NAME : NURUL SHAZWANI BT MOHD SIROJ

(4 AKHTAR)
TEACHER’S NAME : PN NURSYAKHILA BT ZAHARI
SUBJECT : BIOLOGY

1
2
A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the
movement of an organism. There are three different skeleton designs that provide organisms these
functions: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.

Hydrostatic Skeleton
A hydrostatic skeleton is one formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body: the coelom. The
organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression.
This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of
the organism. This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones,
earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates.

Hydrostatic skeleton: The skeleton of the red-knobbed sea star (Protoreaster linckii) is an example of
a hydrostatic skeleton.

Movement in a hydrostatic skeleton is provided by muscles that surround the coelom. The muscles in
a hydrostatic skeleton contract to change the shape of the coelom; the pressure of the fluid in the
coelom produces movement. For example, earthworms move by waves of muscular contractions
(peristalsis) of the skeletal muscle of the body wall hydrostatic skeleton, which alternately shorten
and lengthen the body. Lengthening the body extends the anterior end of the organism. Most
organisms have a mechanism to fix themselves in the substrate. Shortening the muscles then draws
the posterior portion of the body forward. Although a hydrostatic skeleton is well-suited to
invertebrate organisms such as earthworms and some aquatic organisms, it is not an efficient skeleton
for terrestrial animals.

3
Exoskeleton
An exoskeleton is an external, hard, encasement on the surface of an organism. For example, the shells
of crabs and insects are exoskeletons. This skeleton type provides defense against predators, supports
the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles. As with vertebrates,
muscles must cross a joint inside the exoskeleton. Shortening of the muscle changes the relationship
of the two segments of the exoskeleton. Arthropods, such as crabs and lobsters, have exoskeletons
that consist of 30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a strong-but-flexible
material. Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells. The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the
addition of calcium carbonate in organisms such as the lobster. Because the exoskeleton is acellular
and does not grow as the organism grows, arthropods must periodically shed their exoskeletons.

Exoskeletons: Muscles attached to the exoskeleton of the Halloween crab (Gecarcinus quadratus)
allow it to move.

Endoskeleton
An endoskeleton consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms.
An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicule of sponges. The bones of vertebrates
are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues. Endoskeletons provide support for
the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached
to the skeleton.

4
Endoskeletons: The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of endoskeletons. They provide
bodies with support, protection of organs, and aid in movement.

The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It has five main
functions: providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells,
protecting internal organs, and allowing for movement. The skeletal system in vertebrates is divided
into the axial skeleton (which consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage), and the
appendicular skeleton (which consists of the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral girdle, and the
pelvic girdle).

5
Human Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the human body and includes the bones of the skull, the
ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone of the throat, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage
(ribcage). The function of the axial skeleton is to provide support and protection for the brain, spinal
cord, and organs in the ventral body cavity. It also provides a surface for the attachment of muscles
that move the head, neck, and trunk; performs respiratory movements; and stabilizes parts of the
appendicular skeleton, which will be discussed later.

Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid
bone, vertebral column, and rib cage.

The Skull
The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain. The skull consists of
22 bones, which are divided into two categories: cranial bones and facial bones.

6
Skull: The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain.

Fourteen facial bones form the face, provide cavities for the sense organs (eyes, mouth, and nose),
protect the entrances to the digestive and respiratory tracts, and serve as attachment points for facial
muscles. The 14 facial bones are the nasal bones, maxillary bones, zygomatic bones, palatine, vomer,
lacrimal bones, inferior nasal conchae, and mandible.

Cranial and facial bones: The facial bones of the skull form the face and provide cavities for the eyes,
nose, and mouth. The cranial bones, including the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, ethmoid, and
sphenoid bones.

7
The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled
cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of six bones: two malleus bones, two incus bones, and two
stapes, one of each on each side. These bones are unique to mammals.

The hyoid bone lies below the mandible in the front of the neck. It acts as a movable base for the
tongue and is connected to muscles of the jaw, larynx, and tongue. The mandible articulates with the
base of the skull, controling the opening to the airway and gut. In animals with teeth, the mandible
brings the surfaces of the teeth in contact with the maxillary teeth.

The Vertebral Column

The vertebral column, or spinal column, surrounds and protects the spinal cord, supports the head,
and acts as an attachment point for the ribs and muscles of the back and neck. The adult vertebral
column is comprised of 26 bones: the 24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx bones. In the adult,
the sacrum is typically composed of five vertebrae that fuse into one. We begin life with approximately
33 vertebrae, but as we grow, several vertebrae fuse together. The adult vertebrae are further divided
into the 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, and 5 lumbar vertebrae.

Vertebral column: (a) The vertebral column consists of seven cervical vertebrae (C1–7), twelve
thoracic vertebrae (Th1–12), five lumbar vertebrae (L1–5), the sacrum, and the coccyx. (b) Spinal
curves increase the strength and flexibility of the spine.

8
Each vertebral body has a large hole in the center through which the nerves of the spinal cord pass.
There is also a notch on each side through which the spinal nerves, which serve the body at that level,
can exit from the spinal cord. The names of the spinal curves correspond to the region of the spine in
which they occur. The thoracic and sacral curves are concave, while the cervical and lumbar curves
are convex. The arched curvature of the vertebral column increases its strength and flexibility,
allowing it to absorb shocks like a spring.

Intervertebral discs composed of fibrous cartilage lie between adjacent vertebral bodies from the
second cervical vertebra to the sacrum. Each disc is part of a joint that allows for some movement of
the spine, acting as a cushion to absorb shocks from movements, such as walking and running.
Intervertebral discs also act as ligaments to bind vertebrae together. The inner part of discs, the
nucleus pulposus, hardens as people age, becoming less elastic. This loss of elasticity diminishes its
ability to absorb shocks.

9
10
11
Movement is when the living organism moves a body part or parts to bring without a
change in the position of the organisms. Locomotion is when the movement of a part of
the body leads to change in the position and location of the organism. Both of these are
brought about by the joint efforts of the skeletal and muscular systems. Movement is
seen in both vertebrates and invertebrates.

12
When you flex your arm at the elbow, the muscle that lies above the upper arm, i.e. the biceps is seen
and felt bulging. This muscle bulges due to contraction and becomes smaller in length, stiffer and
thicker. Contraction of biceps draws the forearm towards the upper arm. However, relaxation of
biceps cannot push the forearm back to its original position. When the arm is extended or
straightened, the muscle at the back of the upper arm, i.e. the triceps contracts. The two muscles work
antagonistically or in opposite directions to bend or flex and straighten the arm at the elbow.

13
14
FISH

15
GRASSHOPPER

16
EARTHWORM

17
18
The skeleton is an important organ for the support of the body and for the attachment of muscles and
tendons, as well as body movement. The skeleton protects the organs of the cranial and thoracic
cavities from injuries, and it houses and protects the bone marrow within its cavities. Additionally, the
skeleton has an important role as a reservoir of minerals such as calcium and phosphate, which can
be released when demands are increased in the body, and in maintaining serum homeostasis 2. These
conventional functions of skeleton depend on the homeostasis of bone itself. Recently, increasing
studies have revealed that the skeleton contributes to whole body homeostasis and the maintenance
of multiple important organs/systems such as hematopoiesis, immune activity, energy metabolism,
and brain function. These functions affecting non-bone tissues are called extraskeletal functions.

If your body allows you to run, walk, jump, play sports and do the other things you like to do, it would
mean that your quality of life score is high. The major problem that holds many back from scoring high
on physical measures are arthropathies, meaning that there is a problem with the joints. The human
musculoskeletal system is a very complex structure made up of bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons,
ligaments, joints and other connective tissues. These all come together to give the body its form,
support and stability and facilitate movement. And guess what, the musculoskeletal system used to
be known as the activity system, so you should stay active in order to have a higher quality life.

When you want to move your arm, you first send out a signal to your muscles asking them to move,
so our muscles should be in good condition. Bones should also be healthy so that they can move the
activated muscles. However, all these systems activate only if the joints work flawlessly. Joints are
where two or more bones join together with tendons, ligaments, muscles or a mix of the three. There
are different types of joints, such as the rigid ones in the skull and movable ones like in the shoulders,
hips and knees. Joints also have a special covering called cartilage where bones rub against each other.
Cartilage is almost more important than the bone itself when it comes to being active because the
healthier the cartilage is, the more it will allow bones to glide over each other. Aside from helping
bones move freely, it protects bones from rubbing against each other and causing severe pain since
they cover the ends of bones at a joint. Arthropathy is the name given to joint disorders. When joint
inflammation occurs, then the disease is called arthritis – one of the leading causes of disability in
people older than 50. The most common kind of arthritis is degenerative bone disease called
osteoarthritis. This disease can occur after joint trauma, a joint infection or simply aging. Think of your
childhood when you probably used safety gear on your joints while bicycling, skating or rollerblading
to protect you from a disease you may not have even known about. When it comes to driving, your
car manufacturer takes the same protection measures. But when it comes to you, is there anything
you can do to maintain healthier joints? Of course, and below are some simple tactics for healthier
joints.

19
INTERNET :

Biology Movement And Locomotion.

Retrieved on August 24,2018 from https://www.aplustopper.com/selina-icse-solutions-class-9-
biology-movement-locomotion/

Types of Skeleton Systems.

Retrieved on March 15,2013 from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
biology/chapter/types-of-skeletal-systems/

Human Skeleton.
Retrieved 18 December 2016 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeleton

Biology Notes.
Retrieved on March 15, 2013 from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
biology/chapter/types-of-skeletal-systems/

Biology Assignments Bones and Muscles in Walking.

Retrieved on February 08, 2016 from https://www.scribd.com/doc/298566831/Biology-
Assignment-Bones-and-Muscles-in-Walking

Introduction to Movement and Locomotion – CHAPTER 14.

Retrieved on 23 December 2014 from https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/locomotion-and-
movement/introduction-to-movement-and-locomotion/

BOOKS :

Biology Form 4 textbook, Gan Wan Yeat, Norazlina Binti Abd Aziz, Yusuf, Noor Haniyatie Binti
Ibrahim, 2019

Publisher : Ministry of education Malaysia (page : 266-280)

The Skeleton Book: Get to Know Your Bones, Inside Out, Alice Roberts, Robert Winston

Publisher : Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2016 (page 50-55)

Biology Movement of skeleton Notes (2001)

Publisher : Teacher Shandini (page 15-22)

20