COURSE TITLE ANATOMY- I

COURSE CODE ANA-111-T

COURSE INCHARGE AMMARA ZAKI

PREVIOUS TOPIC • INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY

• GENERAL ANATOMY;
1. Brief History of Anatomy
2. Anatomical Nomenclature

TODAY’S TOPIC GENERAL ANATOMY;

3. Skeletal System
a) Bones
What is the skeletal system?
 The skeletal system is a rigid framework of bones
that serves many important functions.
What is the skeletal system?

There are 206 bones in an adult human body.

An adult’s skeleton contains 206 bones. Children’s skeletons
actually contain more bones because some of them,
including those of the skull, fuse together as they grow up.
Altogether, the skeleton makes up about 20 percent of a
person’s body weight.
There are also some differences in the male and female
skeleton. The male skeleton is usually longer and has a high
bone mass. The female skeleton, on the other hand, has
a broader pelvis to accommodate for pregnancy and child
birth.
What is the skeletal system?
The human skeletal system consists of all of the
bones,
cartilage,
tendons,
and ligaments in the body.
DIVISION OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system comprises of the skull,
backbone, rib cage and limbs.
The skeletal system can be broken down into two
parts, known as the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
 Axial skeleton anatomy
The adult axial skeleton consists of 80 bones. It’s made up of the bones that form
the vertical axis of the body, such as the bones of the head, neck, chest, and spine.

1. Skull bones
 The adult skull comprises 22 bones. These bones can be further classified by
location:
 Cranial bones. The eight cranial bones form the bulk of your skull. They help to
protect your brain.
 Facial bones. There are 14 facial bones. They’re found on the front of the skull
and make up the face.
 Auditory ossicles
 The auditory ossicles are six small bones found within the inner ear canal in the
skull. There are three auditory ossicles on each side of the head, known as the:
 malleus (hammer)
 incus (anvil)
 stapes (stirrup)
 They work together to transmit sound waves from the surrounding environment
to the structures of the inner ear.
2. Hyoid
 The hyoid is a U-shaped bone found at the base of the jaw. It serves as a point
of attachment for muscles and ligaments in the neck.
3. Vertebral column
 The vertebral column is made up 26 bones. The first 24 are all vertebrae,
followed by the sacrum and coccyx (tailbone).
 The 24 vertebrae can be further divided into the:
 Cervical vertebrae. These seven bones are found in the head and neck.
 Thoracic vertebrae. These 12 bones are found in the upper back.
 Lumbar vertebrae. These five bones are found in the lower back.
 The sacrum and coccyx are both made up of several fused vertebrae. They
help support the weight of the body while sitting. They also serve as
attachment points for various ligaments.
4. Thoracic cage
 The thoracic cage is made up of the sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs.
These bones form a protective cage.
 Some of the ribs attach directly to the sternum, while others are linked to the
sternum via cartilage. Some have no attachment point and are referred to as
“floating ribs.”
Appendicular skeleton anatomy
There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton. It consists of the bones that
make up the arms and legs, as well as the bones that attach them to the axial skeleton.
 Pectoral girdle
 The pectoral girdle is where the arms attach to the axial skeleton. It’s made up of the
clavicle (collarbone) and scapula (shoulder blade).
 There are two of each of these — one for each arm.
 Upper limbs
 Each arm contains 30 bones, known as the:
 Humerus. The humerus is the long bone of the upper arm.
 Radius. The radius is one of two long bones of the forearm, found on the thumb side.
 Ulna. The ulna is the second long bone of the forearm, found on the pinky finger side.
 Carpals. The carpals are a group of eight bones found in the wrist area.
 Metacarpals. The metacarpals are five bones found in the middle area of the hand.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that make up the fingers.
 Pelvic girdle
 The pelvic girdle, commonly known as the hips, is where the legs attach to the
axial skeleton. It’s made up of two hipbones — one for each leg.
 Each hip bone consists of three parts, known as the:
 Ilium. The ilium is the top portion of each hip bone.
 Ischium. The ischium is a curved bone that makes up the base of each hip
bone.
 Pubis. The pubis is located in the front part of the hip bone.
 Lower limbs
 Each leg is composed of 30 bones, known as the:
 Femur. The femur is the large bone of the upper leg.
 Tibia. The tibia is the main bone of the lower leg. It forms the shin.
 Fibula. The fibula is the second bone in the lower leg, found in the outer leg.
 Patella. The patella is also called the kneecap.
 Tarsals. The tarsals are the seven bones that make up the ankle.
 Metatarsal. The metatarsals are the five bones that make up the middle area
of the foot.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that comprise the toes.
What is the function of the skeletal system?

 The skeletal system’s main

function is to provide support for
the body. For example, the spinal
column provides support for the
head and torso. The legs, on the
other hand, support and bear the
weight of the upper body while a
person stands.
 But the skeletal system has several
additional functions, including:
 Protecting internal organs
from injury. For example, the
skull protects the brain, while the
thoracic cage protects the heart
and lungs.
What is the function of the skeletal
system?
 Allowing for
movement. Muscles attach to
bones through tendons. This
connection allows the body to
move in many different ways.
 Storing minerals and
nutrients. Bones can store and
release minerals, including
calcium and phosphorus, which
are important for many bodily
functions. Additionally, adipose
(fat) tissue that can be used as
energy can be found in part of
the bone marrow.
What is the function of the skeletal system?

Producing blood
cells. The soft bone
marrow inside of many
bones produces red
blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE
BONES TYPES
There are five types of bones in the skeleton:
flat,
long,
short,
irregular,
and sesamoid
1. Flat Bones
There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal,
frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the thoracic cage
(sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and
pubis). The function of flat bones is to protect internal
organs such as the brain, heart, and pelvic organs. Flat
bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide
protection, like a shield; flat bones can also provide
large areas of attachment for muscles.
2. Long Bones
Support Weight and Facilitate Movement
The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the
femur (the longest bone in the body) as well as relatively
small bones in the fingers.
Long bones function to support the weight of the body
and facilitate movement.
Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular
skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia,
fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in
the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna,
metacarpals, and phalanges).
3. Short Bones
Are Cube-shaped
Short bones are about as long as they are wide.
Located in the wrist and ankle joints, short bones
provide stability and some movement.
The carpals in the wrist and the tarsals in the ankles
are examples of short bones.
4. Irregular Bones
Have Complex Shapes
Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and
therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short,
long, or sesamoid).
They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps
protect internal organs. For example, the vertebrae,
irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the
spinal cord. The irregular bones of the pelvis (pubis,
ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity.
5. Sesamoid Bones
Reinforce Tendons
Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons.
These small, round bones are commonly found in the
tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones
function to protect tendons from stress and wear. The
patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an
example of a sesamoid bone.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
ON THE BASIS OF
DEVELOPMENT
ON THE BASIS OF DEVELOPMENT
There are three basic types which are mentioned below:
1. Membranous bones,
2. Cartilaginous bones,
3. Membro-cartilaginous bones.
1. Membranous bones:
These bones ossify in Fig. Bones of Skull &
membrane from Face, Membranous
mesenchymal bones.
condensations. Fig. Bones of Skull &
Examples: Bones of the
vault of skull and Facial
Face, Membranous
bones. bones.
2. Cartilaginous Bones:
They ossify in
cartilage and thus
derived from preformed
cartilaginous models.
Examples:
Thoracic cage etc.

Fig. Thoracic cage, Cartilaginous bones.

3. Membrano-cartilaginous Bones:
They ossify partly in membrane and partly in cartilage.
Examples: Clavicle, Mandible, Temporal etc

Fig. Temporal,
Fig. Mandible, Fig. Clavicle, Membrano- Membrano-Cartilaginous
Membrano-cartilaginous Cartilaginous bone. bone.
bone.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE
On The Basis Of Structure:

They are sub divided into two parts, which are:

1. Macroscopic Approach.
2. Microscopic Approach.
Macroscopic Approach:

a. Compact Bone:
Compact bone is dense
in texture but is extremely
porus.
Example: In the cortex of
long bones.

Fig. Macroscopic structure of

the cortex of femur(Long Bone).
Macroscopic Approach:
b. Cancellous OR
Spongy Bone:
The part of bone
where there is more
empty space and
less bone tissue.
Example: The inner part
of Long
Bones.
Fig. The Macroscopic Structure of the inner part of
Femur(Long Bone).
Microscopic Approach:

Fig. Microscopic structure of Fetus of Human.

a. Fibrous Bone:
These have more fibers in them. Also known as immature
bones.
Example: Found only in fetus, sockets of alveolar bones and
sutures of the skull.
 Microscopic Approach:

Fig. Microscopic structure of Lamellar arranged in piles in a cancellous bone.

b. Lamellar Bone:
Most of the mature human bones, whether compact or Cancellous, are
composed of thin plates of bony tissue called lamellae.
Example: Formed on the periosteal surface of diaphysis.
Microscopic Approach:

Fig. Microscopic structure of Woven bone.

c. Woven Bone:
Occurs initially in fetal bones. In adults woven bone is created after
fractures.
Example: Seen in fetal bone, fracture repair and in cancer of bone.
Microscopic Approach:
d. Cementum and
Dentine:
Cementum is a specialized calcified
substance covering the
root of a tooth. It hardens to act as an
adhesive glue.
Dentine is
one of the hard tissues of the teeth
which
constitutes most of its bulk.
Example: Occur in teeth.

Fig. Dentine of a tooth. Fig. The Cementum of a human tooth.

Bone Development & Growth
 The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often used synonymously to
indicate the process of bone formation.
 Parts of the skeleton form during the first few weeks after conception.
 By the end of the eighth week after conception, the skeletal pattern is
formed in cartilage and connective tissue membranes and ossification
begins.
 Bone development continues throughout adulthood. Even after adult
stature is attained, bone development continues for repair of fractures
and for remodeling to meet changing lifestyles.
 Osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts are the
three cell types involved in the development, growth and remodeling of
bones.
 Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells, osteocytes are mature bone cells
and osteoclasts break down and reabsorb bone.
 What kinds of conditions affect the skeletal system?
 Fractures A fracture can also be referred to as a broken bone.
Fractures typically occur due to an injury or trauma, such as a car
accident or a fall.
 Metabolic bone diseases Metabolic bone diseases refer to a
group of conditions that affect bone strength or integrity. They
can be due to things such as a deficiency in vitamin D, loss of
bone mass, and use of certain medications, such as steroids or
chemotherapy.
 Arthritis Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. This can
cause pain and a limited range of movement. Several things can
cause arthritis, including the breakdown of cartilage that’s found
in joints, autoimmune conditions, or infection.
 Cancer Cancer can develop in the tissues of the bone or in the
cells produced by bones. Cancer that forms in the primary bone
tissue is actually quite rare. Cancers of the blood cells produced
What kinds of conditions affect the skeletal
system?
 Spinal curvatures A spinal curvature is when the spine doesn’t curve in its usual shape.
Typically, the spine follows gentle forward and backward curves.
 There are three main types of spinal curvature:
 Kyphosis. Kyphosis creates a rounding in the upper back.
 Lordosis. Lordosis causes the lower back to curve inward.
 Scoliosis. Scoliosis causes an S- or C-shaped curve in the spine.
 Tips for a healthy skeletal system
 The skeletal system provides the foundation for all of the body’s movements, in addition to
other important functions.
 Follow these tips to keep it in good working order:
 Consume calcium. Calcium-rich foods include leafy green vegetables and fish such as salmon
etc.
 Get enough vitamin D. Most people get plenty of this by spending regular time outdoors, but
a vitamin D supplement can help those in areas that don’t get much sunlight.
 Do weight-bearing exercises. These include things like walking, jogging, and climbing stairs.
 Wear protection. Always wear protective gear when riding a bike or playing contact sports to
avoid bone fractures and other potentially serious injuries.