing of row and column categories.

Example:
A survey was conducted to study the importance of brand name to consumers as compared
among different gender. Construct the contingency table with the data given:
 Total 100 of participants participated in this study.
 Half of the participants are male.
 52 of them think brand name is very important
 16 of the female think brand is not important

Importance of Male Female Total

Brand Name
Very Important
Not Important
Total

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3.2.2 Side-by-Side Bar Chart

 A useful way to visually display the results of cross-classification data is by
constructing a side-by-side bar chart.
Number of
Response The Importance of Brand Name to Consumer

40

35

30

25
Very Important
20 Not Important

15

10

0
Male Female

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3.3 Scatter plots

 Scatter plots are used for numerical data consisting of paired observations taken from
two numerical variables.
 One variable is measured on the vertical axis and the other variable is measured on
the horizontal axis.
 Scatter plots are used to examine possible relationships between two numerical
variables.
Example: Measure the production volume with cost per day incur in a factory.

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3.4 Time Series Plot

 A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns (relationship) in the values of a
numeric variable over time
 Numeric variable is measured on the vertical axis and the time period is measured on
the horizontal axis

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3.5 Principles of Excellent Graphs

 The graph should not distort the data.

 All axes should be properly labeled.

 The graph should contain a title.

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 The graph should not contain unnecessary adornments (sometimes referred to as chart
junk).
 The simplest possible graph should be used for a given set of data.

 The scale on the vertical axis should begin at zero.

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Tutorial 3

1. The following data represent the amount of soft drink in a 2.5 litre bottle with a total
sample of 50 bottles.

2.10 2.086 2.066 2.075 2.065 2.057 2.052 2.044 2.036 2.038
9
2.03 2.029 2.025 2.029 2.023 2.020 2.015 2.014 2.013 2.014
1
2.01 2.012 2.012 2.010 2.005 2.003 1.999 1.996 1.997 1.992
2
1.99 1.986 1.984 1.981 1.973 1.975 1.971 1.969 1.966 1.967
4
1.96 1.957 1.951 1.951 1.947 1.941 1.941 1.938 1.908 1.894
3

a) Construct the frequency distribution and the frequency distribution in percentage.

b) Plot a histogram and a frequency polygon.

c) Form the cumulative percentage distribution and plot the Ogive.

d) On the basis of the results of (a) through (c), does the amount of soft drink filled in
the bottles concentrate around specific values?

2. The ordered arrays in the accompanying table deal with the life (in hours) of a sample of
40 100-watt light-bulbs produced by manufacturer A and a sample of 40 100-watt light-
bulbs produced by manufacturer B.

Manufacturer A
684 697 720 773 821 831 835 848 852 852
859 860 868 870 876 893 899 905 909 911
922 924 926 926 938 939 943 946 954 971
972 977 984 1005 1014 1016 1041 1052 1080 1093
Manufacturer B
819 836 888 897 903 907 912 918 942 943

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952 959 962 986 992 994 1004 1005 1007 1015
1016 1018 1020 1022 1034 1038 1072 1077 1077 1082
1096 1100 1113 1113 1116 1153 1154 1174 1188 1230

a) Form the frequency distribution for each manufacturer using the following class-
interval widths for each distribution:
(1) Manufacturer A: 650 up to 750, 750 up to 850, and so on.
(2) Manufacturer B: 750 up to 850, 850 up to 950, and so on.

b) Plot the histograms on separate graphs and plot the frequency polygons on one graph.

c) Form the cumulative frequency and cumulative frequency in percentage distributions

and plot the ogives on one graph.

d) Which manufacturer has bulbs with a longer life, A or B? Explain.

3. The following data represent the approximate retail price and the energy cost per year of
10 refrigerators.

Model Price Energy Cost

Bosch 1000 33

GE 1200 35

Kelvinator 1250 37

LG 1400 38

National 1650 40

Panasonic 2000 35

Pensonic 3000 40

Samsung 3500 42

Whirlpool 3800 43

Zero 2500 37

a) Construct a scatter diagram with price on the X axis and energy cost on the Y axis.

b) Does there appear to be a relationship between price and energy cost? If so, is the
relationship positive or negative?

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c) Would you expect the higher-priced refrigerators to have the greatest energy
efficiency?

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