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Third Century Chaos Diocletian and the New Empire

(updated)
The murder of Severus Alexander in A.D. 235 ushered in fifty years of unprecedented crisis . . . The frontiers were under repeated attack. The office of emperor became a political football tossed back and forth. W-H-Y, 384

Third Century Chaos

A.D. 235284: 50 years, 18 emperors! Maximinus Thrax [A.D. 235-238]
Derided as a common peasant, actually a strong soldiers emperor Doubled soldiers pay, extracted ever higher taxes

Gordian I and Gordian II [A.D. 238]

Maximinus demands caused a revolt among African landlords, proconsul of Africa and his son declared emperors Never came to, or ruled from, Rome Governor of Numidia put them down

Pupienus and Balbinus [A.D. 238]

Senate appoints co-emperors Italy rallies, Maximinus killed by his own troops when he invades Italy Praetorians assassinate Pupienus and Balbinus

Gordian III [A.D. 238244]

The praetorian prefect, Philip the Arab, eventually kills Gordian and becomes emperor himself [A.D. 244249],
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Decius [A.D. 249251]

Philip had sent him to put down a revolt of the Danube legions After successfully restoring order, he drove the invading Goths back across the Danube
His troops proclaimed him emperor

After defeating Philip the Arab, he spent most of his reign again fighting the Goths
Finally killed in a disastrous battle near the Black Sea

Most infamous for launching the first systematic persecution of Christians in the empire . . .

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Valerianus, [A.D. 253-260]

Valerian, Decius censor, the only responsible official left
Also the last of the Republican nobility Senate liked

Disciplined the army, but in vain

All borders attacked: Franks, Goths, Persians Plague ravishes troops and civilians alike
The surrender of the emperor Valerian to the Persian king Shapur, rock relief, AD 260, in the province of Fars, Iran.

The Persian triumph

The old Parthian Empire was replaced by a native Persian dynasty, the Sassanids Valerian himself is captured! Persians overrun Syria and Asia Minor
Expelled only by the quick action of a Roman general and the surprise attack of Odenathus, a desert sheik from Palmyra

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The Aftermath to Valerian

Valerians son, the Augustus Gallienus [A.D. 253268], restores order on the northern frontiers
Drove the Alemanni and the Franks out of Gaul and the Rhineland

Marcomanni broke through Danube frontier and pushed into Italy

Time spent by Gallienus repelling the Marcomanni led the Rhine legions to rebel, proclaiming Postumus as emperor to face the Franks

Reforms and desperate actions of Gallienus

All legions commanded by equestrians Helped reduce possibility of senatorial usurpers Military made more mobile, new emphasis on cavalry Forward bases more important than Rome Extremities left to local dynasties so that central empire could be preserved Odenathus virtually independent in East

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Thirty Tyrants
Well, at least nine . . . Local areas feel neglected and unprotected
Choose their own Augusti The emperor needed on the border but he cannot be on all of them!

Augustus title
Had been used since M. Aurelius to guarantee successor Needed to command?

Postumus Gallic Empire Zenobia, widow of Palmyras Odenathus, overruns the East, including Egypt and much of Asia Minor

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A Divided Empire

Aurelian, [A.D. 270275]

Tough, skillful general Nicknamed hand on steel (Manus ad Ferrum) Retired from Dacia, stabilized Danube frontier against Goths Built wall around Rome Even central Italy no longer safe! Defeated Postumus and his successors Defeated Zenobia, Palmyras queen Autocracy and Monotheism Solar theology focused on Sol Invictus Sunday a feriae Murdered
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Ephemeral Emperors
[Tacitus, 275276] [Floridanus, 276] [Probus, 276282] [Carus, 282283] [Carinus, 283285] [Numerianus, 283284]
Murdered, like many others, by his praetorian prefect (also his father-in-law) But the troops instead turned to a Danubian officer named Diocles

He became emperor as C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (Diocletian, A.D. 284305)

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Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, A.D. 293

Diocletian devised a new way for commanding the army (and running the empire): the Tetrarchy Purposes
Strengthen imperial control of the army Forestall would-be emperors and usurpers Provide for orderly succession

Fourfold Division
Two Augusti, Diocletian (Iovius) and Maximian (Herculius) Two Caesares, Diocletian selects Galerius and Maximian choses Constantius
Each Caesar adopted as heir and marries an Augustus daughter

Moving court
Forward capitals as bases: Constantius (Trier/London); Maximian (Milan); Galerius (Sofia); Diocletian (Nicomedia)

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Administrative Innovations
Four Prefectures
Emperor (Augustus or Caesar) for military Praetorian prefect for judicial and administrative duties

Twelve Dioceses (3 per prefecture)

Each under a vicarius Numerous small provinces, each under a praeses

Senate looses all authority except in Rome Republican magistrates diminished

Consuls become titles without power, just give names to the year
Praefectus Urbi now presides over Senate as emperors representative

1 praetor and 1 quaestor remain to give games (tribunes and aediles disappeared at the time of Severus Alexander)

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The Empire Under Diocletian

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Military Reforms
Increased the size of the Roman military
Added some 100,000 troops for a total of about 500,000 However, these were spread out, often in small detachments

Limitanei, frontier garrisons

Stationed in strongly constructed forts and guard posts both on frontiers and along roads and supply routes Commanded by a dux (duke) or comes (count)

Comitatenses palatini or Palatine Companions

Highly mobile yet heavily armored field armies Always commanded by an emperor

Even more money needed to support the military

Earlier emperors had repeatedly increased their pay!

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Economic and Social Reforms

Problems
Declining tax base Horrible inflation Peasants flee estates Municipal aristocracy avoid offices (and their liturgies), cities decline

Diocletians Edict on Prices

Government sets wages and prices, death penalty in most cases of noncompliance

On the way to Medieval manorialism

Taxes paid in kind Coloni (free tenants) tied to land, become effectively serfs Occupations made hereditary

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Diocletians later years

Diocletian does not trust Maximians son, Maxentius
No ones sons get advanced

Diocletians A.D. 301 persecution of the Christians

Probably at Galerius Caesars instigation Aimed particularly at Christians in the imperial bureaucracy and army Clergy targeted, forced to surrender holy books and implements

A.D. 303, Diocletian visits Rome for the first time to celebrate his Vicennalia (20 year anniversary of rule) Retires in A.D. 305 to a specially prepared palace in Split, Dalmatia
Forces Maximian to abdicate as well Tetrarchy succession plan goes into effect . . .

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