Jurnal Sosiologi Islam, Vol. 3, No.

2, Oktober 2013
ISSN: 2089-0192

INDONESIAN RELIGIOUS EVOLUTION:

Applying Bellah’s Theory in Indonesian Context

*)
Achmad Murtafi Haris

Abstrak
Religious adherents usually pay no attention to the evolution of
religions. They believe in religion as a matter of taken for granted
without considering the historical aspect which in the end becomes his
believed religion. Robert Bellah has clarified the historicity of religion and
found the evolutional process of religions which are similar to the
evolution of human civilization. His research finally ends with the
conclusion that religions evolve and develop from the simple entity to the
complex one.
Bellah has classified religious evolution into five periods. Firstly is
the period of Primitive Religion which is then followed by Archaic
Religion, Historical religion, Early Modern Religion and comes in the end
the period of Modern Religion. Each period has distinct characteristic
which is coincident with the phase of human civilization of the time.
Having paid attention to Bella’s insight upon religious evolution this
paper tries to implement the theory in the context of Indonesia. Some of
paper’s invention discloses the different way of religious participation
among modern Indonesian Muslims who are no longer dependent on
religious institutional interpretation.

Key Word: religions, evolution, civilization, Indonesia.

Introduction:

“Religion as a symbolic system tends to change systematically over

time in direction of more differentiated, comprehensive and rationalized
formulations which relates to other variety of other dimension of change in

*)
Direktur Center for Social Research and Advocacy (CeSRA)
2 | Achmad Murtafi Haris

other social sphere that defines the general process of sociocultural

evolution.” (Robert N. Bellah) 1

Robert Bellah in his “Religious Evolution” (1964) classified religions into

primitive, archaic, historic, early modern and modern. This classification is based
on evolutionary development in human civilization that appears in human
mobility and the development of survival ability in encountering life demand.
How mobile someone or certain group in his life, the grade of civilization will be
decided through. As human civilization grows up, the religion also grows up in
the direction of more differentiated, comprehensive and rational. Religion
develops from compact to complex; from simple to comprehensive; and from
mythical to rational.
Although the direction is clear concerning the religious evolution, the big
question remains there in determining who come first, the religius evolution or
human evolution? The answer can vary depends on who is answering the
question. People in different disciplines may come with different answer than
others. The theologians may believe that religion is the fundamental value that
influences the human change. Therefore religious evolution must come first
before human civilization. Unlike theologians who seem to have the same
response upon the question, the Social Scientist may answer in various.
According to Emile Durkheim based on his normativism it is expected that the
answer will be the religion come first; other answer from Karl Marx, based on
historical materialism, may put human evolution as the trigger of religious
consciousness which therefore it come earlier than the religious evolution.
Meanwhile, other sociologist Max Weber with his multi-dimensionalism
approach is expected to put both religion and human civilization in the
Symbiotic Mutualism relationship which allows each other to influence without
necessary to determine someone come first than other.
Looking at the history of the birth of Protestantism, using the approach of
Weber, it is uncovered that Protestantism as the reformed Christianity has
moved toward deconstructive movement during the huge social change
occurrence that needed new social value to go toward new destination.
Assumed that Martin Luther has a big role in generating European revolution
and assumed that France revolution was the triggering milestone of European
revolution, let’s scrutiny which one was older: the Luther criticism against
Catholics Rome policy or the France revolution which in the end led to the
ouster of the King. This effort is to know the further participation of religion in
European revolution.

1
Robert Bellah, Religious Evolution, beyond belief: essays in religion in post traditional
world, R.N. Bellah (New York: Harper and Row, 1970)

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Martin Luther began to criticize church in 1516 in case of indulgence by

which Rome Catholics sold the sin indulgence to gain money for their income.
This church policy finally raised Luther fierce criticism. On the other side French
revolution occurred in 1789 with the mission of overthrowing the old tradition
and hierarchy which were supported by monarchy, aristocracy and religious
authority. This old tradition was intended to be replaced with the new idea of
Enlightenment principles of equality, citizenship and inalienable rights. It is clear
here through temporal scrutiny that Luther movement came first before the
French revolution. It can be concluded that religion has proven his effectiveness
in bringing people toward social change.

Theoretical framework
According to Bellah, there are some elements that religion evolves based
on its relation with human evolution which appears in class system, culture,
power political system, livelihood, and socioeconomic condition. In bringing
Bellah’s Evolution to the Indonesian context, I use the unit of analyses taken
from Bellah’s explanation and correlate it with Indonesian history of civilization.
The way Bellah show the example of certain religion for his classification, I try to
compare it with what Indonesia has and had through the time. The use of
analogy becomes the prominent method in comparison between Bellah’s
example and Indonesian’s example.
There are two analogies being operated here, the analogy of human
evolution and the analogy of religious evolution. In further operationalization of
Bellah’s evolution, the lecture of Farsijana Adeney-Risakotta has contributed the
profound insight that between material fact and ideological fact there is a kind
of reciprocal relation. This reciprocal effect shapes the model of ideology of the
human. Ideology and religion are bundle of values with the former is related
with the power and later is much related with human morality. Since human are
varies and live in scattered places, the way they maintain lives are varies too. The
element of the time also determines human mobility which influences evolution
typology of human and religion.

Primitive religion
Firstly, Primitive religion lives at the beginning of human life. Their lives
mobility is very limited. They did few encounters as they lived in certain space
where foods are available in nearby place and the demand of life still very little
even buried. There was no class system in primitive civilization. It is back to their
simplicity of the life. Nothing in that time required organization that emerges
social classification. That why human lived in dual function as a leader and

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ordinary people. This kind of life raised the sort of simple religion resembles to
their simplicity of life.
Although it is recognized by primitive religion by Bella, it is categorized as
an evolutionary advance in religiosity due to the fact that before this there was
no religion on the earth surface except the religion that might belong to animal
and vegetation.
In order to survive human can only passively endured suffering and
subdued to all limited conditions. Primitive religion offers transcendental
solution that present in human life in kind of capacity for symbolization as
manifestation of life suffering. This way of expression gives certain degree of
freedom that was not present before. It was the first time human in touch with
transcendental matters before there was no symbolization at all in human life
2
neither in joyful nor suffers.
Within primitive religion mythology becomes foremost and deeply
embedded in many aspects of life. Religious activities are part of participation in
the unit of mythology which is inherent in that entails no separation between
religion and human activities as both are part of myth even human also
conceived as mythical being. Durkheim scrutinized the social implication of
primitive religion within primitive people and finds the impact in relation
between young and social solidarity by which gives little change in surrounding
3
world.
Primitive people lived in harmony with the nature. As long as they could
not evolve capability in making some tools to develop life, their life fill be
unified with the nature. It does not mean that they were dependent very much
to the natural sources as the human population was very little so to say depends
on nature is not relevant in time when every basic need can easily gotten. Only
the wild animal and the wild climate that sometime comes became problem for
their life survivals and disease were the biggest problem that might push them
evolve to treat those life hindrances. Their simple life makes the sequence of
their life goes and back from the beginning again and again for the long time.
They lived in a kind of cycle as they still did not know cultivation. Their merely
activity was animal hunting and survive the extreme climate condition.

Indonesian Primitive Religion

According to religious evolution in Indonesia we find animism and
dynamism as the oldest religious history in Indonesia. It might not quite perfect
to represent the primitive religion as describes by Bellah and Farsijana lecture
on religious evolution of Bellah, but it might the closest one to the typology of

2
Ibid.
3
http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/evol.htm

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primitive religion used by Bellah. Why I firstly say this, because evolution is
related with civilization. Primitive religion is assumed as religion belongs to
primitive civilization. The fact is that up to now, there are still many people
embrace animism in this era of modernity. It remain about 7,5 million people in
Dayak community in West Kalimantan believe in animism in current days. It
seems that they are among those who grip strongly the ancestral heritage and
are not interested in modern myth to replace their myth; or might be the live in
the forest that sterilizes their life from outside influences.
Animism has existed since Indonesia's earliest history, around the first
century before Hindu culture arrived in Indonesia. Animism comes from the
word Latin anima or spirit is belief to the existence of spirit in all things on the
earth. Primitive people believe it and mostly represents in the thing that gives
such impression the seer such as big stone, high tree, cave and others that can
make human “submit” to that thing. The spirit which exists in those things
assumed capable to help human in his life. Therefore they routinely come to it
for some requests of having better life, more wealth and not disturbed by
anything in his life. They also believe that those spirits may disturb them in their
lives if they don’t perform a kind of ritual offering. Being afraid of spiritual anger
rise from those “supernatural” things, they do rituality.
Animism also believes that spirit of death person can enter the animal
body such as in Nias tribe; they believe that the mouse that usually back and
forth to the house is the spirit of the death woman has children. His oft-coming
might assumed as visiting the house and looking at children. The spirit also may
enter the pig body or tiger that one day may come back for revenge to his
hostile. This belief is different with the concept of reincarnate in Hindu or
Buddha which the spirit is reincarnate to a kind of animal. Meanwhile in the
animism the spirit enter to the living animal not the death man live again in
4
animal kind.
Besides animism there is also dynamism which worships the spirit or
invisible matters. They believe that the spirit of ancestor is live in certain place
like in the tree or cave or mountain. Their spirits often asked by his descendent
to helping their matters by putting their spirit into certain heirloom media such
as black stone or ruby. The difference with animism is that animism worship the
thing because of belief of the spirit existence behind. Meanwhile, dynamism is
5
to worship spirit of the ancestor might exist in certain place.
This religion or belief assumed to have come to Indonesia before the
coming of what so called the official religion in Indonesia which contain of
Hindu, Confucius, Buddha, Islam, Christian and Catholics. I can certain that it is

4
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animisme
5
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamisme

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the primitive religion or at least it was the religion of Indonesian primitive.

Primitive is the oldest civilization and animism and dynamism is the oldest
religion so there both converges in the same quality of oldest institution in
Indonesia history.
Other reference says that Indonesia has not yet developed cultivation
during this period of primitive. They livelihood was hunting animal whereby they
can invite many people to eat when they are in overwhelming food. The party
that they made seems to be the generosity which many people will remember it.
Up to now this kind of condition still we find it in Papua where many people
have farmed pigs, chickens, and dogs for their food besides hunting. The still
don’t develop cultivation or agriculture. Usually it begin to arise when the
population rises and need more vegetation than just what available in nature.
According to the characteristic of primitive they supposed to be prior to
cultivation era.
Animism and dynamism were their religion when they live in simple life
and united with nature. They don’t have class system and only the leader and
the member that they have on classification. Both beliefs appropriate with the
characteristic of primitive people. The belief in spirit existence behind certain
thing is common among people who live in merged life with nature in which
primitive people live in that way.

Achaic Religion
The religion then develops into Archaic Religion by which religion
introduces a true cult in many kinds of gods, priests, worships and sacrifices. The
myth and the ritual in the primitive religion were developed in archaic religion
with the new ways. They more clearly show the religious symbol system in their
religious characteristic. It is in some extent merged with other social structures
leads to the multiplication of cults. They live in similar to the primitive religion
by which individual and society merged in the natural divine cosmos but with
the distinction between the men as the subjects and the gods as the objects are
much more definite than before.
Archaic religion usually rises within society has two-class system of
domination such as in agriculture. The archaic religion develops religious caste
in dealing with certain need. This raises hierarchical insight of the world. This
kind of religion emphasizes communication via worship and sacrifice. Religion is
fused in social structure with privilege as an elite group of religious authority
directly or subordinately. Archaic religion did almost no change in society
development due the belief that what they perform in worship and cult is the
6
will of God.

6
Ibid.

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Comparing to the primitive religion seems that archaic religion more

complex since there is hierarchy as the consequences of social class leaded by
the religious leader. The cult and worship found its form while it was not there
in primitive. The sacrificial worship within ritual activities is related to the
livelihood or bread and butter to gain worthy harvest and more wealth.
By this explanation we can sum up the characteristic of archaic are: the
emergence of organized religious gathering (cult); the rise of working system
within cultivation. In this matter religion has ritual offering to God; this era
marked by the distance between super human and human. There is medicine
specialist, healer and religious leaders that give much privilege and high
position that pays them to be religious leader. It is eves the most prestigious
position in archaic community; they have direct causal relation between religion
and material benefit by which they think that climate condition and the good
harvest and the land fertility are manifestation of religious ritual acceptance or
rejection by god; finally, their social class give the leadership opportunity only to
clan or decided by clan and it is inherited to the heir.
Furthermore, I may say that archaic religion is identic with the indigenous
people with some assumption I refer to Burger (1987, 9). The evolution category
is related so much to the livelihood of the people in existing time. Using Burger
criteria, indigenous people are the original inhabitants of territory; nomadic and
seminomadic; shifting cultivator, hunters, herder, gatherers, using agriculture
labor that produce little surplus; don’t have centralized political institution like
country; they organize in level of community; they make decision on consensual
7
basis.

Indonesian Archaic Religion

Using Bellah’s theory about archaic religion and Risakotta explanation
over Bellah’s in the context of Indonesia, I find some example that may
categories as the archaic belief in Indonesia. I can’t say religion because what I
find is some ritual offering usually performed during certain event of cultivation.
I concentrate on Indonesia agriculture and what rituals that related with
cultivation. It is referred to the explanation above that primitive era is prior to
agriculture. Beginning from the agriculture and farming livelihood is the
subsequence period after primitive.
Although it is still practiced until now in the modern era, some rituals in
accordance with the existence of goddess Sri that gives fertility to plantation
and land still performed. It might remain merely tradition among cultivators to
do that without really belief with goddess Sri existence. Or it is just a good

7
R.H. Barnes, “Being indigenous in Eastern Indonesia” in Indigenous People of Asia
(Michigan: the Association for Asian Studies, Inc., 1995), pp. 311.

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opportunity to invite many people in gathering and giving food to many of

people. Especially among Muslims tradition like to hold what so called
Selamatan or safety request ritual that mean positive because nobody letting
danger comes to his life. In this case people like to hold in certain time seems to
match his coming need of having a good harvest or such. So the difference
between archaic people in long time ago in doing such ritual with the people in
the modern time is the object of God. Long time ago they hold ritual offering to
Goddess Sri meanwhile for now days they perform it not as ritual offering but as
prayer gathering to Allah for purpose of successful harvest or others. It is
understandable because in Islamic tradition there is not ritual offering so
Muslim keeps the tradition by doing some adjustment coinciding with the
Islamic theology.
The cult that represents the most characteristic of archaic religion also
manifest to the tradition of Earth Giving or which is known among Javanese by
Sedekah Bumi. Ridwan Saidi the social leader of Betawi said during the seminar
held by Jakarta Islamic Center within early December this year of 2011 in title
“Islam in Betawi and its support to Cultural Tradition Conservation” said that
Earth Giving was the tradition of the Javanese in offering something to Goddess
Sri who believed as the decider of the harvest. If goddess Sri represents the land
goddess there is other goddess also known as Nyai Roro Kidul who represents
the goddess of the sea and the Giant in the forest.
In doing the offering ritual to Goddess Sri in event of Earth Offering which
is usually held during Dzulhijjah or Rabiul Awwal, Yahya Andi Saputra the other
speaker in the seminar explained that offering ritual is done by burying the head
of water buffalo in four places precisely in four direction of the compass in the
border of the reign. Besides those four buffalo heads, there is one more head
buried in the center of the reign. It is what so called Papat Kalima Pancer which
means four positions and the fifth is in the center. Because it is very expensive
to buy the water buffalo so it is now replaced by the head of goat.
For offering ritual to Nyai Roro Kidul, usually is done by sweeping the
offerings and the buffalo’s head on the sea which so called among Jogjanese
with Nyadran. Saidi said this kind of ritual was performed before coming Islam
and after its coming, Betawi people embrace Islam and monotheism but still
respect to those “local gods” or can be categorized as what so called
Monolatrism which means the recognition of the existence of many gods, but
8
with the consistent worship of only one deity.
Looking at above explanation and refers to what Ridwan Saidi said that it
is rooted to the pre-history religion or belief we can category this as the archaic.

8
http://islamic-center.or.id/khasanah/islamic-learnings/betawi-corner/828-sedekah-
bumi-di-bulan-haji.html; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolatrism

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We know this from the cult to the goddess. Secondly it is related with cultivation
culture in which cultivator does the offering ritual to the god related with the
cultivation. Thirdly, there is the religious leader to perfume cult rituality that was
really appreciated as has different class with common people. If in the primitive
religion there is no special religious leader and was united into one body of
tribe leader as whole, in the archaic religion there is special leader for it usually
placed by the medicine specialist, healer or shaman.

Historic religion
Later on in religious evolution of Bellah is Historic religion. It is different
with the previous one but still shares in transcendentalism and hierarchical
system. The supernatural existence is dominant in both worldly and hereafter
life. If the primitive and archaic religion concern on this life, the historic religion
has addition in hereafter life with either immortality or everlasting life. This kind
of eternity consists of many teaching some of them about heaven and hell that
people should prepare for during his life in the world besides other teaching of
salvation that decides whether someone among those who are fortunate and
become heaven inhabitant or infortune and becomes hell inhabitant. The social
implication of the historic religion is implicit in human life change from negative
to positive; from reactive to solemnity. For example in the Buddhism, every
human is assumed at the beginning as a greedy that make him must escape
totally from material temptation. The Hebrew says that human’s sin is not
because of wicked deed but it is found from heedlessness of God and only
totally obedience can be acceptable to the lord. In Islam someone should be
grateful to the God by submitting His order for salvation.
The historic religion emergence represents a critical turn in human
history. It began at the first millennium B.C.E. in ancient Greece, continued to the
rise of Confucian in China, Buddhist in India and Jewish in ancient Israel that
later on spawned the later historic religions of Christianity and Islam. The core
teaching of historic religions is about the conception of other domain beyond
reality that transcends current worldly life and its superior hierarchy of the
9
prophet and his successors.
The distinct characteristic of historic religious symbolism is the symbolic
dualism erected by this transcendental boost and refusal or at least devaluation
of this world. Salvation becomes the ultimate goal of religious performance.
Symbolic dualism between sacred-profane, finite- infinite, mortal-immortal
entails the split between the political authority and religious authority with later
gains autonomous from political authority. These developments entails to social

9
http://faculty.smcm.edu/ccraney/restricted/PDF/Religious_Evolution.pdf

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implications in sort of duty separation between different two worlds based on

concentration.
The mobility of the people in the historic religion begins to increase and
creates class system within society. Though industrialization did not appear yet
in this time but the manifold livelihood begin varied. The religious institution
gained privilege and construct religious system that manages relationship
between religious leader and his adherent. The strong influence of the religious
submission over adherents lead to the religious institution to the power and
builds theocratic country. The unifying two power of sacred and profane sphere
in one hand of religious institution makes them totalitarian ruler with huge and
massive authority in his hand something that later on causes to the people
suffering from church atrocity and tyranny which continued one millennium of
year of the dark edge. Everything then changed after people wake up and
common consciousness is shaped to rebel the king and the church and toppled
them down from the power. It marked the end of historical religion that after
grasping political power becomes source of human suffering for very long time.
Comparing to the primitive and archaic religion, the historical religion
come with the prophet as the messenger of God. Their coming to this world
brought the teaching through holy book to be the guidance of human to live
straight on right path. Prophet accepts God revelation which by God interfere
human history. Until here we can discover the secret of the beginning of human
history. The secret is that it just only began after God’s interference to human
life order. Without His revelation it seems human will live in pre-history and
never take off to the history era forever.

Indonesian Historic religion

The history began in the first century. Robert Bellah has mentioned the
names of religion endorsed in this historical category such as Hindu, Confucius,
Buddha, Jew, Christian and Islam. It is interesting that history begins in the first
century but Bellah mentioned Hindu, Confucius, Buddha and Jew as the historic
religion although they arise many centuries before century. It seems that the
beginning of human history can be debatable but the most important is that
historical era marked by the beginning of human consciousness waked up, crawl
and make progress gradually to many parts of the world.
In the context of Indonesia we can say that Hindu and Buddha have those
signs in bringing people toward historical achievement. Both came to the
country in about second and fourth century when many traders came from India
to Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi with their culture and religion with them. Hindu
began dissemination in Java Island in the fifth century with the caste of
Brahmana that worship Siva. They also disseminated Buddha in century later.

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Both influenced much the rich kingdoms of Kutai, Sriwijaya, Majapahit and
Sailendra. Buddhist temple which is the biggest one in the world Borobudur has
been founded in mostly the same period with the building of Hindus temple of
Prambanan. Prambanan temple was built in the era of Majapahit was ruled by
Sanjaya dynasty in sixteenth century when Islam has begins spread. The peak of
the glory was in fourteenth century when Majapahit extent his territory to cover
the whole of Southeast Asia or what so called with the golden age of Indonesian
history.
Indonesian Hindus differs with Hindus in many parts of the world. In
Indonesia it is usually called by Hindu Dharma which never implements caste.
The epic of Mahabrata which contains story about big war of Bharata
descendent and the epic of Ramayana or the story of Rama become very
important tradition among Indonesian Hindus which manifests in puppet and
dance shows.
They have five philosophies called Panca Srada. It includes the belief in
the almighty god; The belief of revenge or karma which someone will gains
punishment caused by his fault; The believe of reincarnate that embodies cycle
of human life; The to the ancestral spirit existence; and the much attention to
the art and ceremony than to the holy book, teaching, law and faith.
Hindu fellow is in about 6,5 million in 2006 or about 1.8% of Indonesia
population. This number is disputed by Indonesian Hindu representation
Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia (PHDI) that claims to eighteen million
adherents in Indonesia. About 93% live in Bali and the rest spread in Sumatera,
Java, Lombok and Kalimantan. In the central of Kalimantan the population of
Hindu is many. For about 15,8% of them is Hindu Kaharingan which merges the
local belief into Hindu religion.
Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia after Hindu. It came
in the sixth century has the tied relationship with the Hindu history. Many
Buddhist kingdoms were built in the same period with the Hindu kingdom such
as the kingdom of Sailendra, Sriwijaya and Mataram. Buddhism came through
silk route between India and Indonesia.
Following the falling of Soekarno, in the mid of 1960s when Pancasila
contains with belief to only one God and drive all Indonesian to believe in God,
Indonesian Buddha through the founder of Indonesia Buddha Union
(Perbuddhi) Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita initiates the existence of the only one of
the highest God, Sang Hyang Adi Buddha. This idea backs to the historical
background of Indonesian Buddha in the long time ago which written in the
ancient Javanese text and is inspired by the Borobudur temple architecture that

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shows the highest stupa in the middle and it is only one stupa that can be
10
inferred as the only one God worshiped by Indonesia Buddhist.
The glory of Buddha civilization embodies in the existence of Borobudur
temple in Magelang Central Java. This creation implies the high civilization
achieved by the Javanese within Buddha’s culture. Someone said that
Borobudur is not built by Javanese but by Buddhist India. This allegation is
untrue due to some disclosure that Javanese in time of Borobudur founding was
society with existing civilization. They were organized society performing the
livelihood of cultivation and farming and trades. They made poetry, clothe, and
work bronze and gold. They grew rice and other crops using a complex system
of terraces and irrigation. They craved statue, built religious sanctuary and had
an organized system of government. It proved that Javanese who built
Bodobudur not the India. The architecture of the temple combines between
India architecture with the Javanese architecture that imply that Javanese culture
11
parallel to but not identical with those of India.
The third religion endorsed into historical category is Javanese beliefs or
what so called in Javanese by Kebatinan or Kejawen. It has principles embodying
a search for inner self but at the core is the concept of peace of mind. Although
Kejawen is not strictly a religious affiliation, it addresses ethical and spiritual
values as inspired by Javanese tradition. It is not a religion in usual sense of the
word, like Islam, Judaism, or Christianity. There are no scriptures such as the
Bible or the Qur'an, nor are there prophets. There is no emphasis on
eschatology such as life after death, heaven or hell, devils or angels. They teach
such kind of psycho technic which believes there is in the mind the real freedom
12
where by human will experience the real happiness.
Javanese spiritualism entails a never ending search for wonder and
surprise. It has some foreign influences. The Javanese tend to be flexible and
pragmatic as far as one's spiritual life is concerned. The complexity is perhaps
the result of Java's complicated cultural background and its myriad cultural
influences. But basically, Javanese spiritualism is individualistic in approach,
something typically Javanese. The approach is person-to-person or person-to-

10
According to national census in 2000, there about 2% of Indonesian is Buddhist or for
about four million mostly living in Jakarta and other provinces of Riau, North Sumatra
and West Kalimantan. The number tends to be more than reality because in that time
Confucius and Taoism were unconsidered officially as religion that cause to its merger
into Buddhism.
11
John Miksic, Borobudur Golden Tales of the Buddhas periplus edition (Jakarta: c.v. Java
Books, 1996), pp. 19.
12
Drs. L. Tarigan, “Macam-macam Agama dan Kepercayaan di Indonesia” in Pendidikan
Agama Kristen (Yogyakarta: Taman Pustaka Kristen, 1994), 9.

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guru or one on one. Kebatinan commandment: "God is within you. God is

everywhere. But do not say you are God.
I include those three religions into historic religion for the reason has
emphasis on the civilization building have made. Actually Confucius and Taoism
are among this category but I prefer to limit in this three for my easiness.
Buddha and Hindu came to Indonesia since the beginning of the century. It
grew rapidly and built a big kingdom fourteen existence in area. It is the longest
time in Indonesian civilization. How long Islam and Christian can stay and
dominate Indonesian belief until now does not equal the half time of both
existences in Indonesia. Both inherit much values and teaching embed
profoundly into Indonesian culture. This is the reason behind the endorsement
of Aliran Kejawen or Javanese belief into historic religion and not into the
archaic one, because it rises as the influence of both religions in modification
with local culture. Aliran kejawen is also obviously full of philosophical teaching
with complexity inside. Although it was told above as have no holy book and
prophet but actually they have in lower category than both. They have guidance
book like Gatoloco, Dharmo Gandul, Primbon, etc but not in the level of holy
book. They also have such a prophet but in the lower level of Wali in Islam. With
this fact, due to the Aliran Kejawen has a system of belief and teaching we can
indorse it into historic religion.
The deep influence of Hindu – Buddha in Indonesia as it is manifested in
the local religion, shows us how both religions has been the most meritorious
part of Indonesia civilization building. We even cannot imagine this vast territory
of Indonesia without firstly achieved by Majapahit during his prime minister of
Patih Gadjah Mada. This is the source of Indonesian national consciousness
begins and shapes. And it was happened during the Hindus System of
Majapahit. Buddha has earlier great achievement through the kingdom of
Sriwijaya in the seventeenth of century. In that time it was one of the three
13
biggest kingdoms in the area other than India and China.
The relation between the Buddha and the Sriwijaya kingdom can never be
separated. The kingdom can gain no rapid advance without the influence of the
religion. Through it he found their other counterpart with the same culture in
different area. Hindus and Buddha were vaster than the kingdom itself. It is
limited with the political territory while religion crosses those borders. Sriwijaya
ruler has very good relationship with India because of religion. They even build
special place in India in the era of Balaputra Dewa for the Sriwijaya religious
leader studied religion there. They even build the temple named

13
Yahya Wiryadinata M.Min, “Sekilas tentang Agama Buddha Nichiren Shoshu Indonesia”
in Peninjau tahun XIV, 1, majalah badan penelitian dna pengembangan PGI (Jakarta:
1989), pp. 96.

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Cudamaniwarman Vihara and the local government of Cola in India served for
that purpose a village in 1005. Sriwijaya also gave tribute to the ancient China
ruler for protection and giving the name to the temple and bell that will be built
14
in Sriwijaya.
As Bellah has endorsed Christian and Islam in category of historic religion,
in case of Indonesia I prefer also to endorse it. In spite of the different presence
of time between Christianity appeared in the Europe longtime ago before
coming to Indonesia. Christian also seems to be nonindigenous among
Indonesian. It was colonial religion and even colonial didn’t want it to come in
order to smooth colonialism purpose. Christian therefore was not the culture
brought by and support colonial especially Dutch. So Christianity still didn’t
show himself as part of civilization building in Indonesian context. And to come
to the historic religion category needs to show his role in the beginning of
national root building otherwise it is not historic. This can be proved by the
existence of kingdom which attaches religion, such as Hindu with Majapahit and
Buddha with Sriwijaya and Islam with Demak, Pajang and Mataram. Despite of
Christianity attachment to colonialism become the common perception among
indigenous people with majority of Islam adherents, in the eastern part of
Indonesia Christianity spread during Portugal coming into eastern part of
Indonesia. He was Franciscus Xaverius who firstly disseminated Catholics and
baptized thousands people in Maluku in 1546-7 when Portugal came as the first
European opened the trade line to the Indonesia. In the same century Catholics
spread in Manado, Flores and Timor.
Portugal conquest over Malaka sultanate in 1511, he then followed by the
coming of Dutch and Spain who encountered Portugal in the Malaka. Dutch
defeated Portugal and toke over Malaka from Portugal in 1641. On the other
hand, Spain bounded to Philipina and began to colonize the country in 1560.
What Spain has done is immortalized by the name of the country ‘Philippine’
that refers to Spain King in that time of conquest Philip II.
There is interesting information the other version of the coming Catholics
into Indonesia. It is referred to Prof. Dr. Sucipto Wiryosuprapto that said that
Catholics firstly came to North Sumatra in seventh century in the place name
Pancur which is now known as Barus. The source of the information got from
the classic history of Egyptian Christian written by Abu Salih al-Arminy (Arminy
means the fellow of Armani Christian which mentions the data of 707 churches
belong to certain Egyptian denomination which spread in Egypt, Middle East,
India and Indonesia.
When Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) ruled Indonesia, many
Catholic priests were detained because of their affiliation to Portugal the

14
Ibid, 97.

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opponent of Dutch in mastering Southeast Asia. Catholics was officially banned

15
by Dutch in 1605. The really infected by this policy is Manado who later on
converted to Protestant before they were Catholics. The discrimination against
Catholic just ended when the younger brother of Napoleon Louis Bonaparte
who was Catholics appointed to be the king of Dutch in 1806. By his order the
Catholics began allowed to disseminate freely in Hindia Belanda.
Besides those universal religions have been disclosed above, Islam is one
of those historic religions Indonesia. Same with Hindu and Buddha which have
kingdom based on those religious ideologies, Islam also built the Islamic
kingdom and began to use the term of sultanate in time of Sultan Agung (1613-
45) ruler of Mataram. It was interesting History by Sri Margana during his lecture
at ICRS which mention the story of Sultan Agung the third king of Mataram, he
said that after his defeat from Dutch in the war (1629) to occupy Batavia or
Jayakarta from VOC, he visited the Sunan Bayat tomb. During his visit he
unconsciously napped and dreamed with sound telling him about many things
that after his wake up he got new paradigm of life that leaded him to be more
closure to the Islam. He then declared the use of Javanese Calendar based on
Islamic calendar; he begin to use the title of Sultan and every Friday prayer he
said to pray in Masjidil Haram through imagination or really flied up by the
supernatural power to arrive Makah nobody knows the truth. Anyway it disclose
the secret behind why the Sultan of Mataram none of them goes for pilgrimage.
Might be they can make it through other way which is different with ordinary
people.
Islam came to Indonesia beginning from Samudera Pasai and then
16
descent to Java Island especially the north cost. From the East Java then went
to South Kalimantar or Banjarese. That why the typology of Islam among
Banjarese is close to the East Javanese santri tradition which close to the
mysticism. In 1292 Marcopolo came to Pasai and found many Muslims there.
Ibnu Bathutah did the same in 1345 that in Aceh there were Muslim with
performed Shafi’i school. The oldest Muslims grief is found in Gresik which
mention the name of Fatimah Binti Maymun died in 1082. She was assumed as
the nonlocal people but from Arabs country visited Java Island.
The rapid spread began in time of Wali Songo or the Nine Saints of Islam
in fifteenth century. Their success preaching ended in the establishing of Islamic
kingdom in Demak under the control of them. Their ability to preach Islam

15
“Agama di Indonesia dalam Perkembangan” in Monitor no. 5 / tahun IV / Oktober 1981
(Jakarta: Pusat Pengembangan Etika), pp. 5
16
Dr. J. Garang, “Peranan dan Hubungan Agama-agama Masyarakat dan Negara
Menyongsong Abad ke-21 di Indonesia” in Peninjau tahun XI, 1+2 (Jakarta: Badan
Penelitian dan Pengembangan PGI, 1984), pp. 159.

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within the Majapahit palace family leaded to their significant successfulness in

following rapid spread of Islam. In that time, Majapahit was in decline. Many
Javanese and all other Indonesian people who embraced Buddha and Hindu
change to Islam.
Some story said that Islam has come to Indonesia in very short time after
the death of Prophet Muhammad in about 20 years later His death. It is said
that khalifah Uthman bin Affan the third Islam leader after Abu Bakar and Umar
bin Khattab sent delegation to Chine ruler in that time for introducing Islam and
the new country establishment. In long trip within four years they arrived to
Sumatera and in the period of Umayyah dynasty ruler definitely in 674, they
17
build the sea harbor in the west cost of Sumatera. This is the beginning of
Indonesian introduction with Islam since then many Arabs came in trade and
buying the natural sources from the green fertile island. Thomas Arnold in The
Preaching of Islam said that the coming of Islam not as conqueror like Portugal
and Spain. Islam came to Southeast Asia without sword and without
overthrowing the existing ruler. Islam really came with persuasive and cultural
approach.

Early Modern Religion

The historic religions which dominate most of the world part currently
and called as the “Universal Religion” has developed internally in
accommodating the huge social changes demand in Europe which began in
sixteenth century. Religion that adopts such internal change is called, according
to Bellah, by “Early Modern Religion”. The example of this religion is found in
Protestant reformation. The distinct tone of this religion is marked by the
collapse of the hierarchical structure in dealing with both nowadays and
hereafter life. Also the salvation understanding is not done through withdrawal
from the world life but in the contrary, it is achieved through the work in midst
of worldly life. It implies the contrast understanding upon salvation within
historic religions before it was salvation attained by participation in sacramental
system, performance of mystic and submitting religious law. These procedures
in purpose of salvation, in some extent, divert people from encountering the
world.
The early modern religion also concentrates on the direct relation
between individual and the transcendent reality throwing away the hierarchical

17
When I was in Egypt the story of about caliph Othman dispatched delegation to China
is information I have known about it. But to continue the trip to south which means
descending along way until arrived at Sumatera is a matter needs critical scrutiny
historically. The data that I got does not mention the reference of his information. see
syafii.wordpress.com/2007/05/11/sejarah-islam-di-indonesia.

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mediation to the God and conceiving religious action not only related to the
ritual ceremonial religious activities but did relate with the daily life in the
18
world.
Early modern religion insists to differentiate between religious realm and
the political real which historic religion mix it in one hand of religious institution.
Many of the historic religions endeavor this kind of differentiation, but it only
worked institutionally within Protestantism. Instead of separation from the
world, early modern religion demands engagement in this-worldly action to
achieve salvation by rising individual role in salvation. Religious symbolism now
focuses on individual believers' direct access to the divine and all worldly life
becomes important religious action, through what Weber called ethical striving
in a vocation. Religious organization was also deconstructed through rejection
of the concept of salvation mediated by religious specialists, in favor of direct
salvation by individuals. The key social implication of early modern religion is its
contribution to the growing of voluntary association as the basis of social action
in all part of life which results to the development of modern democracy and
science to the rise of Europe revolution.
The early modern religion marked by the class system and division of
labor. Industrialization grows rapidly in that time and created the division of
labor within industrial society. Myriad problems rise within this era as people
encounter new life in new different space. The rise of capitalism that comes
together with the industrialization demanded new model of religiosity in order
to make the basis of theology in match with the growing capitalism. Calvin was
among that Christian theologian who laid down many new interpretation of
Christianity for the running of capitalism. The separation between the sacred life
and profane life is definite since that of time. The way people think is not based
on theology anymore but based on rationality marked the beginning of the
science rules over the world. The rationality bring the religious understanding
and teaching to be as rational as possible unless the people will has their own
interpretation upon religion independently.

Indonesia Early Modern Religion

Early modern seems to be the beginning of human critical response
toward backwardness and unsatisfied expression from the existing condition. If

18
During the rise of modern ideologies of liberalism, democracy, socialism, communism
and fascism, Roman Catholics church have been moved to from position of hostility
toward liberalism and democracy to policy of accommodation and active support
especially in response to the totalitarianism of communism and fascism. See Donald E.
Smith, “Emerging Pattern of Religion and Politics” in South Asia Politics and Religion
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 21.

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in Europe it emerged in the post of France revolution that marked the

beginning of the new era of human life leaded by the ratio and secularism in
which the rebellion against the establishment of the religious power begins
taking place, in the context of Indonesia we can find this in history of the rising
some religious organization which represents common consciousness in doing
much different much progressive much creative in favor of the progresses of
Muslim society.
The exact example as a response to the backwardness of the Muslim
religious people is the rise of Muhammadiyah (1912) as the predecessor of the
Modern movement within Muslim society. The founder of the organization in
the beginning saw the education which is held in formal school by Dutch
government was interesting and seems to be the best way in running education.
Ahmad Dahlan then imitated the Dutch school to be implemented in Islamic
teaching. It was the beginning of modernity being introduced to the religious
Muslims society.
Dutch was really impressed with the way of Ahmad Dahlan organized
Islamic teaching by using the modern way until he later appointed to be the
court official to the Kraton Yogyakarta. The purpose of establishing
Muhammadiyah organization as the modern Muslim organization gained
positive response from Dutch and even got subsidies from Dutch government.
Nurcholis Madjid during his presentation in in executive religious course (2000)
held by PWNU East Java said that Muhammadiyah was really beloved by Dutch
until Dutch made Muhammadiyah stamp or postage. It denotes that
Muhammdiyah really modern organization that deserved adoration from the
government. Dutch attention to Muhammadiyah must be seen positively as the
successfulness Muslim made modernity inside their selves. Modernity in that
time was rarely known by many Indonesian. But the experience of Dahlan in
studying in Saudi Arabia introduced him to modern thought of Muhammad
Abduh from Egypt, Jamaluddin al-Afghani and Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab
that known as the founder of Wahhabi the predecessor of puritanical movement
in Saudi Arabia. Muhammadiyah followed the idea of purification and moved
forward toward the anti-syncretism in the Muslim religious practices.
In 1925, two years after the death of Dahlan, Muhammadiyah only has
4,000 members with 55 schools and two clinics in Surabaya and Yogyakarta.
After Abdul Karim Amrullah introduced the organisation to Minangkabau
dynamic Moslem community, Muhammadiyah developed rapidly. In 1938,
organisation claimed has 250,000 members, managed the 834 moques, 31
libraries, 1,774 schools, and 7,630 clerics. ulema. The Minangkabau Merchants
19
spread organization to the entire of Indonesia.

19
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammadiyah

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Besides Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) seems to be the other

early modern religion in Indonesia. Unlike his counterpart Muhammadiyah, this
organization has traditional background and likes to keep their traditionalism as
part of cultural movement. Unlike Muhammdiyah which stands strongly against
Javanese syncretism, this organization prefers to modify that cultural traditional
heritage in accordance with Islamic teaching. The background where the NU
community lives which is agricultural shapes the way of applying Islam in
community. Meanwhile Muhammadiyah born and develop in the city which
rational and modern approach which coincides city culture.
The cultural approach made by Nahdliyyin (the call for Nahdlatul Ulama
fellow) involves them in many traditional ceremonies such as Earth Giving or
Sedekah Bumi which is now enthusiastically arise again after long time of
disappearance. Of course there some people of Nahdliyyin who prefer staying
away from such traditional ceremonies but some of them prefer to involve and
contribute some Islamic collaboration. Hence we can see the cultural
collaboration tendency as the paradigm of NU.
NU is endorsed in early modern because they try to develop their service
to community via modern organization and modern management. They build
formal education Raudlatul Atfal (kinder garden), Madrasah Ibtidaiyah
(elementary school), Madrasah Tsanawiyah (secondary school), Madrasah Aliyah
(high school), College, Universities and hospitals that embodies modernity. Of
course what they reach not as modern as Muhammadiyah which was born and
spread within cities people but it remains the way to adapt and adopt
modernity as the real challenge in social change.
NU and Muhammadiyah (east Javanese usually precede NU first, and
Yogyanese usually forward Muhammadiyah first) were in dispute so many times
longtime ago because of the high tendency of purification and anti-syncretism
and adopt the Wahhabis in Saudi Arabia as the result of Ahmad Dahlan studied
there. But for now the dispute is narrow they altogether involve in the same
national agendas in battling corruption for example as representative of
religious community.
Unlike Muhammadiyah which never shift to political party, NU has
experience to become political party in 1955 and gained third rank in the most
20
votes of national election and resign from political practice in 1984.
Abdurrahman Wahid when was the head of NU struggled in democratic
movement against the New Order of Soeharto who applied float mass strategy
in politics. This caused to shadowed democracy and annihilates the government
transparency and public accountability which constitutes the rampant of
corruption, collusion and nepotism in state administration. Wahid with other

20
http://www.nu.or.id/page/id/static/13/Dinamika.html

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counterparts were successful in bringing the Indonesian toward democracy,

freedom and human right advocacy.
Looking at the spirit of renewal and the modern approach via religious
social organization and how they contributed in paving the way toward
Indonesian independency though struggle physically and paradigmatically,
there are both categorized as the early modern religion manifestation. There are
other religious movement may considered as part of category but is less
appropriate due to insignificancy influences in national scale such as al-Wasliyah
in North Sumatera, Tarbiyah Islamiyah in West Sumatra, Nahdlatul Watan in
West Nusa Tenggara are belong to ahlussunnah wal-jamaah tradition and
others cannot endorsed due to the quality of political party that attach to
certain religious organization such as Masyumi and Sarekat Islam whose Islam
name but represent national political movement rather than religious
movement. Sarekat Islam (1912) used Islam as identity that acceptable among
mostly Indonesian in cross-islands before the name Indonesia appeared. It is
21
national identity rather than religious movement founded by Cokroaminoto.
Islamic identity is also relevant in that time in resistance against the Dutch
“Christian” government. Their religious affiliation, their grip over Dutch East
Indies (Indonesia) and their urban western culture are subjects to raise anger to
22
Indonesian indigenous people. Despite his strong character in using Islam as
the identity power in confronting Dutch it is national movement rather than
religious movement. Therefore I insist to not endorse it in early religious
movement.

Modern religion
Modern life is characterized by the division of labor and the international
market as the continuity of the industrialization. The individual agency has taken
a lot of space in modern society thereby individualism arises and the
collectivism as a part of traditional system declines. It raises the last evolution of
religion, according to Bellah named the modern religion. This sort of religion
started by the collapse of religious orthodoxy and marked by the raise of people

21
Yudi latif in his seminar on “Straightening History” held by the Sarekat Islam East Java
support the change of national awakening not base on the birth of Budi Utomo which
was dominated by Javanese than covering whole Indonesian in cross island. Since it
covers the little part of Indonesia it is not considered as national awakening. But Javanese
remain the most Indonesian population that must be accounted in national movement
effectiveness too.
22
Else Ensering , “Afedeling B of Sarekt Islam, a Rebellious Islamic Movement” in
Conversion, Competition and Conflict, essays on the role of Religion in Asia ed. Dick
Koolman et. al (Amsterdam: VU Uitgeverij, n.y.), pp. 99.

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demand on religious institution to involve concretely in solving social problem.

The search for an adequate material standard on religious teaching which is
relevant to the modern people maturity is priority. Someone’s assertion such as
“my mind is my church”; “I am a sect myself” by Thomas Jefferson is the
expression of the religiosity in current time. The rise of private religiosity which
is independent from the living religious doctrine institution becomes trend that
everybody able to choose and to separate any item of religious teaching based
on his own sake. The clear example of it is Deism that had been carried out by
European leaders in the post of European revolution in building new religious
institution which is compatible with the rapid growing need of the modernity
and capitalism. New religion based on what people rationally think as a good to
be endorsed he endorses unless he leave it in favor for the other fitter teaching
even from different religious institutions.
Some debates arise upon the characteristic of the modern religion. I can
sum up some opinion about it in accounts primarily characterized by the
extinction of dualism of religiosity in both teaching and institution. Religious
trend is moving toward worldly orientation of religious teaching where by
religion is measured by how much it contribute for the betterment of human
life. Since this critical thinking arose, the religious institution then must give
more service to his adherent in more concrete way in social and educational
merit unless the adherent will find his own way to choose what he thinks is
good for his children. There are many school and public services built and
carryout by “secular” institution, the religious adherent has many alternatives to
choose between those educational institutions.
The other character of modern religion is the self-independency in
understanding and interpreting the religious teaching. The need to have special
teacher or spiritual leader is eradicated profoundly. The belief to religious
organization is unlike before. The tendency of individual to learn independently
by himself is high something that make everybody if he wants he can which
book about religion he prefer to buy, regardless his lack of understanding the
map of Islamic group or school that imply to the different teaching of Islam.
Sometimes it is good to see someone has independency in understanding
religion that make religious understanding not monopolized by certain group of
religious people but is distributed to many adherents independently.
Nevertheless on the other hand, this kind of religiosity may drives to certain
kind of right understanding of religious teaching; in this case the independent
study has positive assessment. The other result is the wrong understanding
about religious teaching due to his lack of elementary knowledge about religion
that makes him tries to understand by himself some material supposed to ask to
someone cleverer than him. Or this kind of individual learn will caused to

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arrogance by feeling that he has known so much about religion but actually he
just know little things. In this case the learner loses control upon himself and
impact to the judgmental mentality. He becomes easily condemn the other just
because he does not find it in what he has read. This kind of simplification in
understanding something is ruthless and dangerous sometime.

Indonesian Modern Religion

What Bella has explained about modern religion that accentuated the
individual freedom in interpreting religion has the example in Indonesian
context. Kunto Wijoyo has written a book entitled “Muslim Tanpa Masjid”. This
book talks about how the young generation of Islam has separated from the
religious institution which is represented by the mosque. Pak Kun (the way
people usually call Kunto Wijoyo) inspired by the time of Soeharto get down
from the presidency, he saw in that time all of student demonstrators bowed for
thanking God for helping them in throwing down the regime. Pak Kun was
astonished seeing those students doing such religious rituality looks like if there
are religious student at all. Not long after that occurrence, Habibi who represent
Islamic politics power in critical position to continuing his presidency. Those
students who bowed after Soeharto getting down suddenly turn direction in
confronting Habibi. Remembering there bowing they supposed to be among
religious student that should in side of Habibi as a Muslim representation. What
happens is contradictory and finally Habibi must finish his position and
23
following his position Abdurrahman Wahid as fourth president of Indonesia.
Pak Kun scrutinized that phenomenon and interpret that young Muslim
generation tend to have his own individual understanding about religion. There
separate religion from its institution in which he can be Muslim without
attachment personally to mosque. For Pak Kun this phenomenon is ironic in the
current situation due to his prediction that there will be soon religious wave that
involve religious institution take placing in coloring society. Muslim hoped to be
inalienable with mosque institution.
This phenomenon which embodies Muslim disbelieve to religious
institution actually has been rooted since long time ago during old order when
the conflict between ideological groups in Indonesian community in very sharp
opposition especially between Communist and Islamic party. Those communist
in saying about religion always refers to individual authority in understanding
God and religion. Clifford Geertz write in Religion of Java the interview with
communist member conveying their standpoint of religion by saying that
religion is placed in heart. And God is in the heart not in those institution and

23
http://lutfimustofa.blogspot.com/2009/08/muslim-tanpa-masjid-kecenderungan-
baru_27.html

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attribute that seems to bar religion truth itself. That means that they hate so
much to the religious institution and the institutionalization religion. Religion
should be the value that can immerse and permeate into any institution without
directly involve institutionally to politic that encounter other contestant mostly
from Muslim adherents. Their hatred to the Islamic party like Nahdaltul Ulama
was so deep in the level that they routinely humiliate santri tradition using any
kind of song and anecdote and other art expression performed by their artist.
Of course it is not the same case with what Pak Kun wrote in his book.
There was ideological conflict background in during old order era and not for
the era when Soeharto toppled down from his position. But the anti-religious
institution remains the same with much more extreme in the 1950-1960s than in
current phenomenon.
Nurcholis Madjid also wrote in the mass media that rose controversies
concerning religious institution disbelief. He entitled his article “Islam Yes, Partai
Islam No!” which showed his disagreement in using religion as political symbol.
His idea is about the same with many people in his thought that Islam is value
not need to feature his self in political contest. If it is done there will be much
turbulence in relation with other Indonesian Muslims that only the Islamic Party
24
is really Islam and the other is not or even against Islamic teaching.
Bahtiar Effendy wrote in Islam and the State in Indonesia, describing there
some intellectual effort has been done by young productive Muslim scholar in
elaborating modernity and rationality within Islamic thought. That innovative
thought can be sum up into theological renewal in term of desacralization,
reactualization and indigenization 1970s. What mentioned above from
Nuscholis Madjid is endorsed in desacralization category. Reactualization means
giving new interpretation which is more contextual to the modern need. The use
of academic term rooted to the western academic can be considered as the
reactualization from the perspective of structuralism. Meanwhile the
“Indigenization” remains the original thought of Abdurrahman in his writing
entitled “Pribumisasi Islam”. In his thought he reminded Muslim scholar in the
necessary of Islamic contextualization within local culture tradition using local
language by which Islam as the universal religion can profoundly embedded
25
into the heart of Indonesian tradition.
Coming back to the current phenomenon that separates religious
institution from his adherents because of the rise of individual right in
expressing conscience, belief and faith independently. The collapse of religious
institution as the media of religious relation with God, raises the other related

24
Bahtiar Effendy, Islam and the State in Indonesia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia
Studies, 2003), pp.75.
25
Ibid, pp. 66.

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phenomenon of practicing spirituality which referred to other religious teaching

to be part of his regular spiritual exercise. Yoga is the teaching of Hindu by
which many Muslims, Christians and other non-Hindus attract to practice it. It
doesn’t matter for gymnastic and body language but in further step could lead
to meditation practices that embodies Buddha rituality may effect consequently
to double and multiple religious belonging.
I have experience with my housemate in ICRS guesthouse couple months
ago for pre-Ph.D. program when each of us introduce to other he said that he is
“Buddhist Christian”. It was the first time I heard someone mention two religions
in one person. After running time, I understood that he really embrace both not
just one as the primer and other secondary. He is Christian but he like more
Buddhism. He experiences later without putting away the former. He said that it
does not matter at all someone has hair, skin, body and language with different
origins. It does not matter Indonesian with blonde hair and it does not matter
European with the black hair and wearing traditional cloth of India as many
people now live in hybrid.
This kind of religious phenomenon rose after growing spirituality as trend
of human life style. Currently, people find spiritual enlightenment from any
sources satisfying him. Usually people conceive Religion as institution not as
spiritual teaching. Religion has character of density meanwhile spirituality has
character of liquidity which can permeate to other religious adherent.
This is a challenge to Christianity or Islam to do effort in building a
package of spiritual teaching which is convincing sufficiently to his adherent
spiritual need. Muslim and Christian must dig and bring out their spiritual
teaching that supposed to be available more than enough there.
All religion has part of mysticism. In Islam there are some mystical group
called Tarekat that focused on deepening spirituality through reciting and
contemplation and what so called suluk as the period of meditation to reach the
closest relationship with the God. Tarekat group focuses on efforts to “see” the
God. And if you don’t see Him, be sure that He sees you. The way to see God
theorized in term of Mushahadah by Sufis or Muslim spiritual leaders. Jalaluddin
Rumy has shown his successfulness in bringing Islamic Sufism goes cross
cultural boundaries. We need more other Rumis in innovating such spiritual
exercises that can feed the hunger of spirituality oh modern people.
This double and multiple religious belonging may become the next
religious trend in Indonesia following what is happening in America where many
people perform Buddhism as part of their life style. Yoga has been growing in
Indonesia. So far there is no problem of religiosity rises from this activity. As
long as the Yoga participant can control his self in keeping the faith, it doesn’t
matter. Malaysian Religious cleric has officially released prohibition on

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ISSN: 2089-0192
 Indonesian Religious Evolution | 25

practicing yoga due to theological consideration. In any way, this is religious

phenomenon in modern era when religious institution loses his grip over his
adherent.

TABEL BELUM DIMASUKKAN

Conclusion
Bellah’s theory on religious evolution has correlated directly with the
human evolution. It remains questionable which one come first religious
evolution or human evolution. The way Bellah relates religious evolution to the
human civilization implies that religion follows human civilization and adjusts to
social change. Meanwhile in Indonesia, we find religion really fundamental in
building human civilization. Indonesian glory was began by the large kingdom
attach and shaped by the religion. It is obvious from the historical heritage that
actualized in religious symbol such as temple of Borobudur and Prambanan.
By using analog it is found that Primitive religion in Indonesia is
represented by animism and dynamism. The archaic religion represent in some
ritual that still performed in current days. Like Sedekah Bumi or Earth Giving,
Nyadran and Selamatan that backs to cultivation tradition. Historic religion
represents in universal religion which are exist in Indonesia such as Hindu,
Buddha, Islam, Christian. Early modern is represented in the birth of
Muhammdiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama. The last typology is modern religion
which is represented in religious dynamic phenomenon such as “Muslim without
Mosque”, “Islam Yes, Partai Islam No!”, and practicing different religious
spirituality.

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26 | Achmad Murtafi Haris

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