Anatomy and Physiology

Mark Neil V. Dancel, RN

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Skeleton
 comes from the Greek word meaning
“dried up body”
 Contains a total of 206 bones
 Subdivided into 2:
 Axial Skeleton
 Appendicular Skeleton
BONES: AN OVERVIEW

 FUNCTIONS OF THE
BONES
 Support
 Forms the internal
framework of the body
and anchors all soft organs
(internal organs)
BONES: AN OVERVIEW

 FUNCTIONS OF THE
BONES
 Protection
 Protect soft body organs
 BONES: AN OVERVIEW

 FUNCTIONS OF THE
BONES
 Movement
 Acts like levers to move
the body and its parts
BONES: AN OVERVIEW

 FUNCTIONS OF
THE BONES
 Storage
 Fats is stored
in the internal
cavities of
bones
 A storehouse
for minerals
(calcium)
BONES: AN OVERVIEW

 FUNCTIONS OF
THE BONES
 Blood Cell
Formation
 Hematopoiesis
occurs within the
marrow cavities
of certain bones
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

 Two Basic Types

of Bone Tissue:
 Compact Bone
 Dense, smooth
and homogenous
 Spongy Bone
(Cancellous)
 Small needlelike
pieces of bone
(trabeculae) and
open spaces
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
 ACCORDING TO SHAPE
 Long Bones
 typically longer than they are wide
 They have shafts and heads at both ends
 Short Bones
 Generally cube-shaped
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Flat Bones
 Thin, flattened, and usually curved
 Have 2 thin layers of compact bones and a
layer of spongy bone in between
 Irregular Bones
 Bones that do not fit the preceding categories
CLASSIFICATION OF
 ACCORDING TO
BONES
SHAPE
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
 Gross Anatomy
 Diaphysis or shaft
 Makes up most of the bone’s length
 Composed of compact bone
 Storage area (Medullary cavity) for fats
(in adults) or blood cells (in infants)
 METAPHYSIS
 The site of ossification, between the
diaphysis and epiphysis
 Periosteum
 A fibrous tissue membrane covering and
protecting the diaphysis
 Sharpey’s Fibers
 Secure the periosteum to the underlying
bone
 Epiphyses
 Ends of a long bone
 Articular Cartilage
 Covers the external surface of the
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
 Microscopic Anatomy
 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
found in tiny cavities
within a matrix called
LACUNAE
 Lacunae are arranged
in concentric circles
called LAMELLAE
around central
(Haversian) canals
 Haversian System or
Osteon
 A complex consisting
of central canal and
 BONE CELL TYPES
 A) OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS: The Stem-Cells of bone.
 DISTRIBUTION:
 Found on the inner lining of the periosteum and endosteum.
 Found lining vascular canals.
 B) OSTEOBLASTS: They are secretory cells.
 SECRETE:
 They secrete the bone matrix.
 ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE which calcifies the matrix.
 They have polarity and resemble other secretory cells.
 C) OSTEOCYTES: They are osteoblasts that have become
trapped in their own matrix.
 They are found in lacunae, between layers of lamellae, in the
matrix of cortical bone.
 The lacunae are potential spaces, filled with extracellular fluid in real
life.
 CANALICULI: Fine cytoplasmic extensions of the osteocytes
running perpendicular to the haversian canals.
 D) OSTEOCLASTS: Large, multinucleate cells derived
from monocytes.
 They have acid hydrolases which have a Mannose-6-
Phosphate Receptor that targets them to lysosomes within
 BONE FORMATION, GROWTH,
AND REMODELLING
 OSSIFICATION
 Two Major Types:
 Intramembranous
Ossification
Involving direct
mineralization of richly
vascular dense
connective tissue
membrane
The membrane itself
becomes the
periosteum
Immediately within are
the compact bones
with an inner core of
cancellous bone
 BONE FORMATION, GROWTH,
AND REMODELLING
 Endochondral Ossification
 Replacement of a “scale model” of
hyaline cartilage by bone.
 Bone is formed on a cartilage model.
 The formation of the bone itself is
identical to intramembranous type.
ENDOCHONDRAL
OSSIFICATION
 ENDOCHONDRAL
OSSIFICATION
 GENERAL PROCESS
 Cartilage matrix is laid down.
 Perichondrium then becomes periosteum,
when a vascular bud invades the perichondrial
space.
 The Vascular Bud contains blood cells, bone
marrow cells, macrophages, endothelial cells.
 GROWTH IN LENGTH:
 Occurs by proliferation of chondrocytes at the
epiphyseal plates and at the primary ossification
front.
 GROWTH IN DIAMETER:
 Occurs by deposition of new bone under the
periosteal collar along with simultaneous
osteoclastic resorption, in order to maintain bone
shape.
 The osteoclastic resorption is necessary to
ENDOCHONDRAL
OSSIFICATION
 PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTER
 Occurs in the center of the diaphysis, and extends
toward both epiphyses.
 Thus there are two fronts of primary ossification.
 Primary Ossification Centers close around the time
of birth. Thereafter, long-bone growth occurs from
the secondary ossification centers.
 SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTER
 Forms at the epiphyseal plate.
 The orderly columns of chondrocytes are not seen
here.
 Growth occurs from the epiphysis downward,
toward the epiphyseal plate.
 EPIPHYSEAL CLOSURE
 The end of longitudinal growth in long bone, when
the primary ossification center overtakes (i.e.
calcifies) the secondary ossification center, and
hence long-bone growth ceases.
 BONE MARKINGS
NAME OF BONE DESCRIPTION
MARKING
Projections (Muscle
and Ligament
Attachment)
Large, rounded projection;
Tuberosity May be roughened

Narrow ridge of bone

Crest Usually prominent

Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped

Trochanter process

Line Narrow ridge of bone, less prominent

than a crest
Tubercle
Small, rounded projection or process
 BONE MARKINGS
NAME OF BONE DESCRIPTION
MARKING
Epicondyle Raised Area on or above a condyle

Spine Sharp, slender, often pointed projection

Process A bony prominence

Projection (form
joints)
Bony expansion carried on a narrow
Head neck

Facet Smooth, nearly flat articular surface

Condyle Rounded articular projection

Ramus Armlike bar of bone

 BONE MARKINGS
NAKE OF BONE DESCRIPTION
MARKING
Depression and
Openings
Canal-like passageway
Meatus
Cavity within a bone, filled with air and
Sinus lined with mucus membrane

Shallow, basin-like depression in a bone,

Fossa often serving as an articular surface

Furrow
Groove
Narrow, slit-like opening
Fissure
Round or oval opening through a bone
Foramen
LIST OF BONES
 Axial Skeleton
 Skull
 22 bones
 Throat
 1 bone
 Middle Ears
 6 bones
 Thorax
 25 Bones
 Vertebral Column
 26 bones
 Sub-total : 80
bones
 LIST OF BONES
 Appendicular
Skeleton
 Upper Extremities
 60 bones
 Shoulder Girdle
 4 bones
 Pelvis
 2 bones
 Lower Extremities
 60 bones
 Sub-total: 126
bones
 LIST OF BONES

 Axial Skeleton
 80 bones
 Appendicular Skeleton
 126 bones
 Summing it up: 80 + 126
 Total = 206 Bones
AXIAL SKELETON
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
 Composed of :
 The Skull
 Cranium
 Facial Bones
 The Hyoid Bone
 The Ossicles
 The Ossicles of the Inner Ear
 Incus (Anvil)
 Malleus (Hammer)
 Stapes (Stirrup)
 The Hyoid Bone
 The Vertabral Column (Spine)
 Cervical
 Thoracic
 Lumbar
 Sacrum
 Coccyx
 The Bony Thorax
 Sternum
 Ribs
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Refers to the limbs or the appendages of
the body.
 The Shoulder Girdle
 Scapulae
 Clavicle
 Bones of the Upper Limbs
 Arm
 Forearm
 Hands
 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
 Coxal Bones
 Bones of the Lower Limbs
 Thigh
 Leg
 Feet
 THE AXIAL SKELETON
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
 Composed of :
The Skull
 Cranium
 Facial Bones
The Ossicles of the Inner Ear
 Incus (Anvil)
 Malleus (Hammer)
 Stapes (Stirrup)
The Hyoid Bone
The Vertabral Column (Spine)
 Cervical
 Thoracic
 Lumbar
 Sacrum
 Coccyx
The Bony Thorax
 Sternum
 Rib
 The purpose of the axial skeleton (among
 other things) is to protect the body's most
 vital organs.
 THE AXIAL SKELETON

 The Skull
 Formed by two sets of
bones
 Cranium – encloses and
protects brain tissues
 Facial Bones – hold the eyes
in an anterior position and
allow the facial muscles to
show our feelings
 Normally made up of 22
bones in an adult
 8 bones from the
neurocranium (brain case)
 14 bones from the
splanchnocranium (facial
 THE AXIAL SKELETON
 Skull
 CRANIUM
 Frontal Bone
 Forms the forehead, the bony projections of
the eyebrow and the superior part of each
eye’s orbit
 Parietal Bones (2)
 Forms most of the superior and lateral walls
of the cranium
Sagittal suture – separates the parietal bones
Coronal suture – separates the parietal and
frontal bones
 Temporal Bones (2)
 Lie inferior to the parietal bones
 Separated by the squamous sutures
 Occipital Bone
 Most posterior bone of the cranium
 Forms the floor and back wall of the skull
 Joins the parietal bones at the lamdoid
suture
 Sphenoid Bone
 Butterfly-shaped bone that spans the width
of the skull and forms part of the floor of the
cranial cavity
 Ethmoid Bone
 Irregularly shaped bone lying anterior to the
sphenoid
SKULL
 Temporal Bone
 Significant bone markings:
 External acoustic meatus
 A canal that leads to the eardrum and middle ear
 Styloid Process
 Sharp, needlelike projection
 Inferior to the external acoustic meatus
 Attachment point for many neck muscles
 Zygomatic Process
 Thin bridge of bone that joins with the cheek bone
 Mastoid Process
 Rough projection posterior and inferior to the EAM
 Attachment site for some muscles of the neck
 Jugular Foramen
 Junction of the occipital and temporal bones
 Allows passage of the jugular vein
Drains the brain
 Internal acoustic meatus
 Transmits cranial nerves VII and VIII
 Carotid canal
 Internal carotid artery runs
Supplying blood to the brain
SKULL
 Occipital Bone
 Significant Bone Markings:
 Foramen Magnum
 “large hole”
 Surrounds the lower part of the brain
 Allows spinal chord to connect with the
brain
 Occipital condyles
 Rest on the first vertebra of the spinal
column
SKULL
 Sphenoid Bone
 Significant Bony Markings
 Sella Turcica – “Turk’s saddle”
 Small depression in the midline of the sphenoid
 Holds the Pituitary gland in place
 Foramen Ovale
 Large oval opening in line with the posterior end
of the sella turcica
 Allows fibers of CN V to pass to the chewing
muscles of the lower jaw
 Optic Canal
 Allows optic nerve to pass to the eye
 Superior Orbital Fissure
 Allows passage of cranial nerves controlling eye
movements
SKULL

 Ethmoid Bone
 Significant Bony Landmarks
 Crista Galli – “cock’s comb”
 Attachment of the outermost covering of the
brain
 Cribriform plates
 Allow nerve fibers carrying impulses from
the olfactory receptors of the nose reach the
brain
 Superior and middle nasal conchae
 Form part of the lateral walls of the nasal
cavity
 Increase the turbulence of air flowing
through the nasal passages
SKULL (LATERAL VIEW)
SKULL (CROSS SECTION SUPERIOR
VIEW)
SKULL
SKULL

 FACIAL BONES
 Palatine Bones
 Lie posterior to the palatine process of the
maxillae
 Form the posterior part of the hard palate
 Failure to fuse results in cleft palate
 Zygomatic Bones
 Cheek bones
 Form a portion of the laterl wall of the orbits
 Lacrimal Bones
 Fingernail-sized bones forming part of the
medial part of the orbit
 Its groove serves as a passageway for tears
SKULL
 FACIAL BONES
 Nasal bones
 Small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the
nose
 Vomer Bone – “plow”
 Single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity
 Forms most of the nasal septum
 Inferior Nasal Conchae
 Thin curved bones projecting from the lateral walls
of the nasal cavity
 Mandible
 Lower jaw
 Largest and strongest bone of the face
 The horizontal part forms the chin
 The 2 upright bars of bones (rami) extend to
connect with the temporal bone
 Also has alveolar margin where the lower teeth lie
SKULL (ANTERIOR VIEW)
SKULL (INFERIOR VIEW)
THE HYOID BONE
 Only bone in the
body that does not
articulate with any
other bone
 Suspended in the
midneck region
about 2cm above
the larynx
 Serves as movable
base for the tongue
 Attachment point for
neck muscles that
raise
 Lower the larynx
when we swallow or
THE HYOID BONE
FETAL SKULL
VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE)
 Serves as the axial support of the body
 Extends from the skull to the pelvis
 Surrounds and protects the spinal cord in
its central cavity
 Prevents shock to the head when we walk
or run
 consists of 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)
 7 cervical vertebrae
 12 thoracic vertebrae
 5 lumbar vertebrae
 1 (5 fused) sacrum
 1 (4 fused) coccyx
 Separated by intervertebral discs
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
(SPINE)
 THE VERTEBRAE
 STRUCTURAL PATTERN
 Common Features:
 Body or centrum
 Disc-like weight bearing part
 Vertebral arch
 Arch formed from the joining of all posterior
extensions, the LAMINAE and PEDICLES
 Vertebral foramen
 Canal through which the spinal cord passes
 Transverse process
 Two lateral projections from the vertebral arch
 Spinous process
 Single projection arising from the posterior
aspect of the vertebral arch
 The fused lamina
 Superior and inferior articular processes
 Paired projections lateral to the vertebral
foramen
 Allows a vertebra to form joints with adjacent
vertebrae
THE VERTEBRAE
 THE VERTEBRAE
 Cervical Vertebrae
 Composed of 7 vertebrae
 Identified as C1 to C7
 The first 2 vertebrae are different
 They perform functions not shared by other cervical
vertebrae
 C1 – ATLAS
 No body
 Allows you to nod “yes”
 C2 – AXIS
 Acts as pivot for the rotation of the atlas above
 Odontoid process/dens – acts as pivot point
 Allows you to rotate your head from side to side to indicate “no”
 C3 – C7 (typical vertebrae
 Smallest, lightest vertebrae
 Dual branched spinous process
 The transverse process contain openings
 Vertebral arteries pass here on their way to the brain
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
(ATLAS)
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
(AXIS)
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
(TYPICAL)
 THORACIC VERTEBRAE

 Composed of 12 vertebrae
 Identified as T1 to T12
 All typical
 Has 2 costal facets on each side
 Long spinous process and hooks
sharply downward
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
 LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

 Consists of 5 typical vertebrae

 Identified as L1 to L5
 Massive blocklike bodies
 Short, hatchet-shaped spinous
process
 Sturdiest of the vertebrae
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
 SACRUM

 Formed by the fusion of 5 vertebrae

 Articulates to L5 superiorly
 Connects to coccyx inferiorly
 Wing-like ALAE articulate laterally to
the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac
joints
 Forms posterior wall of the pelvis
SACRUM
 COCCYX

 Formed from the fusion of 3 to 5

irregularly shaped vertebrae
 The human “tailbone”
 A remnant of the tail that other
vertebrate animals have
COCCYX
BONY THORAX

 Composed of the
sternum, ribs, and
thoracic
vertebrae
 Often called
“thoracic cage”
 Forms a
protective, cone-
shaped cage
 BONY THORAX
 STERNUM
 Breastbone
 Typical flat bone
 A result of fusion of
3 bones:
 Manubrium
 Body
 Xyphoid process
 Attached to the first
7 pairs of ribs
STERNUM

 Significant bony landmarks

 Jugular notch
 Concave upper border of the manubrium
 Sternal angle
 The manubrium and body meet
 Xiphisternal joint
 The point where the body and xiphoid
process fuse
BONY THORAX
 RIBS
 12 Pairs of these form the wall of the bony
thorax
 All ribs articulate with the vertebral column
posteriorly
 Curved downward and toward the anterior
body
 True Ribs
 First 7 pairs attach directly to the sternum by
costal cartilages
 False Ribs
 The next 5 pairs
 Attached indirectly to the sternum
 Are not attached at all
 The last 2 pairs are called FLOATING RIBS
 Do not have sternal attachments at all
RIB CAGE
RIBS
RIBS
APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
Composed of the 126
bones
Limbs (appendages)
 Upper
 Lower

Pectoral and pelvic

girdle
 Attaches the limbs to
the axial skeleton
APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
Bones of the
Shoulder (Pectoral)
Girdle
Scapula (2)
Clavicle (2)
Bones of the Shoulder
Girdle
Clavicle
 Collarbone
 Long, slender, doubly
curved bone
 Attaches to the
manubrium medially
 Attaches to the scapula
laterally
 Helps form the shoulder
joint
 Acts as a brace to hold
arm away from the top of
the thorax
 Helps prevent shoulder
dislocation
Bones of the Shoulder
Girdle
 Scapulae
 Shoulder blades
 Large, flat, triangular
 often called “wings”
 Located at the dorsal
portion of the thorax
 Covers the area from the
2nd to the 7th rib
 Has 3 borders
 Superior
 Lateral
 Medial
 Has 3 angles
 Superior
 Lateral
 Inferior
Scapulae
Significant Bony Markings
Coracoid process
 Origin for some muscles that move the arm
Acromion
 Point of the shoulder articulating with the lateral end
of the clavicle
Glenoid Cavity
 Articulates with the head of the humerus
Scapulae
 Bones of the Upper Limbs
Form foundations of the
Arm
 Humerus
Forearm
 Radius
 Ulna

Hand
 Carpals (8)
 Metacarpals (5)
 Phalanges (14)

Consists of 30 separate
bones
Arm
 Humerus
 Typical long bone
 Significant Markings:
 Head
 Fits into the Glenoid Cavity
 Greater and Lesser Tubercles
 Sites of muscle
attachments
 Deltoid tuberosity
 Attachment for the deltoid
muscle
 Radial Groove
 Marks the course of the
radial nerve
 Trochlea and Capitulum
 Distal ends that articulates
with the bones of the
forearm
Forearm
Consists of 2 bones
Radius and Ulna
 Joins at the
radioulnar joints
 Connected along
their entire length by
interosseous
membrane
Hand
 Carpals (8)
 Proximal
 Navicular/Scaphoid
 Most frequently fractured
 Lunate
 Frequently dislocated
 Triquetrium
 Pisiform
 Pea bone
 Smallest carpal

 Distal
 Greater Multangular/Trapezium
 Lesser Multangular/Trapezoid
 Capitate
 Hamate

 Metacarpals (5)
 Phalanges (14)
 Proximal phalanx
 Middle phalanx
 Distal phalanx
 Except Thumb with 2 phalanges
 Proximal and distal
 Pollex
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Pelvic Girdle
 Formed by two coxal
bones
 Commonly called hip
bones
 Bony pelvis
 Hip bones
 Sacrum
 Coccyx
 Large and heavy
 Securely attached to the
axial skeleton
 Most important
function:
 Bearing weight
 Protects organs such as
the urinary bladder,
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Pelvic Girdle
Pelvic Grirdle
Pelvic Girdle
Bones of the Lower Limb
Carry our total
body weight
Bones are much
thicker and
stronger than the
bones of the upper
limbs
Bones of the Lower Limb
Thigh
Femur
 Thigh bone
 Heaviest

 Strongest
Bones of the Lower Limb
Leg
Tibia
 Shin bone
 Larger

 More medial

Fibula
 Most slender bone
Bones of the Lower Limb
Foot
 Tarsals (7)
 Talus
 Calacaneus
 Navicular
 Cuneiform
 Medial

 Intermediate

 Lateral

 Cuboid
 Metatarsals (5)
 Phalanges (14)