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Produced by: Agriculture and Consumer Title: Basic finance for marketers....
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Chapter objectives
This chapter is intended to provide: An understanding of financial analysis in marketing An explanation of the various activities associated with marketing financial analysis A brief introduction to the various financial analysis methods.
Financial analysis can be used to serve many purposes in an organisation but in the area of marketing it has four main functions: a) to gauge how well marketing strategy is working (situation analysis) b) to evaluate marketing decision alternatives c) to develop plans for the future d) to control activities on a short term or-day to-day basis. In effect these four functions comprise what can be called the "Marketing Financial Analysis Circle" (see figure 1.1) Figure 1.1 The marketing-financial analysis circle
build a new grain depot or silo. c) Financial planning (projections concerning activities which marketing management has decided to undertake) Financial planning is used for a number of activities like: the introduction of a new range of products the forecasting of sales and costs market liberalisation. d) Financial control (actual compared to planned results) This activity is mainly centered around keeping plans on course.
be used. These units are listed in table 1.1. which is by no means exhaustive. Units can be chosen which suit the particular situation or organisation. Table 1.1 - Alternative units in financial analysis
Market Total Market Product/service Industry Organisation Company Segment/Division/Unit Marketing department Regions District/Branch Office/Store Sales person
Market segment (s) Product mix Geographical areas Product line - demographics - product - characteristics - brand - model - size - shape
Current and quick ratios These are used to judge a firm's short term capacity to meet its financial responsibilities. (i) Current ratio
(Current Liability + Short Term Debt + Long Term debt) should be >1 1,720/1,430=1.21
(Long Term Debt + Net Worth) 1,500/2,930=0.51 This ratio shows the extent of leverage (debt) in total capitalisation. Profit analysis Breakeven analysis is a method used to estimate the number of units (volume) or sales value required to make neither profit or losses. In other words, it is the point where costs of production and sales volume are equal. Sales and cost information are used to calculate the breakeven point. Without getting into the argument as to what constitutes fixed or variable costs, fixed costs are defined as those which do not vary with output e.g. rent, rates, whereas variable costs do vary with increased or decreased output, e.g. labour, materials. Breakeven assumes fixed costs are constant, variable costs vary at a constant rate and there is only one selling price. However, with a higher or lower price, the breakeven point will be lower or higher respectively. Breakeven is calculated by the formula:
By rearranging the formula breakeven costs or sales can be calculated. Note that profit level intentions should be added to the fixed costs as this is a "charge" to the company. Also, if one wishes to recover all new investment (value) immediately it should be added to fixed cost. Breakeven can be calculated by the formula or by graphical methods. Figure 1.2 shows an example of both. Figure 1.2 Formula and graphical solution for breakeven analysis i) Formula
Price/Unit = Fixed costs = $ 1.846 $70.000
Contribution analysis: When performance of products, market segments and other marketing units is being analysed, an examination of the profit contribution generated by a unit is often very useful to management. CONTRIBUTION = SALES (REVENUE) - VARIABLE COSTS So, contribution represents the amount of money available to cover fixed costs and the excess available is net income. For example, suppose a product is generating a positive contribution margin. If the product is dropped, the remaining products would have to cover fixed costs that are not directly traceable to it. In the example below if X was eliminated, $50, 000 of product net income would be lost. If the product was retained the $50, 000 could be used to contribute to other fixed costs and/or net income (see figure 1.3.). Gross and net profit margins: Contribution margin is useful for examining the financial performance of products, market segments and other marketing, planning and control units. However, marketing executives should be familiar with the calculation of gross and net profit margins, which is useful to gauge company and business unit financial performance and to budget for future operations. The profit and loss statement is useful for reporting performance to stockholders and to compute taxes. Figure 1.4 gives an example Figure 1.3 Illustrative contribution margin for product X (000's)
$ SALES LESS: Variable manufacturing costs 500 200 200 150 50 Other variable costs traceable to product X 100 EQUALS: Contribution margin LESS: Fixed cost traceable to product X EQUALS: Product's net income
Note: Chapter 5 provides further explanations of a) and b). Figure 1.4 Illustrative profit and loss statement
$ SALES REVENUE LESS EQUALS: LESS: EQUALS: LESS: EQUALS: Cost of goods sold Gross profit margin Net profit before tax Tax Net profit 1,200,000 800,000 400,000 200,000 80,000 120,000
Consider the following sample data taken from Rowe, Mason, Dickel and Westcott (1987)
$ Cost of goods sold Sales Stocks Cash Prepaid expenses Fixed assets 12,000 16,500 3,200 400 50 1,200 Operating expenses 3,600
Financial analysis models Many models, often computerised, have been developed to aid marketers see the effects on the "bottom line" of a change in an organisation. One such programme is the Dupont Analysis The model allows executives to input data into blank boxes and by manipulating any figure find the resulting outcome. One of the advantages of computer based models is that one can work "backward" or "forward" through the model, setting desired levels of cost or outcomes and calculating the results. Figure 1.5 Sample printout of the Dupont analysis
Spreadsheets Spreadsheets are often used in budgeting and forecasting exercises. Spreadsheets use the memory of a computer as if it were a large piece of paper divided up into a matrix of cells. Into these cells may be entered numbers, text and formulae. The power of these systems is that the data held in any one cell can be made dependent on that held in other cells and changing a value in one cell can set (if wanted) a chain reaction of changes through other related cells. This means that a model can be built in which the effect of changing key parameters may be observed. A term often used to describe spreadsheets is "what if software". It can be used, for example, to evaluate the effect of changing the sales commission rate. Simply entering a new value in the commission rate cell will lead to the automatic re-calculation of all dependent cells. Figure 1.6 shows an example of a spreadsheet used in accounting. Figure 1.6 A sample spreadsheet
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total 11 12 Commission 1.5% 13 14 Salesman 15 16 Alan Adams 84.00 17 Brian Brown 78.75 18 Chris Cooke 84.38 19 Don Davis 68.78 131.25 112.50 123.75 97.50 157.50 142.50 123.00 112.88 127.50 129.38 142.50 108.00 5000.25 463.13 473.63 387.15 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr Total 21060.00 Alan Adams 5600.00 Brian Brown 5250.00 Chris Cooke 5625.00 Don Davis 4585.00 8750.00 10500.00 8500.00 33350.00 7500.00 9500.00 8250.00 8200.00 6500.00 6500.00 8625.00 30875.00 9500.00 31575.00 7200.00 25810.00 Salesman 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr Total B C D E F
Note: The formatting of the 'cells' to display numerical fields to two decimal places/values for commission in the lower half are found by multiplying the sales figures by 1.5%; totals are stored as the SUM (column or row); the borders showing column letters and row numbers may be omitted. Spreadsheets are powerful personal decision support tools. In addition, programming facilities such as IF...THEN...ELSE greatly extend the control that may be built into the model.
Key terms
Budgeting and forecasting Contribution analysis Dupont analysis model Financial control
Financial evaluation of alternatives Financial planning Financial situation analysis Gross and net profit margins Marketing financial analysis circle Profit analysis Ratio analysis Spreadsheets