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CommonGroundinEcoChristianityandEcoBuddhism ByStephenHastings

Abstract
BuddhistenvironmentalistIanHarrisholdsthattheemergenceofecoreligiosity,a specificallyreligiousconcernfortheenvironment,hasmanifest[ed]itselfasasignificant themeinthemajorreligionsofthelatetwentiethcentury(Harris,1990).Thepurposeof thispaperistorevealcommongroundbetweenBuddhismandChristianitythatcan promotehealthydialogueandmutualactiontoaddressthepresentecologicalcrisis.Ihave foundthattheChristianversionofecoreligiositycanbesummarizedbythreeterms:1) relatedness;2)responsibility;and3)redemption.Afterdefiningandofferingsupportfor theseterms,IapplythemtoanumberofBuddhistwritingsanddemonstratehowthey offeracommonlanguagethatprovidesbothontologicalandmaterialunderpinningsfor BuddhistandChristianenvironmentalawarenessandethics.Indoingso,Idemonstrate thatatleasttwomajorreligionsfindthemselvesengagedinthiscommonandglobal contextofecologicalcrisisandreachsimilar,constructiveconclusions.

EcoChristianity I.Relatedness

Inthe20thcentury,ecologyemergedasthescienceofthecommunityofnature.One cannotdefineanylivingbeinginisolationfromitsenvironment,butonlyinrelationtoits environment.Thatrelationisessentialtotheidentityofthelivingbeing.Forexample,an owlisnotjustabird.Itisabirdthatpreferscertainkindsofwoodlandstoothers,hunts particularnightcreaturesandnotothers,preferscertainwakingandsleepinghoursover others,andsoon.Furthermore,evolutionstatesthatowls,andallspecies,derivefroma verycomplexinterplayofnaturalinfluences,playedoutoverlongperiodsoftime.The widespectrumofdifferentiationthatwefindinnaturehasoccurredwithinthecontextof thedynamicrelatednessofallthings,atanytimeandovereonsoftime,whichmakes differentiationpossible.AsJohnMuirdescribedit: Nature is ever at work building and pulling down, creating and destroying, keepingeverythingwhirlingandflowing,allowingnorestbutinrhythmical motion, chasing everything in endless song out of one beautiful form into another.(Muir,1899) Perhapsarunonsentence,butthatisagoodwaytothinkofthecreation:arunon sentence.Itforeverspeakssomethingnewin"endlesssong."Thecreativeprocessoflifeis organic,andsomewritersofecotheologyandbiologygosofarastospeakoftheearthand eventheuniverseasakindoflifeitself.LikeMuirbeforehim,theHarvardbiologistE.O. Wilsonspeaksofnatureinsuchaway:
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Livingnatureisnothingmorethanthecommonalityoforganismsinthewild state and the physical and chemical equilibrium their species generate through interaction with one another. But it is also nothing less than the commonalityandequilibrium(Wilson2006,32). Thosewhorefertoalifeforceoralivingspiritareusuallyreferringtothiskindof interactionthatunderliesandsupports"livingnature."OnehearsthisinRosemaryRadford Ruether'scharacterizationofearthasGaia,thelivingandsacredearth(1992,1).Idefine livingnatureastheGodgivenorderofrelatednessthroughwhichcreationhappens:itis theongoing,pervasive,andrelationalgenesisfromwhichspeciesemergeandevolve. Thisunderstandingdiffersfromthetraditionalinterpretationofthebiblical creationstory,whichremainsinconflictwiththescienceofecology,thetheoryof evolution,andmoderncosmology.Yetthenotionofadynamicandlivingearthisnot withoutitssupportfromtheChristiantradition,whenviewedinlightoftheecological crisis.Forexample,ThomasAquinasspeaksofGodastheprimarycauseofcreationwith eachcreatedthingfunctioningasasecondarycauseuntoitsGodgivenend:itstelos.While inthetimeofAquinascreationwasviewedinarelativelystaticandhierarchicalsense, todaywecaninterprettheecologicaland,particularly,theevolutionalaspectsofnaturein ateleologicalsense.God'screationseekstocreate.Thecreationitselfseeksto"befruitful andmultiply(Genesis1:22,NRSV).Itseekstolive,grow,survive,thrive,andevolveasa whole,anditisnotsimplythesumofindependentspeciesthatoverandoveragainreach thesame,unchangingendsineverysubsequentgeneration.Thismaynothavebeen Aquinasexactintention,andRuetheriscorrectinassumingthatthereisnoreadymade ecologicalspiritualityandethicinpast[Christian]traditions(Ruether1992,206). However,thethemeofGodgivenendsincreationisafundamentalpartofChristian traditionandaddssacredmeaningtotheviewofalivingearth. Natureinallitsrelatednessisnotjustaninstrumentofsurvivalandevolution;itis alsotheelementofsacrament.Thesetwoaspectscannotbeseparated.InDeVisioneDei (TheVisionofGod),the15thcenturymysticNicholasofCusacharacterizesasacramental beholdingandexperienceofnaturethatisanemergingaspectofthespiritualityintoday's ecoChristianity: OLord,thatsweetnessbywhichYounowfeedmysoulissogreatthatmy soulissomehowaidedbymeansofwhatitexperiencesinthisworldandby meansofthosemostagreeablelikenesseswhichYouinspire(Cusa,23). Theimageryoftastingandpartakingoffoodthatnourishesthesoul,andyetcomesfrom theverythingsaroundhim,isnotonlysacramentalbutecospiritual. Ecologyisascience,ofcourse,butinthemostcomprehensivesense.Itisan affirmationofallthingsinallthings:allthingsareunfolded(Cusa)intosomekindof distinction,butneverintoisolationandindependence.Likewise,allthingsenfoldback towardonenessand,ultimately,theirSourceandCreatorGod.Thesimpletasteofsweet foodenfoldsbacktostimulateinthepersonthetasteofdivinesweetnessinthesoul.This
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opensupthepossibilityforaspiritualitythatexplicitlyaffirmstheimmanenceofGodin creation.Godisinallthedetailsofcreationandlifeonearth,meaningnotjustinthe beautyoftheearth,butthereaswellwiththedowntrodden,thepolluted,theprofaned, theexploitedallthevictims,betheyhumankindorotherkind.Thus,intheteachingsof ecoChristianity,onecommonlyhearsahopefortherediscoveryofdivinerevelationin nature,whereinwewillfindcluesastowhatoughtandwhatoughtnotbeallowedina living,evolving,communal,andsacramentalworld."Insucharenewal,"saysThomas Berry,liesourhopeforthefutureandforourselvesandtheentireplanetonwhichwelive (Berry1999,106).

Toseekthewellbeingoftheearthwemustfirstacceptourplaceofmutual relatednessintheecologicalwhole.Then,inthecontextofecologicalrelationships,wecan defineethicalbehaviorasthatwhichsustainsthediversityandnaturalprocessesoflife. Thisbeginswitheducation,especiallyinecology,butalsoinevolutionandmodern cosmology,whichtietogetherasthecreationstory.InEnvironmentalEthics:Dutiestoand ValuesintheNaturalWorld,HolmesRolstonasserts,Thefirstlessonlearnedinevolution wasperhapsoneofconflict,butasubsequentoneisofkinship,forthelifewevaluein personsisadvancedfrombutalliedwiththelifeinmonkeys,perch,andlousewort(Rolston 1988,23).Hethenplacesthisideawithinareligiousframework: Mixedwithothervalues,thisNoahprincipleofpreservingabreeding populationispowerfullypresentintheEndangeredSpeciesAct.Butiflife genericallyisofvalue,theneveryspecificindividualinsomedegreeinsists onthisvalue,andthisiswhy,withoutduecause,itisasintokilla mockingbird(Ibid.23). Rolstonmovesfromobservingthatinevolutionallthingsarerelatedtomaking inferencesaboutvalueandethicalbehavior,andindoingsousesreligiouslanguageand religiousstory.Hebringstogetherthenatural(evolution),thedoctrinal(sin),andthe biblical(theNoahprinciple)asanintegrationofreligionandscience,observing,Wedo nowfindatrendinnatureitsprojectingoflife,stability,integrity,culminatinginasense ofbeautywhenhumansenterthescenethatweoughttofollow(intheaxiological sense)(Ibid.225).Basedonthisevolutionaltrendinnature,hejumpstoareligious imperative,concludingthatweshouldloveyourneighborhoodasyoudoyourself,(Ibid. 312)andextenditsapplicationtoothercreaturesonthebasisofecologicaland evolutionaryscience.Itisourresponsibilityasaestheticallyconsciousandmoralbeingsto understand,accept,andintegratescientificknowledgeintoourreligiousthoughtand practices;andthentorespect,protect,enhance,andevenenjoythegoodnessofthe diversityandcreative,sustainingdynamicsofGodscreation. Itisalsoworthnotingthefactorofspirituality,derivingfromthatsenseofdivine immanenceincreation,whichinfluencesspiritualexperienceandhowwebehaveas

II.Responsibility

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humanbeings.InWhatAreTheySayingAboutEnvironmentalTheology?,JohnHartliftsup thenotionofasacramentaluniverse,whichhedescribesinthisway: TheSpiritpermeatesallofcreation;allcreationinsomewayhasthe potentialtoberevelatoryofdivinepresence.Onsuchoccasions,this experienceofdivinepresenceisasacramentalmomentinthesacramental commonsofasacramentaluniverse(Hart2004,102). Fromthisperspective,lifeincreationandonearthisfilledwithwhatonemightcall sacramentalmomentswithasmalls,thosenotlimitedtothetwoorsevenSacraments ofmainlineProtestantorRomanCatholicdoctrine. PanentheismistheemergingtheologicalunderstandingofGodthataffirmsa sacramentalcommonsinasacramentaluniverse.MatthewFox,inparticular,has broughtthisnewunderstandingtolight,althoughhemightarguethatheisonlyrecovering atheologythathasbeenmarginalizedbytheChurch,referencingwritingssuchasthoseof HildegardofBingenandMeisterEckhart(Fox1983).MostecoChristianitytodayembraces panentheismastheunderlyingbasisforspiritualityandreligiousdevelopment,including ethicaldevelopment.Brieflyput,panentheismaffirmsboththetranscendenceand immanenceofGodwithrespecttothecreation.ThisistosaythatthecreationisinGodand Godisinthecreation,butGodisnotlimitedtothecreation.Acommonconclusionineco Christianliteratureisthattherewillbenostoppingtheecologicalcrisiswithoutclaiming orreclaimingtheroletheearthplaysinhumanspiritualityandmoraldevelopment. PanentheismaffirmsthecreationasasacramentalcathedralthehouseofGod.Surelythat hasvalueworthsaving. Panentheism,then,isaspiritualcomplementtoecologythatgivesdeepermeaning andbroaderscopetohumanmoralagency.Itencouragesustodaytobelievethatwhen Jesussaid,"TrulyItellyou,justasyoudidittooneoftheleastofthesewhoaremembers ofmyfamily,youdidittome,"(Matthew25:40,NRSV)hewasincluding,asour responsibility,compassionatecarefor"SisterEarth,ourMother,Whonourishesandgives usfoodandfodder,Andthegreengrassandflowersofeverycolour,"andcareforallthe other"brothersandsisters"mentionedbyFrancisofAssisiinhisCanticleofCreatures, suchasairandwaterand"allThyworkswhateertheybe(Armstrong1973,228).

JayMcDanielexplains,Whatspawnsthehopeforlifeafterdeathisnotadesirefor immortalitybutratherarecognitionthatsomanylivesindeed,thevastmajorityendin incompleteness(McDaniel1989,46).McDanielspeaksgenerallyofagoalofshalomfor life.Simplydefined,shalomisthepeaceofGodandimpliesGodgivenvisionandintent. Oneimportantcharacteristicofshalomisreverenceforlifebyhumanbeings.InOfGodAnd Pelicans,McDanieltriestoexplainhowsomeoftheapparentharshnessandcrueltyof naturecanbereconciledasinherenttoshalomandworthyofreverence.Thisisthe challengeofbackuppelicanchicks,whichareseeminglyredundantandexpendable,and

III.Redemption

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usuallydieyoung.TherelationshipofthingstoGodisparticularlyimportantforthevision ofshalominthatitimputestheabilityforalllivingthingstocontributepositivelytoGods ownexperienceofcreation.Henotesthatevenatragiclifemaycontributesomethingto God(Ibid.43).Withrespecttotheyoungpelicansandalllife,McDanielbelievesinthe possibilityofredemptionasatransformationoflifeintoabetterstate(anafterlife)where allthingsexperiencethefulfillmentthateachthingyearnsforinthislifeinitsownway(its owntelos,referringbacktoAquinas),butwhichfrequentlyisnotattained.Withrespectto avisionofwhatoughttobeonplanetearth,McDanielisabletoacceptnatureasitexists withouthumaninterference.Godcreateditgoodandweshouldnotthinkofourselvesas needingtoimproveit.NaturecanbepartofGodsshalomjustasGodcreateditbecauseof thepossibilityofanotherworldlyredemption. YetinanecoChristianview,redemptionisseenasmorethanahopedforafterlife. Hereandnow,Godempowersustoeliminateattitudes,institutions,conditions,and thoughtsthatharborandproducesinandunnecessarysuffering,orthatthwarttheGod giventelosofcreationto"befruitfulandmultiply."Redemption,therefore,ismorethanthe individualforgivenesssofrequentlyspokenofassalvation;itisthecompassionand challengetointeractivelyhealbrokenrelationshipsthatoppresspeople,ruinecosystems, andthreatenthesurvivalofotherkind.Redemptionintheecologicalcrisisisto:1)reclaim thesacredorenchantingvalueofnature,asalludedtobyCusaandothers;and2)relieve thestressinwhichthewholecreationgroanethandtravailethinpain,(Romans8:22, KingJamesVersion)especiallythestresswehavecreatedthroughactsofselfishness, injustice,andirreverence.JohnHartsummarizesitnicelyinSacramentalCommons: Ecojusticeistheactoflinkingresponsibilityforthenaturalworld,engenderedby engagementwiththeSpirit,withresponsibilityfortheneighbor,asrequiredbyJesusasthe SonofManpresentamongtheleastbrethren(Hart2006,66). EcoChristianityarticulatesavisionforaredeemedworldthatrequireshuman responsibilityinitsemergence,whichcannothappenwithoutunderstandingthedegreeto whichallcreationiscausallyanddynamicallyrelatedasaweboflifecreatedbyGodandin whichtheCreatorGodispresentwithgoodintentions.Theseelementsofsoteriology (redemption),ethics(responsibility),andontology(relatednessasdivineintent)arethe cornerstonesofecoChristianity.Withthemasbackdrop,InowshowhowecoBuddhism canalsobedescribedusingthisthreefoldconstruct.

EcoBuddhism I.Relatedness

InTheSunMyHeart,theBuddhistteacherThichNhatHanhspeaksofinterbeing endlesslyinterwoven,andliterallymarvelsattheinterrelatednessoftheuniverse.Hesays thereisnophenomenonintheuniversethatdoesnotintimatelyconcernus,fromapebble restingatthebottomoftheocean,tothemovementofagalaxymillionsoflightyearsaway (NhatHanh2000,84).NhatHanhiskeenlyawareofthescienceoflife,cosmology,

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ecology,andevolution,notingthattheprincipleofinterbeingisnotjustBuddhist,itis scientific(Ibid.85). Interbeing,then,drawsoutsomedisagreementbetweenthemodernunderstanding ofthehumanselfandtheteachingsoftheBuddhaaboutthehumanasnonself.InThe ConceptsofSelf,Person,andI,DavidGalinsaysthatwesternpsychologyhasmistakenly cometoseetheselfasaboundedpersistingentityratherthanasadynamicopennetwork ofrelationships(Galin2003,108).Theverynotionofanindependentorinherentselfis mistaken,accordingtomuchofBuddhistthought,whichassertsthataselfcannotexist objectivelyandindependentlyofeverythingelse,asevidencedbythissomewhatesoteric summarystatementbyGalin: Apersonisadynamicallychanging,selforganizing,multilevel,quasientity withoutsharpboundaries,andembeddedinacausalthicket;selfisthe currentorganizationoftheperson;andIistheselfspointofview,itssetof currentlypossiblediscriminations(Ibid.136). ThisstatementisakintothatofMuir,inwhichhedescribeswhirlingandflowingnature chasingeverythinginendlesssongoutofonebeautifulformintoanother.Galinasserts thatBuddhisttraditionholdsthattherootcauseofsufferingistheOrdinaryMans erroneousviewofselfasanunchangingessence(Ibid.107).TheBuddhistconceptofthe relationalnonselfisconsistentwiththeemergingecologicalwayofviewingreality. EcologyhasbeentakenupbyAsianandwesternBuddhistsalikeforitsvaluetoeco Buddhism.InTheHermeneuticsofBuddhistEcologyinContemporaryThailand,Donald SwearernotestheteachingofThaiBuddhistBuddahasaBhikkuthatourownpersonal wellbeingisinextricablydependentonthewellbeingofeverythingelse,andviceversa (1997,29).TheteachingsofBuddhadasadefinethisinterrelatednessordependencyin traditionalBuddhistlanguageanddoctrine.Buddhadasaidentifiesnaturewiththedhamma andsaysthelessonsnatureteachesusleadtoanewbirthbeyondthesuffering[dukkha] thatresultsfromattachmenttoself(Ibid.25).So,Buddhadasabringstogetherthe ecologicalinterrelatednessofnature,theteachingsoftheBuddha,andenlightenment:an integrationaptlydescribedbySwearerastheontologicalrealizationofinterdependentco arising(Ibid.29).Thisisinterrelationshipatthecore. ModernecoBuddhism,therefore,integratestwokindsofinterrelatedness: ontologicalandecological.Forexample,ontologicalbeliefssuchasinterdependentco arising,karma,nonself,andemptinesswerenotinspiredbyunderstandingsofecological science.TheyareconsistentwiththeFourNobleTruthsarisingoutoftheBuddhasquest forfreedomfromsufferingandattainmentofenlightenment.Thesebeliefsareofan ontologicalnaturepursuanttofreedomfromrebirthandtheattainmentofnirvana.Absent thecontemporarycontextoftheecologicalcrisis,theseontologicalbeliefsaresubstantially aboutfreedomfromundueattachmenttoultimatelyempty,impermanentnature.In otherwords,theseontologicalbeliefsleadtorecognizingtheunsatisfyingattachmentto impermanentthingsand,inamannerconsistentwiththemiddleway,regulatingthose attachmentsinaccordancewiththedhammasoastocreatekarmainhopeof enlightenmentandatleastrebirthtoabetterstate.Historically,thisontologydidnotresult
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inanenvironmentalethicapplicabletothecontemporaryecologicalcrisisbecauseitwas notultimatelyfocusedonconventionalexistence,atermthatisimportanttoaBuddhist worldview.AlanWallacedescribesconventionalexistencethisway: Allphenomenaarefoundtoexistasdependentlyrelatedevents,emptyof anyintrinsicidentityoftheirown.Inthisviewbothsubjectiveandobjective phenomenahaveonlyaconventionalexistence,relativetothemindthat perceivesorconceivesthem(Wallace2003,283). Eventhoughallphenomenaareemptyandreduce,insomeway,toanontological oneness,Buddhismacceptsthatweexperienceconventionalexistence,however impermanentitmayultimatelybe.Itiswithinthisrealmofconventionalexistencethatlife iskarmic.Inthe21stcenturycontextoftheecologicalcrisis,ecoBuddhismdrawson ecologicalinterrelatednessasaconventionalmaterialworldcorollarytounderlying ontologicalreality.Theneteffectofthisintegrationofecologicalandontological relatednessissummarizedbyRubenHabitowho,writingfromaZenperspective,speaksof amindfulnessinwhichtheZenpractitionerisabletogathertogetherthedisparate elementsofoneslifeandachieveevergreaterintegration(Habito1997,168).This proceedstoanawakeningtoonestrueselfwheredualismsdisappearandoneisaware ofseeingandrelatingtoeverythingintheuniverse(Ibid.168). EcoBuddhismoffersadoctrineofontologicalonenessthatmergeswithecologyto provideahighlycomplexperspectiveofexistenceascausal,dynamic,andkarmic.By acknowledgingnatureanditsdynamicecologyasaplaceformindfulnessandaction,eco Buddhismoffersabasisforhumanresponsibilityinanageofecologicalcrisis. II.Responsibility Ecologicalinterrelatednessisthebasisforexaminingonesimpactsonnature,while naturesontologicalvalueasdhammaandpartnerinenlightenmentspeakstothekarmaof impacts.SwearersaysthatBuddhadasasbiocentricontologycanbeinterpreted deontologically,or,asBuddhadasaphrasesit,natureimpliescertainmoralmaximsor duties(Swearer1997,39).Onesuchwaythisplaysoutisagainstthebackdropofsuffering andtheFourNobleTruthswhich,summarizedbyDonaldRothberg,teachusthatthere isprofoundsufferingorunsatisfactorinessinlife;thattherootsofsuchsufferingarein greed,hatred,anddelusion;thatitispossibletoendsuffering,touprootgreed,hatred,and delusion;andthatthereareclear,practicalwaystotransformsufferingthroughandinto wisdomandlove(2001,162).Therefore,oneoughttoactinsuchawayastonotcreate moresufferingand,toeveryextentpossible,alleviatesufferingforallthings.This translatesintoanethicofcompassion,whichThichNhatHanhdefinesasamindthat removesthesufferingthatispresentintheother(NhatHanh1991,81). WilliamAmesspeaksofthenatureandroleofcompassioninMahayanaBuddhism:

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Mahayanahasitsowncharacteristicemphasisonuniversalcompassion, whichaimstoliberateallsentientbeingsfromsuffering,andonwisdom, whichcomprehendstheemptinessofallphenomena.TheMahayanaidealis exemplifiedbythebodhisattva,who,motivatedbycompassion,seeksto perfectwisdomandskillfulmeansinordertoattaincompleteenlightenment forthebenefitofallbeings(Ames2003,298). Tounderstandthisstatement,itisimportanttorememberthatwhenAmessayswisdom comprehendstheemptinessofallphenomena,hecouldjustaseasilyhavesaidthat wisdomcomprehendsthenatureofinterdependentcoarising.Thesetwodefinitionsare twosidesofthesamedhammiccoin.Emptinessmeansthatnothingstandsaloneandgoes italone.Allthingsareemptyinthatsense;rather,allthingsariseinterdependently. Therefore,ecoBuddhismdefinescompassionastheethicforinterrelatedness,anditseeks toremovesuffering. Nevertheless,onedoesnoteasilyfindaskillfulmeansprescriptionforresponsible ecoBuddhistbehavior.Forexample,theFourNobleTruthsaddresssufferingthatisrooted inhumangreed,hatred,anddelusion.Goodkarmaisbehaviorthatleadstogreaterand greaterfreedomfromgreed,hatred,delusion,andsuffering.OnesbehaviorinBuddhistlife growsoutofthedesireforfreedomfromrebirthandtheattainmentofenlightenment. Withrespecttosufferingasdukkha,inwhatwaydoesthatkindofsufferingexistinnon humannature?Onlyhumanbeingsaregreedy,hateful,anddeluded.Thatcancertainly haveconsequencesforhowhumanactionswillimpactnatureandcausesuffering,butnon humannatureitself(sentientandnonsentient)isnotgreedy,hateful,anddeludedinthe senseoftheFourNobleTruths.Andyet,evenabsenttheimpactsofhumanbehavior,we saythereissufferinginnature,suchasthepelicanchick.Soapurelydeontological approachtonature,rootedinadesiretominimizeandultimatelyescapesufferingbrought onbyhumanattachmenttothings(dukkha),isonlyapartialapproachtocaringfornature inwhichthereissufferingthatisnoteasilyunderstoodasdukkha. EcoBuddhism,likeecoChristianity,isrevisiting,revising,andreinterpretingits traditioninordertoenableresponsiblejudgmentswithrespecttodiverse,oftentimes competingentities.TheincorporationofrightsintoBuddhistthoughtisanexample. DamienKeownconcludesthatinclassicalBuddhismthenotionofrightsispresentin embryonicformalthoughnotyetbornintohistory(Keown2000,64).However,with respecttogivingbirthtothenotiontoday,Keownsaysthemostpromisingapproachwill beonewhichlocateshumanrightsanddignitywithinacomprehensiveaccountofhuman goodness,andwhichseesbasicrightsandfreedomsasintegrallyrelatedtohuman flourishingandselfrealization(Ibid.70).Heincorporatesthisintothehumanabilityto liveuptothethirdandfourthNobleTruths,whichheinterpretsasrevealingtheliterally infinitecapacityofhumannatureforparticipationingoodness(Ibid.71).Thepractical valueofhumanrightsisoneofempoweringhumangoodnesstodiscernatleastrelative rightandwrongbetweenpeopleandestablishingjusticewithinhumanrelationships.More explicitlyenvironmentalintoneistheemergenceofanimalrightsasaguidetoresponsible ecoBuddhism.TraditionalchallengestoanimalrightsbyBuddhismarethebadkarma associatedwithanimalsandbriefhistoryofinterpretingcareforanimalsasmeritoriousin
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thesenseofgoodkarma.However,PaulWaldausuggeststhatthesechallengesarenot insurmountable,notingthatadesiretobeinformedsoastoactresponsiblyleadsoneto assesstheconsequencesofonesactions,andthiscouldinturnhaveledtoinquiriesabout thenatureandcomplexitiesofthelivingbeingsaffectedbyhumanaction(Waldau2000, 100).WaldaubelievesthatthroughareexaminationoftheBuddhisttraditiontodaywithin thecontextoftheecologicalcrisis,thisdesiretobeinformedsoastoactresponsiblyis supportinganethicofanimalrightsfoundedupon:thepreceptagainstkilling;aconcern fortheconsequencesofonesactionsonthenonhumananimalworld;andanexamination oftheactualcomplexitiesanddistinctionsintherealmofnonhumananimallifethathave neverbeenacknowledgedinBuddhismbutarenowthefocusofmodernecology. ThatisaninitiallookattheresponsibilityofecoBuddhism.Itisengagedina dialoguetobringtogetherseeminglydisparateconcepts,suchasnonduality(an ontologicalconcept)andunityindiversity(anecologicalconcept),intoanethicof compassionfortheentitiesandlifeoftheconventionalworld.

Actiontostoptheecologicalcrisisisimplicitlygoalseeking,thegoalbeinganendto thecrisisandawayoflivingthatavoidssuchacrisisfortheforeseeablefuture.Allgoal seekingbehaviorincludesanexistingconditionandadesiredcondition.Togetherthese motivateandgivedirectiontoredemption. Themodernreligiousresponsetotheecologicalcrisisteachesthatanawakening(or reawakening)tospaceasholygroundwouldhelpcreatethedesiredconditionandsustain aproperethictowardtheenvironment.BeitecoChristianityorecoBuddhism,the argumentisthatasenseofthesacredinnaturewouldpromotereverentregardfornatural things,includingnonhumanlife,leadingtocompassionate,sustainableuseoftheearth. Theecologicalcrisischallengesustoconnectontologicaltruthwithresponsibilitytoward conventionalsymbolsofontologicaltruth,meaningeverythingintheworld. DonSwearerdescribesBuddhadasaspracticeasbiocentric:listeningtonatureand caringfornaturearebothformsofdhammicselfforgetting,notmerelyinstrumentalto humanflourishing(Swearer1997,28).Whilenotdescribingavisionperse,thisview showsaregardfornatureasholyorreverent,whicheasilyspeaksforavisioninwhich plunderandexploitationdonotexist. InNuclearEcologyandEngagedBuddhism,KenKraftspeaksofanimals,plants,andthe wholeearthhavingecokarma(Kraft2000,2789).Thesoteriologyofenlightenmentand itspossibleattainmentbyallbeingsleadstoaregardforalllifeaspartofthereligious communityorsangha.Evenifenlightenmentultimatelytranscendsthenaturalworld(as withtheChristianafterlife),wholeearthkarmamitigatesagainstindividualismand implicitlysupportsavisionofmutualityinthehereandnowsupportedbyappropriate ethicalregardandvirtue.Thisplaysoutinamannerfullyinformedbyecologyandthe needsofhealthyecosystemssince,inthewordsofRitaGross,interdependenceisoneof themostbasicteachingsofBuddhism(Gross2000,295).

III.Redemption

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IhavepresentedtwopotentiallyimportantinfluencesonanecoBuddhistvisionfor nature:1)natureasdhamma,specificallyteachingthetransparencyofontologicaltruthin ecology;and2)wholeearthkarmawiththepossibilityofuniversalenlightenment.These aresubstantiveelementsforacompellingvisionofnatureinanageofecologicalcrisis.This isnottosaythatdhammaasnatureandwholeearthkarmawiththepossibilityfor universalenlightenmenteasilytranslateintosuchavision.Thoughstillanemerging ideology,ecoBuddhismisacalltolivegently,interdependently,sustainably,and sufficiently.That,initself,isaredemptivevision. AswithecoChristianity,ecoBuddhismrevealstheperennialreligiousstruggleto bringspiritualitytobearinthelivedcontext,whichisalwayschanging;or,putanother way,tobringtheontologicaltobearintheeverchangingconventionalworld.Thisisthe struggletobeneithertooworldlynortoootherworldly;tobebothnonmonistandnon dualist;tofollowthemiddleway.Inspiredbythedhammaofnature,wholeearthkarma, andtheprospectforuniversalenlightenment,ecoBuddhismseeksgreaterintegration betweenontologicalonenessandecologicalconnectednessinordertopromoteecological healthandsustainabilitythroughskillful,compassionatelivinginaconventionalworld.

Conclusion

Inconclusion,thereisimportantcommongroundbetweenecoBuddhismandeco Christianity.Onesuchelementisthatbothseektojustifythemselveswithinthecontextof theirowncomplexhistoriesandtraditions.Ecoreligiosityisonlyemergingnotfully developedorwidelyexpressedintheteachingsandpracticesofthemainstream.However, inaworldcommunitythatlooksforfaithcommunitiestoofferhopeandguidanceduring timesofcrisis,bothecoChristianityandecoBuddhismcanproclaimacommonmessageof relatedness,responsibility,andredemption.Theyacknowledgearelatednessofallmaterial orconventionallifethatisecologicalandontological.Thereisaonenessthatisabsolute, whichisboththesourceandgoalofallecologicaldiversity.Thereissufferinginlife: sufferinginherenttoadiverse,dynamiclivingworld;but,also,sufferingthatisa consequenceofhumanaction.ThehumanresponsibilityaffirmedbybothecoBuddhism andecoChristianitytoaddresssuchconsequentsufferingisbroadinscope,deeply compassionate,andsalvific.Bothbelieveinaredemptionthatistranscendentandyetis perceivedandmanifestedthroughimmanence,beitdhammicordivine,thatguides practicalbehaviorandhaspracticaloutcomes. Bibliography Ames,WilliamL.2003.EmptinessandQuantumTheoryinWallace,AllanB.ed.2003 BuddhismAndScience:BreakingNewGroundNewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.285 304

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