ACADEMIC STUDY OF RELIGION

Name : Alanuari

RESPOND PAPER 1

The Western Construction of Religion

Religion has a diverse definition. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, a western scholar, stated that
there is no nature religion. His book The Meaning and End of Religion begins to understand the
construction of religion is not only as a belief system but also as a human phenomenon. The
Christianity which officially arose as a religion in 311, originally was a Jewish sect. But in
special case of Islam, the term Islam comes from God. Smith suggested the scholars to revise the
framework of religion (Smith, 1962). In fact, Religious traditions in a revealed religion are
different. Smith's view is similar to Asad’s argument that the definition of religion is historical
product (Asad, 1993).

Everything changes in a way to understand what is religion. Religion in any time and
place is different for the future. Reification means bring the concept into real. Smith argued that
religion in the context of modernity is cumulative tradition. The term “religious” is existed in the
indigenous religion. The concept of heuristic seems adequate to define religion. Sometimes it is
needed or helpful to use the contextual definition of “religion” but in another time probably the
definition is not fully relevant.

The meaning of religion, found by western scholars, has shifted the sacred of religion.
The term religion initially means faith or piety to God (the Latin; religio). According to Smith,
religion underwent the reification in the context of the medieval Europe. The religion has
transformed from cosmological realm to be concrete things. The religion has been identified with
the symbols and organizations. The concept of reification seems adequate for empirical study to
understand religion. Smith examined the percentage with the historical approach of faith
(abstract) and the religious (concrete) aspects to Christianity and Islam from the classical and
mediaeval to modern century. There has strong correlation that the more institutionalized
religion, the less faith believers have. (Smith;72, 1962). It resulted in those are more dominant
religious expression than the dimension of faith.
RESPOND PAPER 2

The Value of Classical Social Theory for Studying Religions

Reading the classical social theory provides a set of global thought to understand the
modern religions. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, the social classical theorists, attempt to open
more discussion to consider social factor for understanding the construction of religion (Holton).
In one side, they admitted that the social structure is constructed by religion which is the
effective tool to create slave in the eighteenth century. Influenced by the West industrial
revolution and capitalism, Marx looked religion as the economic motive. He said religion is the
opium of the society because religion is institutioned to support the feodalism. Weber also
argued the other side of religion when it is shaped by the church to legitimate capitalism in
practising religion. Furthermore, Gregory Baum as he cited Marx’s concept that religion is a
product of social alienation. Religion separated men from human being. In other side, religion is
the ongoing process to be the object of discourses. It is embodied in every class of society with a
different practices. Berger and Luckman saw religion is the important part to understand the
social reality. Religion is not always creates fear in another side of social life. Durkheim said that
interaction among men create the solidarity based on the similarity and the difference. Here, the
ethical and moral values of religions (such as Islam, Christian, Hindu) may be placed as an
alternative to create harmony in diversity in the context of democracy and modernity.
RESPOND PAPER 3

A Particular influence of the Origin of Religion

To understand the ethical perspective of religion (Monotheism and Politheism) is to see

the influence of the discourse on the animism (Taylor) and the magic (Frazer) as the origin of the
religions. I would not compare whether one of the two is the suffecient view to be the embrio of
religion. According to Pals, both Taylor and Frazer contribute to see how animism and magic are
still alive in the certain religion. The authors present the development of human civilization as an
attempt to find the heuristic aspect of religion. I am impressed to read Living in The Sacred
Cosmos by Risakotta that Indonesia until the recent time has many local wisdoms that based on
the element of natures. Many moslems in Indonesia belief that there are many sacred places such
as river, rock, mountain, and forest that are regarded as the part of magic. Furthermore, almost in
the all regions, the villagers convincingly practice the ancient tradition such as “Sesajen” to
respect their anchestors without changing their belief in God. The ritual and tradition are relevant
to what Hurd named as The Living Religion. I think that this is the way of Indonesian people to
keep the harmony and moral order in their interrelation to each other (both seen and unseen), to
the nature, and to the God. Moreover, the dialogue between material and immaterial aspect may
reframe the science to see the truth in the cycle of life.
RESPOND PAPER 4

Timothy’s arguments are new interpretations that seem adequate to see

contemporary science and religion. His book “The Ideology of Religious Studies” might
be recognized as the evidence of his critical thought. Thereby, he attempts to prove
what the major thoughts behind the religious studies are and how the universal
categories of religion (conducted by the western scholars during the medieval age)
play the hegemony of religious studies. Influenced by the post modernism, Timothy
Fitzgerald (2000), during he engages his research on the religion in India and Japan,
begins his critiques toward the western scholars in a way they define ecumenical
religion for the project of religious studies. Related to what Musuzawa (2005) said that
there is an attempt to make dichotomy (such as west and non west) in religious
studies. Furthermore, according to Veen (2013) the secular term of modern western is
also not appropriate to explain how the existence of religion and modernism are alive
in the spirit of nationalism. The paradigma of world religions is less succesfull to cover
secular perspective for the non western realm. Those critical works are significant
discourse to what I need to underline on the evolve of progressively religious studies.
This is not to see whether the comparative religion is currenly relevant or not, but an
analysis to widen the perspective of religious studies. Long (2001) suggested to not
hide from the ideological mask but to open mind naturally on religion.

The contemporary religious studies need to give affirmative space in the

department of religious studies to what Cotter and Robertson (2016) argue,
reconstructing the design of religious studies. The word “religion”, “religions”, and
“world religions” in religious studies and discourses are in one side to simplify or
universalize the complex reality of what we regarded for a long time as religion. Even
it is not easy to examine the essence of religion. The process of defining “religion”
undertakes a problematic discourse. For a sense, the scholars try to categorize the
transcendence and sacred is the main part of religion. in other side, is it adequate if
the category used in the another complex tradition and culture? The categories may
not cover all traditions such as to what we understand indigenous religion. Some see
the universalism of category is helpful to be a while category for the problematic
discourse in religious studies. But there is still open to deconstruct that the religious
scholars have to catch this challenges opportunity for future study.
RESPOND PAPER 5

Examining the phenomena of the relation between religion and human behavior, Weber, a theorist
of social positivist, presents his arguments to see how the complex existence of religion as apart
and aside in human phenomena. Weber examines how religion becomes a cause of the weight spirit
of social and economic changes. Contrast with Durkheim and Marx who looks religion as an
particular effect. When Durkheim frames the effect that the religious phenomena arise as a social
contract and Marx puts the position of religion as the product of alienation to maintain the status
quo of materialism as a taken granted, Weber attempts to account the aspect of religion in every
social structure of human phenomena. Religion is the entity to influence the believers in entire
social landscapes. Weber then frames the result of this phenomena into a specific discipline;
sociology of religion (first published in 1922). For the evidence, Weber explains how religion has a
positive impact to progressive economy reflecting on his phenomenological work; The Protestant
Ethic and the Sprit of Capitalism. Thereby, he examines the spirit of Protestant Calvinists affects the
basic capitalism. If Weber asserts on the material goal of human by bringing the spirit of religion,
Eliade (1957) looks that the spirit of religion manifests in other things outside the human. Eliade
said that the idea of sacred becomes the spirit to shape the human’s life. The sacred is beyond
human being. It has existed as a regard that human can catch the sense of sacred in any particular
time, place, and the nature.

Reading Weber and Eliade account the sense of religion as the symbol of power from inside or
outside influence for every particular aspect of the human’s life. Even for the people who are
atheism, they feel the sacred in the death. The “cause” of religion, in whatever definition they define
the religion, is alive. The people grasp the meanings of symbol they believe. It manifests and
manifested in human’s life. I think these ideas (Weber and Eliade) is relevant to examine the
phenomena of both modern and traditional societies in how they put the spirit of religion and
sacredness in every meaning of life. If these can be categorised in a domination, the modern society
probably is addressed to have the spirit of religion for materialism while the traditional people is
continuingly living in the sacredness on the nature.
RESPOND PAPER 6

The effect of radical thinking of science comes further to the field of humanity that
enacted the social science, regarding in how to understand religion as social construction that
has been well-influenced by the half nineteenth century of social theorists like Freud, Durkheim,
and Marx. The influence is being salient to say that the modern scholars mostly refer to their
invention. There are examples for making an applicable case: Bellah with the Civil Religion and
Geerts with the Religion of Java. If Freud conceptualizes the phenomena of self-understanding,
Totem, Taboo, and Illusion as the origin of religion, Durkheim emphasizes religion is the
product of human culture. Recently we know their contribution for the new disciple studies;
phsycology of religion and sociology of religion. Whereas we are able to see another face of
religion when it becomes political and social agency to support the growth economy after
reading the thought of Marx. For an instance, Christianity is shifting not only as the religious
institution but also becomes a motive for capitalism. Marthin Luther is one who gives the
attention on the Christinity that becomes private religion for the project of separation between
religion and state.

The theorists contribute to get analitical approach to see the face of Islam in Indonesia. In
the early of Islam in Java, wali songo, the Islamic saint preachers, have internalized the notion of
moral Islam through the performance of Wayang and musical tradition. These media has
become effective tools to attract people’s attention on the Islamic teaching. After the long
process of this aculturation, Islam seems entirely unique and different from what happened in
Arab and Egypt. Furthermore, the existence of pesantren, the Islamic boarding school, has
transformed not only to become Islamic education institution but also socially contructed to be
the symbol of Islamic local tradition based on the Indonesian culture. It is shaped as the basis of
the development of economy and cultural tradition. Thereby, the relation of religion and human
era being studied not solely including of theology. The challenge is that how to understand
religion is meassured in the relation to the society.
RESPOND PAPER 7

Islam in Indonesia is not merely the belief system, but it is a complex civilization. Reading Geertz,
Beatry, and Bernie about Islam in Indonesia, I would to call back a piece aspect of historical view on how
those scholars define religion in the context of Indonesian civilization. Those western scholars use the
ideal type of Weberian to be the tools to analysis the typology of religion in Indonesia. They make a
problematic framework in defining religion and the aside part of tradition. Bringing the idea and
perspective of world religion, where the dominant religions (Islam and Christianity) are the clear religion,
they capture the tradition is not a religion. The implication is that the local religions; Amatoa and
Kaharingan are not recognized as a religion. In one hand there is useful to simplify the complexity of
religion and tradition in Indonesia. But in the other hand it shows the superiority of world religions. the
local religion will continuingly become a tradition. In this case of Indonesia, Islam has a big influence to
shape the position of tradition. Geertz notes that 400 years before Islam came, the Javanese people has a
cultural civilization of Hinduism that has rich of art, mysticism, and Javanese rites. The prototype of
Islam in Indonesia is to accommodate culture and local wisdom. Thus, it has been easily adopted
Islam to be the given religion. Culture and the all aspects of art become an effective manner to
deliver religious and moral massages of the Islam. There is no a specific culture from Islam, but
Islam and the local culture have been amalgamated in a distinct Islam. In Indonesia, particularly
in Java, Islam has colored the identity of culture. The agent of Muslim have brought the religious
massages to the old tradition, culture and art. The use of traditional art, Wayang has been known
in Java with the moral story from Islamic massages. The performing of Wayang is the popular
tradition in Islamic propagation even though it is part of the culture of Java and Sunda (Van
Zanten, 2007).

Islam in Indonesia is unique and diverse. The three categories of Islam by Geertz may not be
sufficient to deal with the complexity. A Muslim is possible to practice the three categories,
because there is not specific rule. Muslim in Indonesia only believes that Islam is one, but it is
possible to see the different practices. Abangan can shift to be the Santri and may transform into
the modern society. To provide the unique of Islam in Indonesia, I think Islam Nusantara is
adequate to be the identity for remarking the typology of Islam in Indonesia to understand Islam
in the large spectrum of cultural dimension.
RESPOND PAPER 8

The “West” as the central location of the development of knowledge is the origin of the formation of
Orientalism stereotype to study the east from the point of view of the western scholar. What called
knowledge must be empirically and rationally examined. This foundation is deeply rooted in the scientific
tradition in the West. The conceptual category used refers to Western standards. The crystallization of this
standard assumes that knowledge may be referred to what is called science from “West”. This viewpoint
used by orientalist in studying the eastern world. So the East is considered as the object of study. Edward
said made the world realize that the reality of the eastern world today is the result of orientalism
construction.

The book “Orientalism” has sparked a new awareness of Western intervention towards the East. The
eastern reality that is understood today is the result of the construction of Western understanding limited
to rational and empirical testing. Gramci marked this phenomenon with the famous theories of
"hegemony" and Foucault indicating the political power behind the ideology of orientalism. There is a
massive response to the ideology behind this knowledge. King criticized orientalism by proposing his
criticism of reality through the study of social and anthropology of religion in India. His book
"Orientalism and Religion" suggests that the universal categories used in the West have a political
tendency in understanding the complexity of reality in India. The “West” has limitations primarily on how
they construct the mystical and religious categories. The West seeks to simplify the complexity of Eastern
reality with general categories. This indicates the existence of politics of knowledge which has pragmatic
implications in looking at the complex reality. A very important implication is how the politics of
knowledge of orientalism provides an understanding of what called tradition and religion. Thus, local
religions are not regarded as religions and gives a gap that the world religion (Christian, Islam, ect) is the
superiority.

Edward's findings become the most crucial part in influencing the emergence of postmodernism theories
to study the areas of religious studies. Talal Asad and Saba Mahmood, for example, attempt to dismantle
the old Western constructions in view of religion as a unique reality and have different specifications of
constructions built by the West. They attempt to reform the old construction while still referring to the
general categories of the West. The concept of feminism in Egypt for example can emerge from the
religious community. The liberal concept of feminism is no longer relevant if it placed in a strong Eastern
community with a religious culture. This proves that the reality of a particular culture with a specific
historical background has a unique sense of knowledge. So the modern concept in the East is not always
understood the same as modern in the West.
RESPOND PAPER 9

The world religion paradigm is in the context of modernity challenging to shift aside the development of
religious studies. The paradigm has gradually changed particularly to redefine “religion” from the
perspective of essentialism into the performative perspective. Under the politic of knowledge, there is
strictly definition in the brief boundaries what so-called religion and tradition. For a long time, one of
the implication is the indigenous religion is not recognized as a religion. Borrowing the idea from Cox
(2007) in redefining the religion to engage the indigenous religion that the essentialism may not work to
define this religion. The book “from Primitive to Indigenous” has brought the basic ground to
understand local religion in the field of religious studies includes the method and the perspective of
tradition toward the constellation of the world religion paradigm. Moreover, the analytical description
from Bernie to see the social landscape representation in Indonesia gives the important knowledge to
understand how the Indonesian people imagine the ideal type of tradition to interpret the ideal leader.

Aliran kepercayaan (indigenous religion) is facing the fresh challenge after the Court Constitution
(11/2017) decide to acknowledge it include the religion in the personal identity. The notion of tradition
is still play primarily in the social construction in Indonesia. It is described by Bernie that the religious
and tribal affiliated people still reconsider to select the leader based on the between religion and the
charismatic morality (traditional virtuous). However, Religion is constructed and further constructing the
society in Indonesia. Under the paradigm of the world religion, the government of Indonesia recognized
six religions that exclude the other local religion the local religion such as Kejawen and Sunda Wiwitan is
recognized as the local tradition for a long decade. Eventually, the notion of tradition is not as long as
defined as the non-modern sense. It is possible to change.
RESPOND PAPER 10

Discourses on the definition of religion as the field of empirical studies looks interesting particularly in
understanding the relation between religion and the state. It is important to see the position of religion
within the structural body of a country along side with an understanding on how the state constructs
the term “religion”. The long debate emerges continuingly to see the state accommodates the religious
aspect such as the state gives the public service.

There is a problematic view in how Indonesia constructs the complexity of religion. Indonesia has own
definition on what so-called religion since the state embedded the essence of religion through the
recognition along with a religion which has God, Prophet, Holy Book as the national standard. Micheal
Pichard (2011) wrote the importantly edited book to look the development of politics agama in
Indonesia. I do agree with him that the problem is not only on the debate of the definition of religion,
but it is also an analysis behind the power relation shaping the construction of religion. Moreover, there
is not only the power of nationalism to construct religion, but also the major group comes from what
included the category of “world religion”. Islam, the most population in the Indonesia, is in the main
configuration to play important role for shaping the politics of agama. A long discourse until today about
the recognition agama leluhur, Samsul Maarif (2017) comes to effort the civil rights of the people of
indigenous religion in Indonesia. I am in line that the strongly old reconstruction in how we understand
religion is not always significant in the context of diversity in Indonesia. In the case of politics agama in
Indonesia, I think the problem can addressed not only on the emphasis of the majority and minority, but
also the emphasis of equal right on citizenship.
RESPOND PAPER 11

Indonesia is not a religion based state but a religious and non-secular state. Therefore, religious identity
is still considered important. Furthermore, in the practice of education, in public schools, religious
education is still a priority. Based on the educational goals of the national education system contained in
the law of education system Law no. 20 2003, religious education is still a benchmark to improve
morality and piety. The question is how can the significance of religious education contribute to morality
issues in Indonesian context?

Religious education in Indonesia is still dominated by mono-religious models. Students only learn and
practice their religion. Schools only provide teachers of religious subjects in accordance with the religion
of the students. This is natural and has become an established order according to Sterken and
Muhammad Yusuf. However, how can this model of education be final when looking at the contents of
the laws and regulations on religious education in Indonesia? I agree that the influence of the new order
system is still strong especially how religious education is constructed in schools. The system is built by
the ideal type paradigm where identity becomes very important. So we are shaped by the views and
values that come from our identity. The religious education system does not open the student space to
learn about other religious teachings. Muslim students are still considered taboo and liberal when
studying Christianity. This has an impact on the low level of openness and tolerance among religious
people. This system is continuously implemented until Muslim students never know how Christian
students live. Their relationship is perceived by their divisions and religious doctrines. As this is the law
the education system on religious education is understood in most of Indonesian school. So do not be
surprised if the survey conducted by the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) said the attitude of
openness is only shown in the community “Muslims withdraw themselves from Christians”. Indonesian
society is accustomed to a segregated environment. So that the slogans of multicultural and plural
society still need to be reorganized especially at the stage of drafting legislation.