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What is cleavage?
Cleavage is a rapid series of mitotic divisions that occur just after fertilization.
1. Isolecithal eggs (iso = equal) have a small amount of yolk that is equally
distributed in the cytoplasm (most mammals have isolecithal eggs).
2. Mesolecithal eggs (meso = middle) have a moderate amount of yolk, and
the yolk is present mainly in the vegetal hemisphere (amphibians have
mesolecithal eggs).
3. Telolecithal eggs (telo = end) have a large amount of yolk that fills the
cytoplasm, except for a small area near the animal pole (fish, reptiles, and
birds).
4. Centrolecithal eggs have a lot of yolk that is concentrated within the
center of the cell (insects and arthropods).
The pattern of cleavage of the zygote depends upon
the pattern of yolk distribution
covers the entire egg. The inside of the egg that is filled with yolk fails
Amphibian eggs have a lot of yolk, however, they are still able to undergo
holoblastic cleavage.
The 1st cleavage is meridional, as is the 2nd. The 3rd cleavage is equatorial.
The cleavage is displaced toward the animal pole due to the yolk. This results
in 4 small animal blastomeres and 4 large vegetal blastomeres.
Morula (morum = mulberry) at the 16 to 32 cell stage the embryo is called a
morula because it looks like a mulberry.
morula
The blastocoel is displaced to the animal pole in amphibians
Blastula = from the 128 cell stage onward the amphibian embryo is a blastula.
The outer surface of the amphibian blastula has cells connected by
specialized cell junctions.
Tight junctions create a seal that isolates the outside of an embryo from the
inner layer. Tight junctions polarize the apical and basal surfaces. The basal
portions of cells start secreting into the blastocoel. Desmosomes attach the
blastomeres together on the outside.
Gap junctions connect all surface blastomeres.
Mammalian eggs have rotational cleavage that is holoblastic
The mammalian egg is a little slow. It begins to cleave in the oviduct and
continues until it implants in the wall of the uterus (1 cleavage / 24 hr).
Asynchronous cleavage: mammalian embryos are unusual in that they have
asynchronous cleavage. Not all blastomeres divide at the same time.
The first cleavage is meridional, and the second cleavage is rotational. The 2
blastomeres divide in different planes (one is equatorial and one is
meridional.
Mammalian embryos undergo compaction at the 8 cell stage
At first, the blastomeres of mammalian embryos have a loose arrangement,
and touch only at the basal surfaces.
After compaction, blastomeres adhere tightly, maximizing the area of contact.
During compaction, each blastomere undergoes polarization. Tight junctions
develop on the outer surface, allowing proteins to specialize. Cells take up
fluids from the uterine environment and secrete into the blastocoel.
Gap junctions form on the outer cells to aid in intercellular communication.
A blastocoel develops as cleavage proceeds to the 32-64 cell stage
After compaction at the 8-16 cell stage, there are 2 types of blastomeres.
Outside blastomeres are tightly joined and number about 9-14. They surround
2-7 inside blastomeres that are loosely joined.
Cavitation: the outside blastomeres start to take up fluid from the uterus and
pump it into the center, creating the blastocoel. The blastocyst is the hallmark
of early embryonic development in mammals.
Inner cell
mass: this
gives rise to
the embryo,
and develops
from the
inside
blastomeres
Cells in the inner cell mass are undifferentiated, they multiply indefinitely, and
are known as embryonic stem cells. Stem cells are totipotent = they have the
potential to form any tissue. These cells are of great scientific and medical
importance.
They can be removed from the embryo, genes can be introduced into the
cells, and then they can be placed back in the blastocyst. This is how one
constructs transgenic or “knock out” mice.
The embryonic stem cells are also used to grow certain types of tissue in
culture. Theoretically, it should be possible to grow structures such as ears,
muscles, nerves, and skin for transplantation to sick individuals.
Interestingly, if you inject adult, differentiated cells back into the environment
of the morula or blastula, they become undifferentiated, and they can
redifferentiate to form many parts of the body.
Early development and cleavage in humans
Monozygotic twins
develop from one zygote
by splitting at various
stages of development
(from the 2 cell to the
blastocyst stage).
The stage of splitting
effects the overall
structure of the embryo
and extraembryonic
membranes.
What are conjoined twins
and how do they arise?
Where do fraternal twins
come from? Sextuplets?
Conjoined twins
Periplasm: insect eggs have a superficial area of cytoplasm that is free from
yolk. It surrounds the entire egg, and cleavage occurs here.
Endoplasm: the yolk-rich cytoplasm in the center of the egg. This area does
not undergo cleavage.
Cleavage is a misnomer in insects because cell division is delayed until after
many rounds of mitosis have been completed.
In Drosophila, nuclei start to undergo
mitosis deep within the yolk. No cell
division occurs, and the nuclei slowly
migrate out toward to periphery.
A few nuclei are first observed in the
periplasm at the 9 cell division stage.
They quickly become enclosed by a
plasma membrane and become pole
cells (primordial germ cells).
Preblastoderm stage: (cycles 10 to 13)
Most of the nuclei are present in the
periplasm but no cytokinesis has
occurred. Still one big multinucleated
cell!
Cellular blastoderm: At about cycle 14,
cytokinesis occurs simultaneously all
over the egg. Each nuclei is
surrounded by a plasma membrane to
become a cell. This corresponds to the
blastoderm stage of other embryos.
• radial cleavage: holoblastic cleavage that is
typical of deuterostomes and that is characterized
by arrangement of the blastomeres of each upper
tier directly over those of the next lower tier
resulting in radial symmetry around the pole to
pole axis of the embryo
• spiral cleavage: holoblastic cleavage that is
typical of protostomes and that is characterized
by arrangement of the blastomeres of each upper
tier over the cell junctions of the next lower tier
so that the blastomeres spiral around the pole to
pole axis of the embryo
• There are two main types of division pattern that follow on from the two-cell stage.
• The radial cleavage pattern is the simplest to understand and is shown above.
• This occurs in vertebrates (e.g. mammals like the human) and echinoderms (e.g.
starfish) and hemichordates (e.g. acorn worm) - animals known as deuterostomes.
• The second division occurs also in a vertical plane, but one which is at right angles
to the first division plane and results in 4 cells, more-or-less in the same plane.
• The third division is a horizontal one and gives rise to the 8-cell stage which
consists of two layers of 4 cells each, with the cells of the top layer directly above
the cells of the bottom layer.
• This division is often approximately equal, producing cells of equal size, but in
other cases the top layer of cells may be slightly smaller as the larger vegetal cells
may contain more yolk.
RADIAL CLEAVGE
SPIRAL CLEAVAGE
• In spiral cleavage the divisions, especially from the third upwards, are very unequal.
• The third division creates 4 larger cells called macromeres and 4 smaller cells called
micromeres.
• The macromeres form a layer of 4 cells at the bottom or vegetal pole and the
micromeres are located at the animal pole.
• The macromeres are larger principally because they receive more of the yolk (which
was originally mostly vegetal in position in the egg).
• Even at the 4-cell stage, one of the cells may contain most of the yolk
and be distinctly larger than the other three.
• The defining feature of spiral cleavage, however, is the fact
that each successive layer of cells rotates so as to sit in-between the two adjacent cells
of the lower layer, in alternating manner.
• In polychaetes, the first layer of 4 micromeres are rotated approximately 45 degrees
clockwise as viewed from above (from the animal pole), the third layer rotates back 45
degrees anticlockwise.
• Variations exist on these two themes with so-called aberrant
cleavage which is a highly modified form of radial or spiral cleavage
which deviates from the given rules.
• In the annelid worms, polychaetes follow spiral cleavage, but
oligochaetes like the earthworm follow aberrant cleavage which is,
nevertheless, clearly derived from spiral cleavage.
• In the nematodes (round worms), cleavage is so aberrant that it
is virtually impossible to determine whether it is derived from radial or
spiral cleavage.
• However, rotifers ('wheel animalicules', microscope more-or less
worm-like animals with lobes of cilia that appear to rotate like wheels)
exhibit spiral cleavage and as these are relatives of nematodes, it is
reasonable to assume that in nematodes cleavage is aberrant spiral.
• In both radial and spiral cleavage, the early embryo is essentially a
solid ball of cells, called a morula, but already by about the 8-cell
stage a hollow cavity begins to appear in the centre of the morula and
it becomes a hollow ball of cells, called a blastula.
Bilateral cleavage:
• In bilateral cleavage, the blastula can be
cut vertically only along one plane to
get two identical halves, the right and
the left.
• Cleavage activity on one side is
mirrored by activity on the other side.
• In most cases, the plane of bilateral
symmetry is established by the plane of
first cleavage furrow, which is
bilaterally symmetrical. Examples are
found in tunicates, Amphioxus,
amphibians, and higher mammals.
1. Determinate:
• The fertilized egg forms all the parts of the embryo
by repeated division. Some eggs or ova have, even
before cleavage, different regions earmarked to
form different parts of the embryo. For example, in
the Ascidian eggs the region, which will form the
endoderm is fixed. If this region is dissected out
from a fertilized egg, the embryo formed later will
have no endoderm. Such eggs with predetermined
regions are called mosaic (or determinate) eggs.
• Cleavages in mosaic eggs follow a precise
pattern and each blastomere has its
characteristic position and unalterable fate.
Here cleavage separate different organ
forming regions and are called determinate
or mosaic cleavage. Examples are of
nematodes, annelids, molluses and ascidians,
which show determinate type of cleavage.
2. Indeterminate:
• In vertebrates the plan of cleavage is less rigid. Here the
fertilized eggs do not have predetermined region. If the region
which normally forms the endoderm removed from a fertilized
sea urchin egg, the embryo formed later will still have the
endoderm. Such eggs are called regulative or indeterminate eggs.
• In these eggs, as there are no predetermined regions and the
cleavages cannot separate such regions, they simply cut the eggs
into segments which have the potential of forming any organ.
This type of cleavage is called indeterminate or regulative
cleavage. Eggs of some groups of invertebrates and of all
vertebrates show indeterminate cleavage.
The cell cytoplasm is divided during cytokinesis
Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis, when the cytoplasm divides equally.
A contractile ring forms beneath the plasma membrane. It contains a band of
actin and myosin filaments. It always forms in the same place that was
occupied by the metaphase plate.
As the actin and myosin filaments slide by one another, the ring contracts
and pinches the 2 cells apart.
From fertilization to cleavage
• The transition from fertilization to cleavage is caused by
the activation of mitosis promoting factor (MPF).
• Mitosis-promoting factor contains two subunits.
• The large subunit is called cyclin B. It is this component
that shows a periodic behavior, accumulating during S
and then being degraded after the cells have reached M.
• Cyclin B is often encoded by mRNAs stored in the oocyte
cytoplasm, and if the translation of this message is
specifically inhibited, the cell will not enter mitosis.
• The presence of cyclin B depends upon its synthesis and
its degradation. Cyclin B regulates the small subunit of
MPF, the cyclin-dependent kinase.
• This kinase activates mitosis by
phosphorylating several target proteins,
including histones, the nuclear envelope
lamin proteins, and the regulatory subunit
of cytoplasmic myosin.
• This brings about chromatin condensation,
nuclear envelope depolymerization, and the
organization of the mitotic spindle.
• Without cyclin, the cyclin-dependent kinase will not
function.
• The presence of cyclin is controlled by several
proteins that ensure its periodic synthesis and
degradation. In most species studied, the regulators of
cyclin (and thus, of MPF) are stored in the egg
cytoplasm.
• Therefore, the cell cycle is independent of the nuclear
genome for numerous cell divisions.
• These early divisions tend to be rapid and
synchronous. However, as the cytoplasmic
components are used up, the nucleus begins to
synthesize them.
• The embryo now enters the mid-blastula
transition, in which several new phenomena are
added to the biphasic cell divisions of the embryo.
• First, the growth stages (G1 and G2) are added to
the cell cycle, permitting the cells to grow.
• Before this time, the egg cytoplasm was being
divided into smaller and smaller cells, but the total
volume of the organism remained unchanged.
• Xenopus embryos add those phases to the cell
cycle shortly after the twelfth cleavage.
• Drosophila adds G2 during cycle 14 and G1
during cycle 17.
• Second, the synchronicity of cell division is lost,
as different cells synthesize different regulators of
MPF.
• Third, new mRNAs are transcribed.
• Many of these messages encode proteins that will
become necessary for gastrulation.
• If transcription is blocked, cell division will occur
at normal rates and at normal times in many
species, but the embryo will not be able to initiate
gastrulation.
Immuno staining of the cortex shows myosin
Cytokinesis is caused by subcortical network of actin and myosin filaments.
These filaments slide over one another as in muscle, and this causes
contraction and a cleavage furrow to form on the cell surface.
In holoblastic cleavage, the furrow squeezes around the periphery, like a belt
tightening, to pinch the cell in two.
In meroblastic cleavage, the furrow starts at the animal pole and progresses
into the egg like a knife. It stops when it reaches the vegetal portion.
Anti myosin
antibodies
The mitotic spindle determines the orientation
of the cleavage plane
Blastomeres can cleave either equatorially or meridionally. Cytokinesis
usually directly follows mitosis, except for superficial cleavage.
When blastomeres
adhere they have a
longer axis, and the
mitotic spindle is
almost always oriented
parallel to this axis.