Locomotion is the

voluntary
movements
resulting in a
change in
location.
It includes muscles which are
mesodermal in origin.

Muscles constitute 40-50% of

the body weight.

Muscles have excitability,

contractility, extensibility &
elasticity.
Striations present
Voluntary

Attached to skeleton

Rich blood supply

Fatigue muscle

Muscle fibre is multinucleate (syncitium)

Numerous mitochondria

Striations absent
Involuntary
Found in visceral organs
(alimentary canal,
reproductive tract, urinary
bladder etc).
Poor blood supply

Non-fatigue

Uninucleate

Less mitochondria
Striations present
Involuntary

Found only in heart wall

Rich blood supply

Non-fatigue

Uninucleate

Numerous mitochondria

Skeletal (striated) muscles Visceral (smooth) muscles Cardiac muscles

Striations present Striations absent Striations present

Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
In visceral organs (alimentary
Attached to skeleton canal, reproductive tract, In heart wall
urinary bladder etc).

Rich blood supply Poor blood supply Rich blood supply

Fatigue muscle Non-fatigue Non-fatigue

Muscle fibre is multinucleate
Uninucleate Uninucleate
(syncitium)

Numerous mitochondria Less mitochondria Numerous mitochondria

Skeletal muscle is made of number of muscle bundles (fascicles) held together by fascia
(collagenous connective tissue layer).
Each fascicle contains number of muscle fibres.

Muscle fibres are lined by plasma membrane (sarcolemma) enclosing the sarcoplasm.
Each muscle fibre contains parallelly arranged myofilaments (myofibrils).
Each myofibril has alternate dark (Anisotropic or A-band) and light striations (Isotropic or I-
band) on it.
The striation is due to the presence of 2 fibrous contractile proteins- thin Actin filament and
thick Myosin filament.
I-bands contain actin.
A-bands contain actin & myosin.
They are arranged parallel to each other.
A-band bears a lighter region at the middle called H –band. It is formed of only myosin.
A thin dark line (M-line) runs through the centre of H-zone.

When muscle contracts,

actin filaments on either
sides partially overlap so
that H-zone disappears.
I-band is bisected by a dense
dark band called Z-line.
Region between two Z-lines
is called sarcomere.
Sarcomeres are the
structural and functional
units of a muscle.
Each actin filament is made of 2 filamentous (F) actins. They form double helix.
Each ‘F’ actin is a polymer of monomeric Globular (G) actins.
Actin filaments contain 2 other proteins namely tropomyosin & troponin.

Two filaments of tropomyosin run along the

grooves of the ‘F’ actins double helix.
Troponin has 3 subunits. It is located at regular
intervals on the tropomyosin.
In the resting state, a subunit of troponin masks
the binding sites for myosin on the actin
filaments.

Each myosin filament is a polymer of many

monomeric proteins called Meromyosins.
Each meromyosin has 2 parts:
A globular head (heavy meromyosin or HMM)
with a short arm.
A tail (light meromyosin or LMM).
HMM component (head + short arm) projects
outwards at regular distance and is called cross
arm.
Globular head is an active ATPase enzyme. It has
binding sites for ATP and active sites for actin.

According to sliding filament theory, contraction of a

muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin
filaments over the thick filaments.
A neural signal (impulse) is sent by the CNS via motor neuron. (A motor neuron + muscle
fibres = a motor unit).
Impulses reach the neuromuscular junction (Motor-end plate). It is the junction between a
motor neuron and sarcolemma of the muscle fibre.

A neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) is released by neuromuscular junction. It generates an

action potential in the sarcolemma.
The action potential spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release of Ca2+ ions into
the sarcoplasm.

Ca binds with a subunit of troponin on actin filaments and removes the masking of active sites
for myosin.
Using the energy from ATP hydrolysis, myosin head binds to the exposed active sites on the
actin to form a cross bridge. This pulls the actin filaments towards the centre of ‘A’ band.

The ‘Z’ line attached to these actins is also pulled inwards. So the sarcomere shortens
(contraction).
‘I’ bands get shortened, and ‘A’ bands retain the length.
 The myosin releases the ADP and Pi and goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds
and the cross-bridge is broken.
The ATP is again hydrolyzed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross-bridge formation
and breakage is repeated causing further sliding.

When Ca2+ ions are pumped back to the

sarcoplasmic cisternae, the actin
filaments are again masked. This causes
the return of ‘Z’ lines back to their original
position, i.e., relaxation.

The reaction time of the fibres vary in different muscles.

Repeated activation of the muscles leads to the accumulation of
lactic acid. It causes muscle fatigue. This is due to anaerobic
breakdown of glycogen in muscles.

Red (Aerobic) muscle fibres White muscle fibres

Red coloured due to the presence of
myoglobin.
Plenty of mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (utilize large
amount of O2)
White coloured due to the lesser
amount of myoglobin
Small amount of mitochondria
Anaerobic metabolism

Slow and sustained contraction Fast contraction for short period

Consists of a framework of bones (206) and
few cartilages.
Bone has a very hard matrix due to Ca salts.
Cartilage has slightly pliable matrix due to
chondroitin salts.

Cranial bones (8): Frontal (1), Parietals (2), Temporal

(2), Occipitals (1), Sphenoid (1), Ethmoid (1)
Facial bones (14): Nasals (2), Maxillae (2), Zygomatics
(2), Lachrymals (2), Palatines (2), Inferior nasals (2),
Mandible (1), Vomer (1)
Hyoid bone (1): U-shaped bone found at the floor of
buccal cavity.
Ear ossicles (3 x 2 = 6): Maleus, Incus and stapes.
 The skull articulates with first vertebra
(atlas) of vertebral column with the help of
2 occipital condyles (dicondylic skull).

Formed of 26 vertebrae.
They are 5 types:
Cervical vertebrae (7)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Sacral vertebrae (1-fused)
Coccygeal vertebrae (1-fused)

Vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal)

through which the spinal cord passes.
Number of cervical vertebrae are 7 in almost all mammals.
Vertebral column protects spinal cord, supports the head
and serves as the point of attachment for the ribs and
musculature of the back.
 It includes 1 Flat bone on the ventral
midline of thorax.

3 types:

True ribs (first 7 pairs)

Vertebrochondral (false) ribs (8th, 9th & 10th

pairs)

Floating ribs (11th & 12th pairs)

Each rib has 2 articulation surfaces on its

dorsal end. So it is called bicephalic.

True ribs are attached to thoracic vertebrae

and ventrally connected to sternum with
the help of Hyaline cartilage.

False ribs do not articulate directly with the

sternum but join the 7th rib with the help of
Hyaline cartilage.

Floating ribs are not connected ventrally.

 30 x 2 = 60 bones.
They include
Humerus (1)
Radius(1) & ulna (1)
Carpals (wrist bones- 8)
Metacarpals (palm bones-5)
Phalanges (digits-14)

30 x 2 = 60 bones
They include
Femur (thigh bone- 1)
Patella (knee cap- 1)
Tibia (1) & fibula (1)
Tarsals (ankle bones-7)
Metatarsals (5)
Phalanges (digits-14)
 2 x 2 = 4 bones
They are formed of
Clavicle (collar bone-2)
Scapula (shoulder blade-2)

Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in

dorsal part of the thorax between second and 7th
ribs.
Scapula has a slightly elevated ridge (spine) which
projects as a flat, expanded process called the
acromion. The clavicle articulates with this.
Below the acromion is a depression (glenoid
cavity) which articulates with the head of
humerus to form the shoulder joint.

2 x 1 = 2 bones
Formed of 2 coxal bones.
Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of 3
bones- Ilium, Ischium & pubis.

At the point of
fusion of Ilium,
Ischium & Pubis is a
cavity
(Acetabulum) to
which the thigh
bone articulates.
The 2 halves of the
pelvic girdle meet
ventrally to form
pubic symphisis
containing fibrous
cartilage.
Joints are points of contact
between bones, or between bones
and cartilages.
They are 3 types:
Fibrous (Immovable) joints
Cartilaginous (Slightly
movable) joints
Synovial (movable) joints

Immovable joints
E.g. sutures between flat skull bones.

Slightly movable joints.

Bones are joined together with the help of cartilages.

E.g. Joints between the adjacent vertebrae.

Movable joints.

They are characterized by the presence of a fluid filled

synovial cavity between articulating surfaces of the 2 bones.
 Types of Synovial joints Examples

Ball & socket joint Shoulder joint & hip joint.

Hinge joint Knee joint, elbow joint etc.
Pivot joint Joints b/w atlas & axis.
Gliding joint Joints b/w carpals.

Saddle joint Joints b/w carpal & metacarpal of thumb.

It is the rapid spasm in muscle due to low Ca2+ in body fluid.

Auto immune disorder.

It affects neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal
muscles.

Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles mostly due to genetic disorder.

It is the inflammation of joints

It is the inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.

Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and increased chances of

fractures.
Decreased level of estrogen is a common cause.