Chapter 2:

Prokaryotes and Viruses

Left: Halorespiring bacteria that feed off
of solvents dumped in great lake, breaking down toxic substances and giving off harmless bi-products

The viruses1. 2.

Are not made of cells and have no cell parts.

Protein coat wrapped around a chromosome-like part Cannot reproduce by itself

Genetic material is either DNA or RNA

Host. An Organism that provides food for a Parasite

An organism that lives in / on another living thing and gets food from it

What traits are used to classify viruses?

Type of host virus infects (tobacco mosaic virus only infects

tobacco plants)

Part of body the virus infects (rabies virus (above right) only
infects nervous system of mammals)

Also shape of protein coat and size of virus are ways to classify

Virus shapes
(a) Helical virus (rod-shaped), (b) Polyhedral virus (most are adenoviruses), (c) Animal virus (most have envelope), (d) Bacteriophage (infect bacteria)

AIDS. Acquired Immune deficiency syndrome. Destroys the bodys immune system. Spread by:

Sexual intercourse Blood products

Contaminated needles Pregnant woman to developing fetus

Right: HIV particles (blue) attacking a T-helper cell

How do viruses get into plant cells?

Spread by wind or by insects (see

winged aphid on right)

Can prevent viruses from spreading further by tracking larvae and egg rings on diseased leaves

(see below right)

Life cycle of a bacteriophage (bacterial virus)

1. Bacteriophage virus binds to receptor on hosts cell wall

2. Viral DNA is injected into bacteria

3. The bacteria host begins to replicate viral DNA

Life cycle
4. Production of viral components and enzymes progresses

5. And viruses fully assemble

6. Cell breaks open (osmotic lysis) and

bacteriophages are released to invade other cells

Viroids-folded strands or circles of RNA Smaller than virus; do not have protein coat But cause infections (usually in plant)

Prion- proteins necessary for operation of brain cells

Build up inside brain

Scrapie (found in sheep) and Mad Cow Disease (BSE),

which started because ground up sheep tissue that had been infected with Scrapie were fed to cattle

Controlling viruses
Interferon. Chemical substance that interferes with the way viruses reproduce.
When they burst open, infected cells release interferon to warn other cells

Specific to each species ie) Horse interferon will not work on humans

Antibodies and vaccines

White blood cells (WBC) can make antibodies that attach to viruses and bacteria. (all pics of antibody structure)
1.

Destroy directly (bottom middle, antibody attack)

2.
3.

Captures; waits till WBC can surround and destroy

Specific to only one type of virus or bacteria

Vaccines
Vaccines are substances made from weakened or dead viruses
Breaking headlines:

S. Africa launches biggest AIDS vaccine trial (Thu Feb 8, 2007 2:33 PM ET)

Bottom right: Feb. 2, 2007 in Austin, TX; vaccine

Gardasil,. Gov. Rick Perry ordered that schoolgirls in Texas must be immunized with the vaccine to help prevent the sexually transmitted virus that causes cervical cancer. It would make Texas the first state to require the shots.

Moneran Kingdom
(Archaea, eubacteria, blue-green algae) Bacteria- prokaryotic (single-celled, without a nucleus)
organisms too small to be seen with a microscope
There are 4 ways to classify prokaryotes
Below: E.Coli

Above: Anthrax
Above: MSRS bacteria

Characteristics of prokaryotic cells

1.
2.

Capsule (sticky outer layer, prevents from drying out)

Reproduce asexually via fission (dividing in two)

3.
4. 5.

Cell wall present in most species No nucleus Some move with a flagella (whip-like tail)
Left: plasmid (circular piece of DNA found in most bacteria) Right: prokaryotic cell

Growth & Reproduction

Binary Fission
Asexual no exchange or recombination of DNA Doubles in size, duplicates DNA, divides in half

Produces 2 identical daughter cells

Process of fission

Growth & Reproduction

Conjugation
Exchange of DNA Hollow bridge forms between cells Transfer of DNA increases genetic diversity

Spore Formation
When growth is unfavorable Endospore: thick internal wall that encloses DNA & portion of cytoplasm Can remain dormant for months or years

1. Shape
Coccus. Spherical
(top right)

Bacillus. Rod-shaped (bottom left, anthrax)

Spirillum. One or more twists (bottom right)

2. Type of cell wall

Gram + (stays purple) and Gram (loses color and the counterstain turns pink)
Left: Gram + and Gram
bacteria; purple dye adheres glycocalyx in periplasmic space

Gram + and Gram -

3. Movement

Some do not move

Some are propelled by flagella

Spiral forward Glide along slime-like material

4. Obtaining Energy

Heterotrophs get energy by consuming organic molecules made by other organisms (consumer)

Chemoheterotrophs take in organic molecules for both energy and carbon Photoheterotrophs use sunlight for energy, need to take in organic compounds for carbon

DONT NEED TO WRITE ANYTHING DOWN

Glycocalyx. Consists of polysaccharides, polypeptides or both.

When highly organized, it forms a capsule

Flagella and Pili are also useful for attaching to surfaces and motililty

Above left: G. metallireducens, bacteria that can spontaneously grow flagella to find metal food source; Above right: slimy appearance on bacteria from capsule formation

Kingdom Archaebacteria

Live in extremely harsh environments

Oxygen-free environments Salty environments

Lack peptidoglycan in cell walls Different membrane lipids Some DNA sequences more like eukaryotes

Archaebacteria cont.
Extreme thermophiles. heat-lovers Nearly all are anaerobes requiring S2 for e Can survive at temperatures up to 80 C Locations: volcanoes, hot springs, coal mines

Right: Thermus aquaticus, found in

hot sulfur springs in Yellowstone; scientists can utilize heat sensitive DNA polymerase extracted from these bacteria

Extreme halophile. salt-lover

Located in Great Salt Lakes, Dead Sea and other extreme salty regions

Right: chemical plant in Pittsburgh (at northwest end of Owens Lake) colored red by halophiles

Methanogens. methane makers

Located in gut of termites and mammals, stockyards and swamps Use CO2, H2 and/or alcohol for energy

Recently geologists discovered 35 BILLION tons of frozen methane gas at bottom of sea

Right: Methanococcus voltae; methanogen that uses H2 gas to produce methane

Eubacteria
Larger kingdom Live in fresh water, salt water, on land, in human body Cell wall contains peptidoglycan

Right: Bacillus anthracis

Eubacteria.

Above: Salmonella is a gram chemoheterotroph Top Right: Rhodospirillum; purple

Eubacteria vs. archaebacteria

Bacteria
are classified into the kingdoms of

include a variety of lifestyles such as

live in harsh environments such as

Living in soil

Infecting large organisms

Thick mud

Animal digestive tracts

Salty lakes

Hot springs

Kingdom Eubacteria-true bacteria

Photoautrophs.

Cyanobacteria (blue green algae)

chemoheterotrophs. Most bacteria fall into this category

Range from decomposers and nitrogen converters to sources of food and antibiotics

Lactobacillus rhamnosus (right) shown to be effective in treatment of several forms of diarrhea in humans Lactobacillus casei (left) are found in dairy, plant products and digestive tract of humans/animals.

Releasing Energy

Obligate aerobes
Require oxygen to live

Obligate anaerobes
Live in the absence of oxygen

Facultative anaerobes
Do not require oxygen but are not killed by its presence

more chemoheterotrophs

Most pseudomonads (above) are free-living organisms in soil and water; play an important role in decomposition, biodegradation, and C and N cycles; move by polar flagella

Above L: E. coli found in intestine of humans; also have pathogenic strains ie) 0157:H7 that cause food poisoning Above R: D. radiodurans resists high radiation doses

more chemoheterotrophs
Clockwise, starting in top R:

1. Clostridium botulinum cause

food poisoning; can disrupt breathing and can lead to death;

2. C. tetani causes tetanus; can form

endospores, which resist extreme conditions; 3.Tetanus causes muscle spasms such as lock jaw and arched spine; death occurs when spasms affect breathing; 4. Borrelia

burgdorferi reside in deer ticks and can causes lyme disease; 5. Rickettsia rickettsii causes
Rocky mountain spotted fever, another tick rash-causing disease

Even More bacteria

Bottom right: Magnetotactic bacteria have a chain of magnetite that acts like a compass, enabling cell to navigate which way is North

Bottom left: myxobacteria have fruiting bodies that reproduce by releasing spores