Evolution:: The Origin and Evolution of Man

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Evolution : The Origin and Evolution of Man

Prepared & Edited By Sumit Dey, M.Sc,B.Ed, CSIR-NET Qualified -Contact me @9775711974
MYA = MILLION YEARS AGO

1 MILLION = 10 LAKHS
10 MILLION = 10 X10 = 100 LAKHS= 1 CR
10 Crores = 100,000,000.00 = 100 Million
 Introduction to Origin of Man: 100 Crores = 1,000,000,000.00 = 1 Billion
The origin and evolution of man, Homo sapiens, have been a topic of great biological
interest since time immemorial. The idea that man is a creation of a supernatural power
prevailed for long time in earlier days.
But the Biologists view the origin of man using knowledge on morphology, physiology,
embryology and fossil records. Man evolved from some unknown mammalian ancestor and
reached the pinnacle of evolutionary fabric.
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Man is placed under the family Hominidae of the order Primate and differs from
other anthropoid apes by having: Large size of brain with greater functional ability
(Maximum in Gorilla = 650 c.c., Minimum in Man = 1000 c.c.) The brain case is larger
than face region.
Human evolution began with primates. Primate development diverged from other mammals about
85 million years ago. Various divergences among apes, gibbons, orangutans occurred during this
period, with Homini (including early humans and chimpanzees) separating from Gorillini (gorillas)
about 8 millions years ago. Humans and chimps then separated about 7.5 million years ago.
Generally, it is believed that hominids first evolved in Africa and then migrated to other
areas. There were four main stages of human evolution. The first, between four and seven million
years ago, consisted of the proto hominins Sahelanthropus, Orrorin and Ardipithecus. These
humans may have been bipedal,
meaning they walked upright
on two legs. The second stage,
around four million years ago,
was marked by the appearance
of Australopithecus, and the
third, around 2.7 million years
ago, featured Paranthropus.
The fourth stage features

the genus Homo, which existed
between 1.8 and 2.5 million
years ago. Homo habilis, which
used stone tools and had a
brain about the size of a
chimpanzee, was an early hominin in this period. Coordinating fine hand movements needed for tool
use may have led to increasing brain capacity. This was followed by Homo erectus and Homo ergaster,
who had double the brain size and may have been the first to control fire and use more complex
tools. Homo heidelbergensis appeared about 800,000 years ago, and modern humans, Homo sapiens,
about 200,000 years ago. Humans acquired symbolic culture and language about 50,000 years ago.
The face is flatter with less protruding lower jaw. Continuous growth of long hair on head which
are spare and short on body.
Generalized hands with
better developed thumbs and
long leg with non-opposable
big toe. Man is terrestrial in
habit and walks erect on two
feet. They surpass all other
animals by possessing the
‘human features’ which are
exclusive for them.Numerous
studies have been made to
ascertain the origin and
evolution of humans. The
fossils which have been so
far unearthed indicate that
man has originated
somewhere in the plains of
Asia, Africa and Europe
from some non-human
beings, similar to proconsul — the prehistoric African anthropoid apes — in late Miocene
period.
 The exact course of evolution is still not known due to paucity of fossil records.
 The following steps are being discussed that help in tracing out the human ancestry and the evolution
of humans (Homo sapiens).
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1. Bipedal locomotion with erect posture, straightening knees, flattened feet, and shortening of toes.
2. Perfect erect posture is due to the development of S-shaped curvature in the vertebral column.
3. Broadening of iliac bones of pelvic girdles and position of acetabulum.
4. Freeing of forelimbs from ground for manipulation. The forelimbs with opposable pollex (thumb) are
used in grasping, and other mechanical functions.
5. Loss of hairs over the body except sole, palm and parts of facial region.
6. Orthognathous face (vertical or vertically placed skull).
7. Reduction in size of canines and incisors.
8. There is a reduction of jaw with smaller chewing apparatus.
9. Dental arch is smooth and semicircular.
10. Reduction in size of eyebrow ridges and simian shelf.
11. Loss of opposability of great toe (hallux) in hind limb.
12. Development of chin.
13. Increase in cranial capacity, 1390 cc with brain to body weight ratio being highest 1: 46 as
compared to 1: 250 in apes. The average size of the brain of human beings is the highest as
compared with the brains of apes and human beings.
14. Reduction of nozzles.
15. Loss of jaw power.
16. Development of articulate speech and sharp memory.
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 Features of Man:
In contrast to that of the anthropoids, the human line showed a large number of progressive
features.The features are:
(a) The face becomes flattened and is devoid of a nuzzle
(b) The brow ridges gradually decline and disappear.
(c) The cranium rises sufficiently above the orbits to house a larger brain.
(d) The skull is rounded at the rear.
(e) The foramen magnum and occipital condyles are shifted ventrally to join with the upright vertebral
column.
(f) A mastoid process arises in the ear region.
(g) The teeth become smaller in size and are arranged in a U-shaped arc. The canines are moderate in
size.
(h) The arms with the fingers

are proportionately shorter. The
feet are nongrasping. The toes
are placed in line. The heal bone
is elongated to help insertion of
muscles in upright posture and
walking.
(i) The vertebral column shows

slight curvature.
(j) The ilia are wider than length.

Broader ilia help insertion of the
big gluteal muscles which is
involved in balance.
Closest Relatives of
Humans:
Among primates the

Chimpanzee and Gorilla are
judged to be man’s closest
relatives on the basis of their structural, serological, biochemical as well as chromosomal and
molecular level of similarities.
A. Structural similarities: (iv) Fewer lumbar vertebrae,
(i) More or less bipedal locomotion, (v) Presence of brow ridges,
(ii) Semi-erect or erect posture, (vi) Grasping pollex in both cases,
(iii) Absence of tail in both cases, (vii) Menstrual cycles in females.
B. Serological similarity:
AB blood group is found in both apes and humans.

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C. Biochemical similarities:
(i) Haemoglobin analysis between chimpanzees and humans indicates that one amino acid is different
in between two forms,
(ii) Serum tests indicate protein homology to

be maximum in between humans and
chimpanzee, then less maximum between
gorilla and humans and, at last less
similarly between the humans and Asiatic
apes [Holoock (Hylobates), and Orangutang
(Pongo)].
D. Cytological and Molecular homology:
The fossil record of living African apes is not

known. For comparison in between African
apes and human beings we must rely on
cytological and molecular studies. From
molecular studies it is known that gorillas
were diverged from the Chimpanzee and
human beings from a common ancestor
about 8-10 million years ago. Again,
Chimpanzee and humans were isolated
about 6 million years ago.
At present the differences are:
(i) DNA content in diploid cells is similar,
(ii) Hybridization of non-repeated DNA sequences of chimpanzees and humans indicate 98%
similarity,
(iii) Banding pattern between the chromosomes of apes and humans shows that maximum
chromosomes of humans are similar with apes except 3 and 6 chromosomes where little differences
occur,
(iv) Human beings have 46 chromosomes while apes have 48.
 Differences between apes (Pongidae) and Humans (Hominidae) (Fig. 10.83)
Due to anatomical differences between apes and humans, they are placed in different families.The
differences are:
(i) Humans have an erect, bipedal posture, and it is due to the “S”-shaped curvature of the vertebral
column and broadened pelvis, and position of the acetabulum. In apes, the posture is semi-erect and
pelvis is elongated,
(ii) The jaws of apes are either rectangular or “U” shaped but in human beings, it is bow-shaped,
(iii) In apes larger incisors, “U”-shaped dental arch and lower premolars with cutting edges. In
humans the dental arch is a smoothly rounded parabola and small incisors,
(iv) There is a simian gap among apes in between incisors and canine on each side of the jaw. Simian
gap or diastema is absent in humans,
(v) The palate of the humans is arched but in apes it is flatter between the parallel rows of cheek teeth,
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(vi) As compared with human beings, the forelimbs of apes are longer but, in human beings, the legs
are larger and stronger than arms,
(vii) The body of apes has a thick growth of hair but, in humans body hair is much reduced and
development of large number of sweat glands may be
correlated with this,
(ix) The skull of gorilla (Fig. 10.84A) possesses brow

ridges and large sagittal and nuchal crests which
increase the area and help the attachment of jaw
muscles. In humans such crests are not found,
(x) The ape’s brain differs in size and organization

from the human’s. In human brain parietal, frontal
and temporal areas of the cortex are enlarged and
more convoluted than the ape’s brain. Apes are less
intelligent, with less cranial capacity as compared
with humans. Cranial capacity of Orangutan and
Chimpanzee is 400 cc, and 550 cc in Gorilla, whereas
in humans it is in between 1400 – 1450 cc.
(xi) In humans, neck is long and the position of

foramen magnum is at the rear of the brain-case. In apes, the neck is short and the position of the
foramen magnum is more ventral than humans.
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Primates are presumed to have descended from some small arboreal insectivorous mammals in
late Cretacesous Period about 75 million years ago (Mya).They were small shrew like mammals with
small face and long tail. They lived in and binocular vision which led to large brain and luxurious
forests. Early in their evolutionary history, about bipedal locomation. 55 Mya, the primate lineage
split into two main branches leading to Prosomii and more advanced Anthropoidea.
Prosomians (before monkeys) continued to follow arboreal and nocturnal habit.They evolved into
lemurs and loris. Anthropoids (human-like) evolved into following four groups in Africa and Asia:
1. Tarsiers: They originated about 55 Mya.
2. 2. New World Monkeys: They arefound in Central and South America. They include marmosets
and spider monkeys. They are with a long and prehensile tail.
3. Old World Monkeys: They lived in Africa and Tropical Asia. Example are baboons and monkeys.
They are arboreal but without prehensile tail.
4. Hominoids: Apes (Gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan) and man. Man resembles old world monkeys
and apes and differs from new world monkeys .
 Characteristics of Primates
1. Opposable thumb with grip for power and precision ⎯ → Grasping limbs
2. Hands can rotate at 180° ⎯ → Rotating forelimbs
3. Eyes forwardly directed, lying together on the face with parallel ⎯ →Stereoscopic vision optical areas.
4. Increased number of rods and cones with their own nerve cells ⎯ → Visual acuity
5. Increased sensory and motor areas, deeply fissured large brain ⎯ → More intelligence
6. Cerebrum expanded; foramen magnum ventral ⎯ → Skull enlarged
7. Reduced snout, flattened face ⎯ → Reduced olfaction
8. Longer gestation period and increased parental care ⎯ → Few offspring
9. Living in groups, corporate activities ⎯ → Social dependency
10. Replacementof claws by nails at the tips of digits ⎯ → Manual dexterity
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Biological Trends in Human Evolution:( see later as question anwer)
The evolution of man involves the following significant changes:
(a) Switch over from the four gait apes to the bipedal gait of man.
(b) Perfection of hand for tool making.
(c) Increase of intelligence and size of brain.
(d) Change of diet from fruits, hard nuts, hard roots to softer foods.
(e) Increase in their ability to communicate with others and development of community behaviour.
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Ancestry of Humans [Early Evolution of Apes and Hominids]:
There is no clear-cut idea about the ancestry of Hominidae. Different opinions prevail regarding
the origin of Hominidae. According to palaentological records, evolution of primates started about 75
Mya (million years ago) during Late Cretaceous from some tiny arboreal, insectivorous, shrewlike
mammal. Genetic studies show that primates diverged about 85 Mya. They lived in luxurious forests
during Eocene Period of Coenozoic Era. About 55 Mya, primate lineage split into Prosomian and
Anthropoid stocks.
In Late Oligocene, about 30–25
Mya, when evergreen forests were
replaced by dry Savannah
grasslands, ancestors of modern
apes and human separated from
anthropoid apes. Some of these tree
dwellers came down to the ground
and adopted bipedal habit. The
common ancestor of man and apes
appeared about 20 Mya in Africa.
Around 14 or 15 Mya Orangutans
diverged from Hominidae family. The
earliest Hominin (Hominids) were
Sahelanthropus or Orriorin .
Ardipithecusand Australopithecus
appeared about 7 million years ago.
According to primate molecular
clock, some time between 6 and 7
Mya two offshoots diverged from a
common primate ancestor. They
developed into Chimpanzee line and
human line. Humanisation ( i.e.
appearance of genus Homo) started
about 4 to 5 Mya. The earliest fossils
of genus Homo were Homo habilis.
They lived about 2.3 Mya in
Tanzania and coexisted with
australopithecines. Genus Homo
erectus appeared around 1.5 to 1.0
Mya.
Three Hominin species coexisted
approximately 600,000 years ago,
namely Homo heidelbergensis, Homo
neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.
The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens
were obtained from Ethiopia. They
were 160,000 to 195,000 years old.
Cromagnon man belonging to Homo
sapiens replaced heidelberg and
neanderthals about 35,000 or
40,000 years ago.Modern man, Homo
sapiens sapiens, belongs to class Mammalia, order Primates and suborder Anthropoidea.
According to one group the earliest known ape is Aegyptopithecus which had a small brain,
a tail and feet and hands that indicate an arboreal quadrupedal life. A robust ulna also indicates that
they were canopy dweller. By Miocene time it could have led to the genus Dryopithecus (subfamily
Dryopithecinae).
As early as middle Miocene times, 15 to 25 million years ago, Dryopithecus (= Proconsul) led an
arboreal life and lived in Africa, Europe and Asia. Fossils of Aegyptopithecus were collected from
Fayum in Egypt and Dryopithecus from Kenya. The skull of Dryopithecus was lightly built than that
of modern man. There were no brow ridges.
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Small incisors were like those of modern man. Canines were large. The molars had 5 cusps,
arranged in Y-pattern. They were probably the common ancestors of the present day ape (Pongidae)
and humans (Hominidae) (Fig. 10.85).
According to another group of scientists, the Eocene prosimians (Lemurs and Tarsiers) gave
rise to Oligocene ancestors of Old World Primates, i.e., Parapithecus. It was a squirrel- sized creature,
known from a single lower jaw and upper jaw fragments, found at Fayum in Egypt, and could have
been the ancestors both of Old World monkeys and of apes.
Primitive Hominids:
Discoveries of remains of prehistoric species and races will give an idea of human evolution.
The major forms, as recorded uptil date, are as follows :-
 Propliopithecus :
The fossil of first known ape was obtained from Fayiim deposits of Egypt. It was described under the
name Propliopithecus. It lived about 30-35 million years ago in Oligocene Period.Propliopithecus were
short statured with monkey-like teeth. There are two different concepts of ma n's Oligocene ancestry:
• that Propliopithecus directly gave rise to Ramapithecus in Miocene Period.
• that Propliopithecus gave rise to Dryopithecus in Miocene, which in tum evolved into ape s and man .
 Aegyptopithecus
Its fossil s were found by E. L. Simon and Richard in 1980 from Cairo. These were similar to
Propliopithecus.
 Limnopithecus and Pliopithecus
Their foss ils were obtained from Fayiim deposits of Egypt and some other places. The se forms existe
d in Miocene and Pliocene periods. These are considered to be the ancestors of gibbons and
orangutans.
 Proconsul
It s fossils were discovered by Leakey (1930) from East Africa near Victoria Lake in Kenya from
Miocene deposits. Its molars had five cusps each. The face was prognathous. It walked on its four legs.
 Dryopithecus
In early Miocene Period about 25 milli on years ago, there existed a group of apes , collectively know n
as Dryopithecines. Dryopithecus africanus. formerly known as Proconsul. exhibited close similarity to
chimpanzee and is considered to be a common ancestor of man and apes or a direct forerunner of
man . Although ape-like, it had arms and legs of the same length and its legs and heels indicate that
it must have assumed a semi -erect posture (knuckle walker). It has large canines and incisors,
feeding on fruits and leaves.Sivapithecus is another fossil ape from Sivalik Hills.
 Ramapithecus
The anthropoid fossils obtained from Miocene deposits from Africa and Asia including India were
named after Hindu Gods, Rama and Siva as Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus. They were discovered
byEdward Lewis in early 1930s from Sivalik Hills in Northern India. The fossils were represented by a
fragileupper jaw.
 Characteristics
1. Ramapithecus had reduced canines, relatively small incisors and low crowned molars capped with thick
layer of enamel.
2. Thickly enameled molars suggest that Ramapithecus ate seeds, nuts and fruits with hard covering.
3 . Their teeth were adapted for grinding and not for tearing and crushing, i.e., their molars had flat
grinding surface similar to that of modern man.
4 . Their dental arch was V-shaped and not parabolic as in modern man.
5. The recent discovery of fossilised limb bones from Pakistan suggests that Ramapithecus was
quadrupedal and arboreal.
6. It liveded15 million years ago in Miocene.
Evolutionary Status: Earlier Ramapith ecus was considered to be the earliest man-like primate and
oldestancestor of man.
1) • But according to Elwyn Simons of Yale University, Ramapithecus marks the point where hominid
lineageseparate d from pongid assemblage.
2) • According to Adrienae Zihlman of University of California, Ramapithecus was one of the several types of
apes that walked on all four legs but ventured into open grass fields, about more than 14 Mya.
3) • According to anthropologist David Pilbeam Ramapithecus and Sivapith ecus were ancestors to Orangutan.
They were apes on the direct line of ape and human evolution.
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According to molecular dating , the diverge nce of human and chimpanzee lineages occurred in
the Pliocene Period between 6.3-7.0 Mya. Recently obtained fossils of three African species,
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Orrorin tugensis and Ardipithecus kadabba are considered to be
earliest hominins because they show a mixture of homonin features including bipedal locomotion.
 Sahelanthropus tchadensis
The fos sils of Sahelanthropus tchadensis were disco vered in Chad in Central Africa by Brunet et al.
(2002) and Wood (2002). These were informally referred as Tournai and date back to late Miocene 6.5-
7.4 Mya.The fossils included a complete cranium and a few fragmentary lower jaws and teeth. Similar
to apes, these fossils had short cranial cavity and small brain of about 350 c.c. Like hominids, they
possessed brow ridges, small canines and a flat face. They were almost certainly bipedal. This species
is cosidered to be most primitive hominin, very close to the divergence of human and chimpanzee
lineages.
 Orrorin tugensis
The fossil s of Orrorin tugensis were di scovered from Western Kenya by Senut et al. (2001). These
fossils date back to about 6 Mya. The fossils included fragmentary arm and thigh bones and
fragments of lower jaw and teeth . They were habit. They shared feature s with man as adapted to both
bipedality and arboreal well as chimpanzee.
 Ardipithecus kadabba
Earliest fossils of Ardipithecus kadabba were disco vered by White et al. (1994) and Wood (1994 ).
These date back to 4.4-5.2 Mya i.e., late Pliocene Period . The fossils were fragmentary and were
named Australopith ecus ramidus. In 2005. These were assigned to genera Ardipithecus ramidus. It
was about 120 cm (3¢II ") tall and weighed about 50 kg. The brain and skull were of the size of
chimpanzee. These had australopithecine features and could live on ground as well as on trees .
 Australopithecus, Pithecanthropus (A.robustus) , Zinjanthropus (A.bosei), etc.,

represent the primitive Hominids:
In evolution the next primate that followed Ramapithecus was Australopithecus that was first
found in South Africa in 1924 by R. Dart, and are now almost unanimously accepted as links between
the ape-like and human stages of our ancestry.They lived from at least 3 million to perhaps 1 million
years ago. Most of the known remains have been found in southern and east central Africa. There
existed at least three species. These three species — of which none represents our ancestors —
evolved parallel to them. Of the three species—a larger with sagittal crests on the skull and less
man-like called Australopithecus robustus, not generally considered in direct Homo ancestry, and a
smaller without sagittal crests on the skull, a more gracile, A. africanus. A third species, A. boisei,
found in East Africa was originally called Zinjanthropus in 1959. Of three species the first apparently
died out without issue while the second is our likely ancestor.Pough et al., (1996) consider that there
are three robust forms — A. robustus (South Africa), A. aethiopicus and A. boisei (East Africa)
The remains of these hominids (Australopithecus, Zinjanthropus, etc.) were discovered in
Mid-Pleistocene or earlier in Transvaal, South Africa in 1925 and in Olduvai Gorge Tanganyika in
1959. Many skulls and some skeletal parts have been discovered.
 The characteristics are:
1. The skull was smaller in size than that of modern man.
2. The cranial capacity was 450-500 cc, quite larger than that of chimpanzee.
3. The face was protruding and the forehead was higher than that in apes.
4. The brow ridges were prominent.
5. The occipital condyles were ventrally placed and the rear part of the skull was rounded.
6. The jaws were large with small incisors, large and spatu- late canines, large cheek teeth.
7. The ilia of pelvis were wider and the limb bones were slender.
8. Small statured forms averaging up to 4 feet (1.2 m) tall.
9. The shape of the pelvis indicates that these creatures walked erect.
10. The dentition was human-like than ape-like as canines were small like those of man but simian
gap was present.
11. Palate reduced but longer than in man.
DISCUSSION : - During the past 600,000 years it consisted of a single species having a common gene pool
with a number of races.
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The remains of ‘Southern apes’ (Australopithecus) have been claimed to be forerunners of man. These
creatures were more like apes than man in respect of their intelligence and way of life. They could walk
erect and the architecture of limb and body skeleton was much like those of modern man.
An intermediate fossil form, Homo habilis, an intermediate form between Australopithecus and the ancient
species of man (Java and Peking man), was discovered from the same bed containing East African
Australopithecus.
This fact gave evidence that the Australopithecus was the direct ancestor of man and they persisted
side by side with their derivatives—the earliest men. The transition from apes to man was a gradual
process and the series of fossils portrays a gradual but complete transition from apes to modern
man.Comparative studies on morphology and chemistry of protein have proved that Homo sapiens, gorilla
and chimpanzee arc closely related to each other than other anthropoid apes like orangutan and gibbon.
Homo sapiens, gorilla and chimpanzee have possibly, evolved from a group of apes common in Eurasia
and Africa during Miocene. The immediate ancestor of Homo, as stated earlier, was the Australopithecus
which lived between Pliocene to Pleistocene in North Africa and Eurasia.
The earliest man, Pithecanthropus erectus, was widespread in Eurasia during Pleistocene possibly
evolved into modern man by series of gradual stages without splitting into separate species . The main
characteristics which differentiate man from apes evolved at different rates.
The use of tools appears to have evolved first which preceded the increase of size of brain. Both these
were accompanied by the change from four- footed gait to bipedal erect posture.
Characteristics of Australopithecines : Australopithecines show following characteristic features:

I . Australopithecines were short-statured measu ring 4-5 ft.
2. They walked nearly or comp letely straight on two hind legs.
3. They lived in open and had given up arborea l life.
4. Their vertebral column had a distinct lumbar curve .
5. The thighs and hips were well adapte d for erect standing and walking. The pelvics were broad and
flattened.
6. The ankle bones were designed to bear body weight during bipedal locomotion, but were
intermediate
between those of human and ape.
7. The big toes in the feet were still adapted for grasping.
8. Their arms were longer than legs and adapted for brachiation.
9. The brain was small but more or less man like in shape .
10. The size of cranial cavity ranged from 450-600 C.c.
II. Dental arch was smoothly rounded parabola.
12. Incisors and canines were sma ll and man-like, but larger than those of modem man.
13. A simian gap between canines and premo lars as found in apes was absent.
14. Face was prognathous, jaws protruding and chin absent.
15. Eyebrow ridges projec ted over eyes .
16. They were hunters and canni bals.
Australopithecines represented man with ape brain and are commonly described as ape man. They
lived in small groups of just a few dozen individuals.
Types: Two distinct species of Australopithecines evolved fromA. afarensis lineage. These are:
1. Gracile Form or Australopithecus africanus & 2. Robust Form or Australopithecus robustus ( They
were initially named Paranthropus P robustus and P boisei but are now called Australopithecus
robustus and A. boisei.)
Pithecanthropus erectus—Java man:
Fragmentary remains of Pithecanthropus erectus were discovered in Mid-Pleistocene of Solo River

near Trimil, Java since 1891 up to 1945.
 The characteristic features are:
(a) The skull was flattish-topped and projected behind.
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(b) The brow ridges were solid above the orbits.
(c) The brain volume was 775-900 c.c. The imprint of brain possibly indicated the ability of speech.
(d) The jaws were protruding.
(e) The teeth were arranged in even curve but the canines were projecting.
(f) The femur reflected its upright posture.
(g) The height was about 5 feet. No associated tools were found.
 Pithecanthropus (Sinanthropus) pekinensis —Peking man: The remains of skulls and

parts, jaws with teeth and some limb bones of Pithecanthropus (Sinanthropus)
pekinensis were discovered up to 1943 from the Mid-Pleistocene caves at Choukoutien
(South-west of Peking), China.
The noted features are:
(a) The skull was small and the brain volume was 850-1300 c.c.
(b) The skull was low-vaulted.
(c) The brow ridges were stout.
(d) The imprint of brain suggested the ability of speech.
Various implements of quartz and other rocks were discovered. The hearths showed the use
of fire.
Hominin, Any member of the zoological “tribe” Hominini (family Hominidae, order Primates), of which
only one species exists today—Homo sapiens, or human beings. The term is used most often to refer
to extinct members of the human lineage, some of which are now quite well known from fossil
remains: Homo neanderthalensis (the Neanderthals), Homo erectus, Homo habilis, and various
species of Australopithecus. In addition, many authorities place the genera Ardipithecus, Orrorin,
and Kenyanthropus in Hominini. The primate group most closely related to Hominini today is
Gorillini (the African apes), comprising the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the bonobo. Gorillini and
Hominini are part of the great ape family, Hominidae. Some characteristics that have distinguished
hominins from other primates, living and extinct, are their erect posture, bipedal locomotion, larger
brains, and behavioral characteristics such as specialized tool use and, in some cases,
communication through language.
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Australopithecus, (Latin: “southern ape”) (genus Australopithecus), group of
extinct primates closely related to, if not actually ancestors of, modern human beings and known
from a series of fossils found at numerous sites in eastern, north-central, and southern Africa. The
various species of Australopithecus lived 4.4 million to 1.4 million years ago (mya), during
the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs (which lasted from 5.3 million to 11,700 years ago).
The genus name, meaning “southern ape,” refers to the first fossils found, which were discovered
in South Africa. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Australopithecus is “Lucy,” a remarkably
preserved fossilized skeleton from Ethiopia that has been dated to 3.2 mya.Australopithecus bore a
combination of humanlike and apelike traits. They were similar to modern humans in that they
were bipedal (that is, they walked on two legs), but, like apes, they had small brains. Their canine
teeth were smaller than those found in apes, and their cheek teeth were larger than those of modern
humans.
The general term australopith (or australopithecine) is used informally to refer to members of the
genus Australopithecus. Australopithecines include the genus Paranthropus (2.3–1.2 mya),
which comprises three species of australopiths—collectively called the “robusts” because of their very
large cheek teeth set in massive jaws. Non-australopithecine members of the human lineage
(hominins) include Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 mya), Orrorin tugenensis (6
mya), Ardipithecus kadabba (5.8–5.2 mya), and Ar. ramidus (5.8–4.4 mya)—that is,
pre-Australopithecus species that are considered to be ancient humans—and one additional species
of early human, Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5 mya).
Bipedalism, however, appears to have been established in the six-million-year-old Orrorin tugenensis,
a pre-Australopithecus found in the Tugen Hills near Lake Baringo in central Kenya. In 2001 these
fossils were described as the earliest known hominin. O. tugenensis is primitive in most if not all of
its anatomy, except for femurs (thighbones) that appear to share traits of bipedalism with modern
humans. Like later hominins, it has teeth with thick molar enamel, but, unlike humans, it has
distinctively apelike canine and premolar teeth. The case for its hominin status rests on the
humanlike features of the femur.
Another candidate for the earliest hominin is classified in the genus Ardipithecus (5.8–4.4 mya). The
remains of Ar. kadabba (5.8–5.2 mya), which were discovered in the middle Awash River valley in
the Afar region of Ethiopia (a depression located in the northern part of the country that extends
northeast to the Red Sea), comprise fragments of limb bones, isolated teeth, a partial mandible, and a
toe bone. Ar. ramidus, which was discovered in the middle Awash valley in 1992 at a site
named Aramis, is known from a crushed and distorted partial skeleton. The skull is apelike with a
tiny brain—300–350 cc (18.3–21.4 cubic inches), which is equivalent to a brain weight of about
300–350 grams (10.6–12.3 ounces)—and a prognathic (projecting) snout. The foramen magnum (large
hole) at the base of the skull is located under the braincase, as in a biped, and not posteriorly, as in a
quadrupedal (four-legged) ape . Several other anatomical characteristics of Ar. ramidus suggest that
it was adapted to an arboreal setting. The upper limb differs from that of modern humans. It is very
long, which allowed its fingertips to extend at least to the knee. The extremely large hands of the
species suggest a lifestyle that included significant climbing and other activities among the trees. The
pelvis is a mix of ape and human traits; it appears to be broader, shorter, and narrower than an ape’s
pelvis and reminiscent of a bipedal pelvis. The foot is notably apelike with elongated toes and a fully
divergent great toe for moving about in trees.
Australopithecus anamensis : The earliest member of the genus Australopithecus is Au.

anamensis, which was discovered in northern Kenya near Lake Turkana at Kanapoi and Allia Bay.
The species was first described in 1995 after an analysis of isolated teeth, upper and lower jaws,
fragments of a cranium, and a tibia unearthed at the discovery sites. Australopithecus anamensis is
a hominin species that lived approximately between 4.2 and 3.8 million years ago and is the oldest
known Australopithecus species. Nearly one hundred fossil specimens are known
from Kenya and Ethiopia,representing over 20 individuals. It is usually accepted that A.
afarensis emerged within this lineage.However, A. anamensis and A. afarensis appear to have lived
side-by-side, and it is not fully settled whether the lineage that led to extant humans emerged in A.
afarensis, or directly in A. anamensis.
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A badly crushed and distorted cranium found at Lomekwi on the western shore of Lake Turkana in
northern Kenya in 1998 was assigned to a new genus and species, “human from
Kenya,” Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5 mya). It too is associated with woodland fauna.
 Australopithecus afarensis and Au. garhi : - The best-known member of Australopithecus is Au.
afarensis, a species represented by more than 400 fossil specimens from virtually every region of
the hominin skeleton. Dated to between about 3.8 and 2.9 mya, 90 percent of the fossils assigned
to Au. afarensis derive from Hadar, a site in Ethiopia’s Afar Triangle. Au. afarensis fossils have also
been found in Chad, Kenya, and Tanzania.The morphology of Au. afarensis is a mosaic of apelike
features and humanlike traits shared by later hominins.The cranial capacity of Au. afarensis ranges
from 380–530 cc (23.2–32.3 cubic inches), about one-third the size of that of a modern human. In
addition, numerous anatomical details in the mandible and skull are indicative of an apelike ancestry
and suppport the distinction of Au. afarensis from other species of Australopithecus.Sexual
dimorphism—that is, the differences in appearance between males and females—was marked in Au.
afarensis. In 1995 a mandible resembling that of Au. afarensis came to light from a site near Koro
Toro in northern Chad. It is 3.5 million years old and was assigned to a new species, Au.
bahrelghazali. Most of its anatomical features are identical to those of Au. Afarensis. A curious
cranium discovered in 1997 at Bouri in the Afar region of Ethiopia was placed in the species Au.
garhi (2.5 mya). The species takes its name, garhi, from the Afar word for surprise. The specimen
possessed a number of traits in common with Au. afarensis, most notably the prognathic face, but the
cheek teeth were significantly larger than any assigned to Au. afarensis. Another feature of the Bouri
specimen was a crest running along the midline of the braincase, the sagittal crest. The combination
of the large teeth, large jaw, and sagittal crest—which are all features of the robusts—and the
ancestral anatomy of Au. afarensis suggest that Au. garhi descended from Au. afarensis and that it
evolved in the direction of the robust Australopiths.
 Australopithecus africanus : - In 1925 South African anthropologist Raymond Dart coined

the genus name Australopithecus to identify a child’s skull recovered from mining operations
at Taung in South Africa.
 Australopithecus sediba :- In 2008 the first A. sediba remains, a fossilized jawbone and
collarbone belonging to a juvenile male hominin, were found outside Malapa Cave in the Transvaal
area of South Africa. A number of similarities in facial structure and dentition between A.
sediba and A. africanus suggested that A. sediba could have been a direct descendant of A. africanus.
In addition, the mosaic of humanlike and apelike characteristics displayed by these two specimens
of A. sediba indicated that this species was unlike any other known hominin. Some of the
most-striking features were present in the hand and wrist of the female specimen, which was the most
complete of any extinct hominin known. It displayed shorter fingers and an elongated thumb, which
may have allowed A. sediba to make and use simple tools, perhaps even stone tools. The presence of
these and other humanlike structures in the pelvis, foot and leg, and skull—many of which also
occured in H. erectus, the earliest undisputed precursor to modern humans—led
some paleoanthropologists (that is, those who study the origins and development of early humans) to
speculate that A. sediba could have been the direct ancestor of Homo. Other paleoanthropologists
disputed this claim, arguing that A. sediba may have been part of A. africanus
 Australopithecus aethiopicus :- Australopithecus aethiopicus (2.7–2.3 mya), formerly known

as Paranthropus aethopicus, is the earliest of the so-called robust australopiths, a group that also
includes A. robustus and A. boisei . Australopithecus robustus and A. boisei are also referred to
as “robust” australopiths. In addition to a well-developed skull crest for the attachment of the
temporalis (or temporal muscle, which is used in chewing), other specializations for strong chewing
include huge cheek teeth, massive jaws, and powerfully built cheekbones that project forward. These
features make the skulls of the robusts look very different from those of modern humans. Robert
Broom recovered the first specimen of a robust australopith in 1938 from the South African cave site
of Kromdraai. He gave it the name Paranthropus robustus (meaning “to the side of humans”)and
noted its hominin features as well as its exaggerated chewing apparatus.
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The 1959 discovery of a nearly complete cranium by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania,
first revealed the presence of a robust australopith in East Africa. The fossil was dated to 1.8 mya,
and it was the first African hominin whose age was accurately measured by argon analysis. It shares
with its South African cousin the combination of chewing specializations. The Olduvai specimen,
sometimes called “Nutcracker Man,” is placed its own species, A. boisei—which dates to 2.3–1.3 mya
and has been identified at a number of sites in Kenya and Ethiopia. Because of the greatly
exaggerated features related to mastication in A. boisei, it is sometimes referred to as “hyper-robust.”
It lived at the same time as species of early Homo, but there is some evidence that Homo and A.
boisei preferred different habitats. Despite its enormous chewing apparatus, it had a relatively small
body. A. robustus and A. boisei fossils are found with mammals that are usually associated with dry
grassland habitats. Studies examining carbon isotope ratios found in tooth enamel suggests A.
boisei was a grass eater.
Homo, genus of the family Hominidae (order Primates) characterized by a relatively large cranial
capacity, limb structure adapted to a habitual erect posture and a bipedal gait, well-developed and
fully opposable thumbs, hands capable of power and precision grips, and the ability to make
standardized precision tools, using one tool to make another. Together with modern humans, Homo
sapiens, the genus includes the extinct species H. habilis, H. erectus, and H. heidelbergensis as well
as the Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis), the early form of Homo sapiens called Cro-Magnon, and
the enigmatic H. naledi
Homo habilis, (Latin: “able man” or “handy man”) extinct species of human, the most ancient
representative of the human genus, Homo. Homo habilis inhabited parts of sub-Saharan Africa from
roughly 2.4 to 1.5 million years ago (mya). In 1959 and 1960 the first fossils were discovered
at Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania.and later by Richard Leakey (1972), the son of Mary and Louis
Leakey along the eastern shore of Lake Turkana in North Kenya. This discovery was a turning point in
the science of paleoanthropology because the oldest previously known human fossils were Asian
specimens of Homo erectus. Many features of H. habilis appear to be intermediate in terms of
evolutionary development between the relatively primitive Australopithecus and the
more-advanced Homo species.Formal announcement of the discoveries was made in 1964 by
anthropologists Louis S.B. Leakey, Phillip Tobias, and John Napier. As justification for designating
their new creature Homo rather than Australopithecus, they described the increased cranial capacity
and comparatively smaller molar and premolar teeth of the fossils, a humanlike foot, and hand bones
that suggested an ability to manipulate objects with precision—hence the species name Homo habilis,
or “handy man.”
Characteristics of Homohabilis
They showed following characteristics
1. The body and brain of Homo habilis were larger than those of Australopithecus.
2. He walked fully erect, but its arms were long and legs short like ape ancestors.
3. His hands were similar to ours and had manual dexterity.
4. He used his hands in making stone tools, which were used in digging underground food and killing
small animals.
5. His tools were crude choppers, made by removing flakes along one side of a pebble. They had an
irregular cutting edge.
6. The size of its cranial cavity reached about 700–800 c.c.
7. It was omnivorous and had begun hunting. 8.Homo habilis lived in small bands or groups with
stable camp sites. It was leading settled life to some extent.
9. It also showed sexual division of labour and also developed communication with visual signals and
simple audible sounds.
Homo ergaster
Fossils of Homo ergaster appeared about 2 Mya. The limb proportions in these forms were more like
those of modern humans. This lineage gave rise to two branches: (i) Homo erectus and (ii) Homo
heidelbergensis.
Homo erectus, (Latin: “upright man”) extinct species of the human genus (Homo), perhaps an
ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens). Homo erectus was the first hominid species to leave
Africa and spread out in Asia and Europe. Its first fossil was discovered in 1891 by Eugene Dubois
from Java. It was named Pithecanthropus erectus meaning ‘ape-man that walks erect’. Similar fossils
were found in a cave, Choukoutien, near Peking in China and were named Sinanthropus pekinensis.
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On account of their similarities with Java ape-man they were renamed Pithecanthropus pekinensis.
But Mayr (1950) replaced these names by Homo erectus so that Java ape man is known as Homo
erectus erectus and Peking man as Homo erectus pekinensis. They are described as ape-like man that
walked straight. H. erectus most likely originated in Africa, though Eurasia cannot be ruled out.
Regardless of where it first evolved, the species seems to have dispersed quickly, starting about 1.9
million years ago (mya) near the middle of the Pleistocene Epoch, moving through the African
tropics, Europe, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. H. erectus was a human of medium stature that
walked upright. The braincase was low, the forehead was receded, and the nose, jaws, and palate were
wide. The brain was smaller and the teeth larger than in modern humans. H. erectus appears to have
been the first human species to control fire, some 1,000,000 years ago. The species seems to have
flourished until some 200,000 years ago (200 kya) or perhaps later before giving way to other humans
including Homo sapiens.The first fossils attributed to Homo erectus were discovered by a Dutch army
surgeon, Eugène Dubois, who began his search for ancient human bones on the island of Java (now
part of Indonesia) in 1890. Dubois found his first specimen in the same year, and in 1891 a
well-preserved skullcap was unearthed at Trinil on the Solo River. Considering its prominent
browridges, retreating forehead, and angled rear skull, Dubois concluded that the Trinil cranium
showed anatomic features intermediate between those of humans (as they were then understood) and
those of apes. Several years later, near where the skull was discovered, he found a remarkably
complete and modern-looking femur (thighbone). Since this bone was so similar to a modern human
femur, Dubois decided that the individual to which it belonged must have walked erect. He adopted
the name Pithecanthropus (coined earlier by the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel) and called his
discoveries Pithecanthropus erectus (“upright ape-man”), but the colloquial term became “Java
man.”
 Characters of Homo erectus
1. Homo erectus had skeleton much like ours but more primitive skull with a cranial cavity of about
1000 c.c.
2. They were hunters and food gatherers.
3. They used stone tools for hunting and butchering deers, antelopes and even large ferocious animals
such as bears, wild oxen and elephants.
4. Their tools included hand axes, chopping tools, flakes, points, cleavers and even scrapers. They
had started using bone and wooden tools as well.
5. Signs of organised or cooperative hunting have been found in Europe.
6. They had also learned the use of fire for cooking.
7. Their face was still unlike that of modern humans with large brow ridges over the eyes, slightly
protruding face and no chin.
Features Responsible for Evolution of Homo erectus
1. Because of omnivorous diet and eat ing cooked meat, the molars of Homo erectus were
comparatively
reduced.
2. Cultural adaptations to temperature and cold climate and use of tools for hunting large migratory
animals provided stimulus for rapid development of modern human features like larger brain and
accelerated growth of human culture.
3. Disappearance of estrus cycle in the course of hominid evolution acted as a factor in binding of
male to
the family and stabilisation of family.
1. Java Man ( Homo erectus erectus = Pithecanthropus erectus ) were found in 1891 by Dubois on
the bank of Solo River in eastern Java.It had a cranial cavity about 940 c .c. intermediate between that
of Australopithecus (600-700 c.c.) and modem man and modem man 1600 c.c.. It was more than five
feet tall and weig hed 70 kg. Its forehead was low and slanting, the face was prognathous, and the
jaws were massive with huge teeth . The chin was absent but bony eyebrow ridges present over the
eyes were heavy. Their molars were sma ller but frontal teeth (incisors and canines) were large and
more promi nent indicating omnivoro us diet.
2. Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis = Pithecanthropus pekinensis or Sinanthropus pekinensisn :-
Its fossils were discovered from caves near Peking in 1920 by Davidson Black. They lived most probabl
y about 1,50,000 to 50,000 years ago. Peking man was very similar to Java man with heavy bony
eyebrow ridges , low slanting forehead and chinless face. But its cranial cavity was much larger than
Java man ranging from 850-1200 c.c. and averaging 1075 c.c.
 In addition to them , Gigantopithecus and Meganthrop us are described to be related to Java
and Peking ape man.
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Homo heidelbergensis, extinct species of archaic human (genus Homo) known from fossils dating
from 600,000 to 200,000 years ago in Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia. The name first appeared in
print in 1908 to accommodate an ancient human jaw discovered in 1907 near the town of Mauer, 16
km (10 miles) southeast of Heidelberg, Germany. The craniums have massive brow ridges, a long and
low braincase, and thick vault bones like those of H. erectus. The braincases are larger than what is
typical for H. erectus, but the skulls lack the unique specializations that characterize
the Neanderthals. it appears to many researchers that H. heidelbergensis is the common ancestor of
both Neanderthals and modern humans and that the transition from H. heidelbergensis to H.
sapiens occurred in Africa prior to 300,000 years ago.
Neanderthal, (Homo neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis), also spelled Neandertal,

member of a group of archaic humans who emerged at least 200,000 years ago during the Pleistocene
Epoch (about 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago) and were replaced or assimilated by early
modern human populations (Homo sapiens) between 35,000 and perhaps 24,000 years ago.Because
Neanderthals lived in a land of abundant limestone caves, which preserved bones well, and where
there has been a long history of prehistoric research, they are better known than any other archaic
human group. Consequently, they have become the archetypal “cavemen.” The
name Neanderthal (or Neandertal) derives from the Neander Valley (German Neander
Thal or Neander Tal) in Germany, where the fossils were first found. The first human fossil
assemblage described as Neanderthal was discovered in 1856 in the Feldhofer Cave of the Neander
Valley, near Düsseldorf, Germany.During the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th
century, additional fossils that resembled the Neanderthals from the Feldhofer and Spy caves were
discovered from various parts of europe and western asia and russia.The earliest genetic studies of
Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA supported the idea that the origin of modern humans was a
speciation event. More recently, however, it was reported that Eurasians generally carry about 2
percent Neanderthal nuclear DNA, which suggests that modern humans and
Neanderthals interbred and thus were not two different biological species, despite most
classifications treating them as such.When single specimens of Neanderthals and modern humans
are compared, Neanderthals can easily be distinguished. When a broad range of individuals are
examined, however, the variation observed fails to isolate Neanderthals as a group that is completely
distinct from modern humans for every trait.
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Homo neanderthalensis—Neanderthal man:
The remains of Homo neanderthalensis totalling well over one hundred individuals were
discovered from the late Pleistocene bed (before or during first Ice Age) in Spain and North
Africa to Ethiopia, Mesopotamia. Southern Russia, Gilbraltar, Neanderthal Valley near
Dusseldorf (Germany) from 1848-1861.
 The Neanderthal man had:
(a) massive long and flat-topped skull.
(b) The forehead was receding.
(c) The brow ridges were heavy.
(d) The nose was broad.
(e) The orbits were large.
(f) The average brain volume was 1450 c.c.
(g) The jaws were protruding but the chin was receding.
(h) The teeth were large.
(i) The attachment sites of occipital region of skull and the cervical vertebrae indicated the
existence of powerful neck muscles.
(j) The limb bones were heavy and slightly curved.
(k) The height of males was about 5 feet 3-5 inches.
The females were shorter than males. The Neanderthal man used to live in caves and rock
shelters with stone stools and weapons. There was evidence of use of fire. The estimated age
was about 100,000 years.
Homo sapiens – Cro- Magnon man:
The remains of Cro-Magnon man of estimated age about 30,000-13,000 b.c. were found in
late Pleistocene (close of last Ice Age and later) bed of France to Czechoslovakia, East Africa
and Eastern Asia.
 The distinguishing features are:
(a) The skull was long and high with no brow ridges.
(b) The face resembled the modern man.
(c) The occipital region of skull was rounded.
(d) The chin was well developed.
(e) The average brain volume was about 1590 c.c.
(f) The height of males was about 5 feet 10 inches.
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They were cave-dweller. They had stone implements and they could make wall paintings and
sculpture.
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New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines

The small-bodied hominin, named Homo luzonensis, lived on the island of Luzon at least 50,000 to
67,000 years ago. At the northern tip of the Philippine island of Luzon lies Callao Cave . The Callao
Cave bones have a unique combination of primitive and modern human traits, leading the
researchers to classify them as an entirely new species: Homo luzonensis.
Homo floresiensis, taxonomic name given to an extinct hominin (member of the human lineage) that is
presumed to have lived on the Indonesian island of Flores as recently as 12,000 years ago). The origins of
the species are not fully understood. Some evidence suggests that Homo floresiensis descended from
modern humans (H. sapiens), and other
evidence supports the notion that H.
floresiensis descended from a different
species within genus Homo.Skeletal
remains of an adult female and other
individuals were found at the Liang Bua
cave on Flores in 2004 by a team of
Australian and Indonesian
anthropologists. An initial analysis of
the remains indicated that H.
floresiensis stood only some 100 cm (40
inches) tall and had long arms and a
skull with a cranial capacity of a mere
380 cc, comparable to that of a
modern chimpanzee, yet the delicate skeletal bones, nonprojecting face, and reduced dentition placed
them squarely within the human family. On the basis of these findings, the hominin’s discoverers
classified it as a distinct species of genus Homo and theorized that it may have descended from H. erectus,
a much older and larger hominin that may also be the ancestor of modern humans.
Homo floresiensis ("Flores Man"; nicknamed "hobbit") is a small species of archaic human which
inhabited the island of Flores, Indonesia, until the arrival of modern humans about 50,000 years
ago.were discovered in 2003 at Liang Bua on the island of Flores in Indonesia. At first, the skeleton
looked like a child’s. Uncovered in the gaping Liang Bua cave on the Indonesian island of Flores, the
female hominin would have stood just 3.5 feet tall in life. But she wasn't a youngster, and it soon
became clear that the short-statured hominin was something special: a never-before-seen species,
which the researchers dubbed Homo floresiensis.
Denisovan
The Denisovans or Denisova hominins ( /dɪˈniːsəvə/ di-NEE-sə-və) are an extinct species or
subspecies of archaic human that ranged across Asia during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic
(potentially surviving as late as 30,000–14,500 years ago in New Guinea).The first Denisovan
individual was identified in 2010 based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) extracted from a juvenile
female finger bone from the Siberian Denisova Cave. Nuclear DNA (nDNA) indicates close affinities
with Neanderthals.
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Difference Between Hominid and Hominin

Hominid and hominin are two names used in the scientific classification of apes including humans. In
older classifications, all apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and humans were classified
into three families since scientist identified humans as distinct animals from the other apes.
Therefore, Hominidae or hominids is the family which included humans in the older classification.
Over time, with the help of improved techniques, scientists started placing humans and their great
apes together into the family hominid. Then, they divided orangutans into a separate subfamily. All
the remaining great apes were placed in another subfamily. In the next level, chimpanzees, gorillas,
and humans were divided into three separate taxonomic levels. Here, humans belong to the Hominini
or hominins. The main difference between hominid and hominin is that hominid is the family to
which humans belong whereas hominin is the tribe level to which humans belong to. The tribe level
occurs between the subfamily and genus.
What is Hominid
Hominid refers to a group of primates, consisting of all modern and extinct Great apes. This includes
modern humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans plus all their immediate ancestors.
Hominidae is the name of the family wherein hominid is the common name of this primate group.
Together with gibbons, hominids belong to the superfamily Hominoidea. Humans and their
extinct species belong to the tribe Hominidae. Other great apes were placed in the family Pongidae in
the older classification. But later, morphological and molecular studies showed that humans are more
related to chimpanzees. However, gorillas and orangutans are more distinct. Therefore, orangutans
are placed in a different subfamily Ponginae. Gorilla, humans, and their extinct species are placed in
the subfamily Homininae. But, later classifications place humans and their extinct species in the tribe
Hominini. Paninae is a proposed tribe in which chimpanzees and bonobos are going to be placed.
However, since they are genetically more distinct from gorillas, they can be also placed in the same
tribe with humans as well. The ancestors of chimpanzees and humans separated about 5 million
years ago.
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What is Hominin
Hominin refers to a group of primates, consisting

of modern humans, extinct human species, and all their
immediate ancestors. This includes Neanderthals, Homo
erectus, and the species of Australopithecus. All
hominins are placed in the tribe Hominini. Hominins
show complex cognitive attributes such as recognizing
themselves in mirrors. The other characteristic features
of hominins are reduced canine size, increasing brain
size, and bipedalism.
Modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) is the only

surviving hominins up to date. Fossils of extinct human
species were found in Africa, Europe, and Asia.
Similarities Between Hominid and Hominin
Hominid and hominin are two taxonomic levels to which humans and other apes belong to.
Both hominid and hominin belong to the order Primates.
Both hominids and hominin are more archeology or anthropology-related.
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Difference Between Hominid and Hominin
 Definition Hominin: Hominini is a sub-group of hominids.
Hominid: Hominid refers to a group of primates,  Quadrupeds/Bipeds

consisting of all modern and extinct Great Apes
(that is, modern humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, Hominid: Most hominids are quadrupeds.
and orang-utans plus all their immediate
ancestors). Hominin: Most hominins are bipeds.
Hominin: Hominin refers to a group of primates,  Development

consisting of modern humans, extinct human
species and all their immediate ancestors Hominid: Most hominids are less developed.
(including members of the
genera Homo, Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Hominin: Most hominins are more developed
and Ardipithecus). than hominids.
 Taxonomic Level  Food

Hominid: Hominidae is a family. Hominid: Less developed hominids prefer fruits.
Hominin: Hominini is a tribe level between Hominin: Hominins prefer fruits, grains, nuts,
subfamily and genus. and animal tissues.
 Types of Apes  Conclusion

Hominid: Hominids consist of chimpanzees, Hominid and hominin are two groups of
gorillas, orang-utans, and all humans.
primates. Hominidae is a family, consisting of
chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and all
Hominin: Hominins consist of modern humans humans. They are commonly called hominids.
and extinct human species. Hominini is a tribe, consisting of modern
humans and their extinct species. Therefore,
 Number of Species hominins are a subgroup of hominids. The main
difference between hominid and hominin is the
Hominid: Hominidae has more species. type of animals that belong to each taxonomic
group.
What is the Difference Between Anthropoids and Hominoids

The main difference between anthropoids and hominoids is that anthropoids include hominoids
and New World and Old World monkeys, whereas hominoids only include humans
and apes. Furthermore, monkeys in the group of anthropoids have a tail while hominoids do not have
a tail. In addition to these, hominoids have significantly increased brain size, mental capabilities, and
lifespan when compared to monkeys.
Anthropoids and hominoids are simians (Infraorder Simiiformes) who are flat-nosed primates.
Generally, simians belong to the haplorhines – the “dry-nosed” primates
Anthropoids – Taxonomy, Characteristics, Classification
Generally, anthropoids are primates, excluding prosimians, which include

strepsirrhines, haplorhine tarsiers, and their extinct relatives. Therefore, anthropoids are simians
that belong to the infraorder Simiiformes or flat-nosed primates. Also, they include the
two parvorders Patyrrhini and Catarrhini. Furthermore, the parvorder Catarrhini includes the
two superfamilies: Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys) and Hominoidea (apes), including the
genus Homo. New World monkeys originated 40 million years ago in South America, while the
remaining simians split into Old World monkeys and apes around 25 million years ago.
Page 37 of 39
New World Monkeys
New-world monkey lives in neotropical forests in Central and South America. Generally, the size of
their body may vary from 6 inches (pygmy marmoset) to 3 feet (howler monkey) in length. Besides, the
nostrils of the new-world monkeys are wide, circular, and spaced apart.
Moreover, they have long tails, which sometimes serve as a prehensile. However, they lack buttock
pads and cheek pouches.
Old World Monkeys
Old-world monkeys live in Asia and Africa. Basically, they are larger than new-world monkeys. Their
nostrils are narrow and point downward. Furthermore, their hind legs are longer than the forearms.
Also, they have flattened nails on both fingers and toes.
They have prominent buttock pads on which they sit. Cercopithecinae (cheek-pouched monkeys)
and Colobinae (leaf-eating monkeys) are the two subfamilies of old-world monkeys.
Hominoids – Taxonomy, Characteristics, Classification
Hominoids or apes are the superfamily of Old World, tailles simians that are native to Africa and
Southeast Asia. Along with Old World monkeys, they form the parvorder Catarrhini. One of the main
distinguishing features of hominoids is the wider degree of freedom of motion at the shoulder joint as
evolved by the influence of brachiation. Traditionally, the term ‘apes’ exclude humans and only
includes two groups: the lesser apes and the greater apes. However, the superfamily Hominoidea or
hominoids also include the genus Homo (humans).
The Lesser Apes
The lesser apes consist of gibbons. Generally, they are smaller than great apes and live in pairs. The
largest type is the siamangs.
The Greater Apes
Gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and bonobos are great apes. Basically, the face of great apes is
not covered with hair and lack cheek pouches. Their ears are round. Their fingers are opposable, and
the thumb is shorter. Moreover, the great apes are bipedal. Basically, they rely on vision rather than
smell. Also, they have a wide range of facial expressions and vocalizations. They are intelligent and are
capable of thinking, as well.
Humans
Humans belong to the genus Homo, which includes the modern human (Homo sapiens) and several
extinct species, starting from the extinct genus Australopithecus. Modern humans emerged close to
300,000 to 200,000 years ago in Africa. However, today, they are present all over the world. More
significantly, humans have a large and complex brain with the highest intellectual capabilities.
 Similarities Between Anthropoids and Hominoids
a) Anthropoids and hominoids are two types of simians that are primates with flat noses.
b) They arose 85–55 million years ago first as plesiadapiforme from small terrestrial mammals
(Primatomorpha).
c) Generally, they adapted to live in the trees of tropical forests.
d) They have four limbs: a pair of legs and a pair of arms with an altered shoulder girdle.
e) Furthermore, their limbs are highly flexible with dexterous fingers.
f) Their body is covered with short, dense hair, except for the face.
g) They have flat faces with small ears.
Page 38 of 39
h) Moreover, their eyes are forward-facing with visual acuity, colour vision and an excellent depth of
perception.
i) Their brains are relatively large and complex.
j) In addition to the above, they are omnivores, consuming small invertebrates, fruits, and plants.
Difference Between Anthropoids and Hominoids
 Definition  Body Size
Anthropoids refer to an infraorder of primates containing While monkeys have a small body with a
the parvorders Patyrrhini and Catarrhini, which consists quadrupedal position, apes have a
of the superfamilies Cercopithecoidea and Hominoidea.
Meanwhile, the hominoids refer to a branch of Old World, comparatively large body with upright posture.
tailless simians native to Africa and Southeast Asia.
 Chest
 Other Names
Monkeys have a narrow chest, while apes have a
Anthropoids are also known as simians while broader chest.
hominoids are also known as apes.
 Limbs
 Taxonomy
The limbs of monkeys have an equal length while
Moreover, anthropoids belong to the the upper limbs are longer in apes and lower
infraorder Simiiformes while hominoids belong limbs are longer in humans.
to the superfamily Hominoidea.
 Shoulders
 Classification
Furthermore, monkeys have narrow shoulders,
Anthropoids include the infraorder while the apes have stronger and flexible
of catarrhines (Old World monkeys and apes) shoulders.
and the infraorder of platyrrhines (New World
Monkeys) while hominoids include the family  Straightening of Upper Limbs
of Hylobatidae (the lesser apes), the family
of Hominidae (the greater apes) and the The arms of the monkey cannot be straightened
genus Homo (humans). at the elbow while the wrist and the forearm can
achieve a limited range of movements. In
 Origination comparison to this, the arms of the ape fully
straightened at the elbow, while the wrist and
Anthropoids originated forty million years ago, the forearm can achieve a wide range of
giving rise to New World monkeys through the movements.
colonization in South America
and twenty-five million years ago, Old World
monkeys and apes split.
 Tail
 Number of Species
New World monkeys have a long and flexible tail,
Around 260 known species of monkeys live in Old World monkeys have short tails, while the
the world while around 23 known species of apes apes do not have a tail.
live in the world.
 Moving in Trees
 Habitat
Monkeys run along the tops of the trees by
Monkeys live in Asia, Africa, Central, and South jumping with the use of tail for the balance,
America while apes live in Africa and South while the apes swing from branch to branch.
Asia.
Page 39 of 39
 Brain Size
Whereas monkeys have a small brain, apes and  Conclusion

humans have comparatively a large and complex
brain. Anthropoids are simians, which include humans,
apes, Old World monkeys, and New World
 Rely on Senses Monkeys. New World monkeys evolved forty
million years ago in South America. They have a
Monkeys rely on the smell, while apes rely on smaller body size with the quadrupedal position,
vision. narrow chest and shoulders, and a long,
flexible tail. On the other hand, Old World
monkeys and apes evolved twenty-five million
years ago. Basically, hominoids are apes and
 Intellectual Capabilities humans. However, they have a large body with
an upright position and a significantly large and
complex brain. They do not have a tail.
Moreover, monkeys have lower intellectual
Meanwhile, humans show the highest
capabilities, while the apes have a complex
evolutionary level with the highest intellectual
social-behavioural system and higher cognitive
capabilities. Therefore, the main difference
skills.
between anthropoids and hominoids is their
evolution and characteristics.

Evolution:: The Origin and Evolution of Man

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Evolution : The Origin and Evolution of Man

MYA = MILLION YEARS AGO

The fourth stage features

(a) The face becomes flattened and is devoid of a nuzzle

(b) The brow ridges gradually decline and disappear.

(d) The skull is rounded at the rear.

(f) A mastoid process arises in the ear region.

(h) The arms with the fingers

(i) The vertebral column shows

(j) The ilia are wider than length.

Among primates the

A. Structural similarities: (iv) Fewer lumbar vertebrae,

(i) More or less bipedal locomotion, (v) Presence of brow ridges,

(ii) Semi-erect or erect posture, (vi) Grasping pollex in both cases,

(iii) Absence of tail in both cases, (vii) Menstrual cycles in females.

AB blood group is found in both apes and humans.

(ii) Serum tests indicate protein homology to

D. Cytological and Molecular homology:

The fossil record of living African apes is not

At present the differences are:

(i) DNA content in diploid cells is similar,

(iv) Human beings have 46 chromosomes while apes have 48.

 Differences between apes (Pongidae) and Humans (Hominidae) (Fig. 10.83)

(ix) The skull of gorilla (Fig. 10.84A) possesses brow

(x) The ape’s brain differs in size and organization

(xi) In humans, neck is long and the position of

Biological Trends in Human Evolution:( see later as question anwer)

The evolution of man involves the following significant changes:

(b) Perfection of hand for tool making.

(c) Increase of intelligence and size of brain.

 Australopithecus, Pithecanthropus (A.robustus) , Zinjanthropus (A.bosei), etc.,

Characteristics of Australopithecines : Australopithecines show following characteristic features:

Pithecanthropus erectus—Java man:

Fragmentary remains of Pithecanthropus erectus were discovered in Mid-Pleistocene of Solo River

 The characteristic features are:

(a) The skull was flattish-topped and projected behind.

(d) The jaws were protruding.

(f) The femur reflected its upright posture.

 Pithecanthropus (Sinanthropus) pekinensis —Peking man: The remains of skulls and

The noted features are:

(b) The skull was low-vaulted.

(c) The brow ridges were stout.

(d) The imprint of brain suggested the ability of speech.

Australopithecus anamensis : The earliest member of the genus Australopithecus is Au.

 Australopithecus africanus : - In 1925 South African anthropologist Raymond Dart coined

 Australopithecus aethiopicus :- Australopithecus aethiopicus (2.7–2.3 mya), formerly known

Neanderthal, (Homo neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis), also spelled Neandertal,

 The Neanderthal man had:

(a) massive long and flat-topped skull.

(b) The forehead was receding.

(c) The brow ridges were heavy.

(d) The nose was broad.

(e) The orbits were large.

(f) The average brain volume was 1450 c.c.

(h) The teeth were large.

(j) The limb bones were heavy and slightly curved.

(k) The height of males was about 5 feet 3-5 inches.

Homo sapiens – Cro- Magnon man:

 The distinguishing features are:

(b) The face resembled the modern man.

(c) The occipital region of skull was rounded.

(d) The chin was well developed.