The Contemporary World

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Globalization of Religion

Globalization of Religion

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs;
2. Analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict, and
conversely, global peace.

WHAT IS RELIGION?
The English word religion is from the Latin verb religare, which means “to tie”
or “to bind fast”. A contemporary scholar defines religion as “a system of
beliefs, rituals, and practices, usually institutionalized in one manner or
another, which connects this world with the beyond. It provides the bridge
that allows humans to approach the divine, the universal life force that both
encompasses and transcends the world”. This substantive definition of
religion limits religion to the belief in supernatural or divine force. However,
for its functional definition, religion is anything that provides an individual
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with the ultimate meaning that organizes his/her entire life and worldview (as
cited in Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016). Religion can be explained as a set of
beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially
when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually
involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral
code governing the conduct of human affairs (BBC, n.d.).

Types of Religious Organizations (as cited in Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016)

1. Church – a religious organization that claims to possess the truth about

salvation exclusively. A classic example is the Roman Catholic Church. The
church includes everybody or virtually everybody in a society.
Membership is by childbirth: new generations are born into the church and
are formally inducted through baptism. The church adapts to some extent
to the fact that it must embrace everyone. Unlike the sect, the church tends
to be oriented toward compromises with the prevailing culture and the
political sphere. Hence, the church is relatively moderate in its demands on
its members.
2. Sect – the sect also perceives itself as a unique owner of the truth.
However, it constitutes a minority in a given society. Recruitment takes
place through conscious individual choice. A good example is the
resurgence of “born again” Christianity that recruits members by asking
them to accept Jesus Christ in their lives. Once an individual has joined, the
sect requires a high level of commitment and activity. Members are
expected to support the teachings of the sect and to comply with its
lifestyle, which may be strict and ascetic. Life as a sect member constitutes
a major contrast to the lives of people in society.
3. Denomination – in contrast to the church and sect, the denomination is
oriented toward cooperation, at least as it relates to other similar
denominations. People join through individual and voluntary choice,
although the most important form of recruitment in established
denominations takes place through childbirth. The demands for activity
and compliance are moderate, and there is a relatively harmonious mutual
relationship between the denomination and the larger society. The liberal
branches of Protestant groups belong to this category.
4. Cult – the concept of cult was introduced in 1932 by sociologist Howard
Becker. Lanuza (1999) provides a comprehensive definition of a cult: “a
non-traditional form of religion, the doctrine of which is taken from
diverse sources, either from non-traditional sources or local narratives or
an amalgamation of both, whose members constitute either a loosely knit
group or an exclusive group, which emphasizes the belief in the divine
element within the individual, and whose teachings are derived from
either a real or legendary figure, the purpose of which is to aid the
individual in the full realization of his or her spiritual powers and/or union
with the Divine”. The label cult is often attached to a religious group that
society considers as deviant or non-traditional. Hence, the term cult is
often used in a negative way.
5. New Religious Movements (NRMs) and Indigenous Religious Groups
– the term “new religious movements” came into use among social
scientists in the 1960s. It was an alternative label for cults that have been
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Globalization of Religion

negatively portrayed by mass media and some social scientists. New Age
groups are considered part of these new religious movements.

Major Religions of the World

There are some 4,300 religions of the world. This is according to Adherents,
an independent, non-religiously affiliated organization that monitors the
number and size of the world's religions (Juan, 2006). Worldwide, more than
eight-in-ten people identify with a religious group. A comprehensive
demographic study of more than 230 countries and territories conducted by
the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life estimates that
there are 5.8 billion religiously affiliated adults and children around the globe,
representing 84% of the 2010 world population of 6.9 billion (Pew Research
Center, 2012).

Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are five of the biggest
religions in the world. Over the last few thousand years, these religious groups
have shaped the course of history and had a profound influence on the
trajectory of the human race. Through countless conflicts, conquests, missions
abroad, and simple word of mouth, these religions spread around the globe
and forever molded the huge geographic regions in their paths (Kuzoian,
2015).

1. Hinduism - originating on the Indian subcontinent and comprising several

and varied systems of philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name
Hinduism is relatively new, having been coined by British writers in the
first decades of the 19th century, it refers to a rich cumulative tradition of
texts and practices, some of which date to the 2nd millennium BCE or
possibly earlier. If the Indus valley civilization (3rd–2nd millennium BCE)
was the earliest source of these traditions, as some scholars hold, then
Hinduism is the oldest living religion on Earth. Its many sacred texts in
Sanskrit and vernacular languages served as a vehicle for spreading the
religion to other parts of the world, though ritual and the visual and
performing arts also played a significant role in its transmission. From
about the 4th century CE, Hinduism had a dominant presence in Southeast
Asia, one that would last for more than 1,000 years.
2. Buddhism – religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of
the Buddha (Sanskrit: “Awakened One”), a teacher who lived in northern
India between the mid-6th and mid-4th centuries BCE (before the
Common Era). Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China,
Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual,
cultural, and social life of Asia, and during the 20th century it spread to the
West.
3. Christianity - stemming from the life, teachings, and death of Jesus of
Nazareth (the Christ, or the Anointed One of God) in the 1st century AD. It
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 has become the largest of the world’s religions. Geographically the most
widely diffused of all faiths, it has a constituency of more than 2 billion
believers. Its largest groups are the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern
Orthodox churches, and the Protestant churches; in addition to these
churches there are several independent churches of Eastern Christianity
as well as numerous sects throughout the world.
4. Judaism - monotheistic religion developed among the ancient Hebrews.
Judaism is characterized by a belief in one transcendent God who revealed
himself to Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew prophets and by a religious
life in accordance with Scriptures and rabbinic traditions. Judaism is the
complex phenomenon of a total way of life for the Jewish people,
comprising theology, law, and innumerable cultural traditions.
5. Islam - promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th
century CE. The Arabic term islām, literally “surrender,” illuminates the
fundamental religious idea of Islam—that the believer (called a Muslim,
from the active particle of islām) accepts surrender to the will of Allah (in
Arabic, Allāh: God). Allah is viewed as the sole God—creator, sustainer, and
restorer of the world. The will of Allah, to which human beings must
submit, is made known through the sacred scriptures, the Qurʾān (often
spelled Koran in English), which Allah revealed to his messenger,
Muhammad. In Islam Muhammad is considered the last of a series of
prophets (including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus),
and his message simultaneously consummates and completes the
“revelations” attributed to earlier prophets.
(from Encyclopædia Britannica)

The five largest religions represent about 77% of the world population. Their
spread throughout parts of Asia and Europe, and gradually down to Africa and
across to the Americas has been fractured and erratic. Many scholars agree
Hinduism was the first religion to take root, beginning thousands of years
before the birth of Christ. Over the span of a few hundred years, Hinduism
spread throughout the Indus River Valley, or what is present-day India. As
Hinduism spread, the birth of Abraham sparked waves of converts and all but
consumed the subcontinent. Around 1000 BCE, Judaism began to spread along
the Mediterranean Sea, occupying present-day Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and
Israel. In present-day Nepal, in 563 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama was born. He
would later go on to become the Gautama Buddha and found Buddhism. The
religion quickly diffused east through China. Around 33 AD, the Roman Empire
crucified Jesus Christ for his acts of sedition and anti-authority ideals.
Christianity was made a crime and became cause for execution in areas under
Roman control. Nevertheless, soon after Christ's crucifixion missionaries
forged through Europe to spread the gospel and convert exiled Jews. Halfway
through the first millennium came the birth of the prophet Muhammad, who
helped Islam spread through the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia.
As Hinduism remained localized to India and Buddhism to China, trade deals
and conquests from the Ottoman Empire continued Islam's march through
northern Africa and southern Europe. In the 15th century, European explorers
ventured across the Atlantic to colonize the New World. Christianity reached
North and South America. During the late-19th century, those same Imperial
powers colonized many African countries, splitting the breakdown with the
ongoing spread of Islam. On May 14, 1948, Israel was founded. Even seven
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Globalization of Religion

decades later, tensions persist between Israelis and Palestinians over who
should have ownership of parts of Israel. Today, the five religions include some
5.8 billion people around the world in a complex and evolving mosaic (Weller,
2017). See https://www.businessinsider.com/map-shows-how-religion-spread-
around-the-world-2015-6 for the animated map showing how religion spread
across the world.

In 2050, Christianity will still be the world’s largest religious group, with
around a third of the world’s population adhering to its various
denominations. However, Islam is growing faster than any other religion,
according to a study by the Pew Research Center. In fact, most of the world's
major religious groups are expected to rise in absolute numbers by 2050, the
research finds, with Islam set to overtake Christianity and become the world’s
dominant religion by 2070 (Shirley, 2016).

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The geographic distribution of religious groups varies considerably. Several
religious groups are heavily concentrated in the Asia-Pacific region, including
the vast majority of Hindus (99%), Buddhists (99%), adherents of folk or
traditional religions (90%) and members of other world religions (89%).
Three-quarters of the religiously unaffiliated (76%) also live in the massive
and populous Asia- Pacific region. Indeed, the number of religiously
unaffiliated people in China alone (about 700 million) is more than twice the
total population of the United States. The Asia-Pacific region also is home to
most of the world’s Muslims (62%). About 20% of Muslims live in the Middle
East and North Africa, and nearly 16% reside in sub-Saharan Africa. Of the
major religious groups covered in this study, Christians are the most evenly
dispersed. Roughly equal numbers of Christians live in Europe (26%), Latin
America and the Caribbean (24%) and sub-Saharan Africa (24%). A plurality
of Jews (44%) live in North America, while about four-in-ten (41%) live in the
Middle East and North Africa – almost all of them in Israel (Pew Research
Center, 2012).

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON RELIGION

Religion is necessarily social. Beliefs and rituals are usually shared by people
belonging to a definite religious community. While an individual opt not to
belong to or affiliate with an established religion or religious tradition, that
person is still religious and belongs to an individualistic or spiritualistic
interpretation of religion (Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016). Overall, religion is
more important to people in the developing world, with the world’s major
economies returning much lower percentages (Myers, 2016).
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Globalization of Religion

Scarcely any region in the globe today consists solely of members of a single
strand of traditional religion. In an era of globalization the pace of cultural
interaction and change has increased by seemingly exponential expansions of
degrees. So an accurate coloration of the religious world, even fifty years ago,
would have to show dense areas of color here and there with enormous mixes
and shadings of hues everywhere else. Moreover the map would have to be
changed from time to time, perhaps even from decade to decade, and re-tinted
as religions move and intertwine (Juergensmeyer, 2009).

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In the age of global capitalism, more and more people tend to retreat into their
own private world and create their own individualized religion. But they do
not create it from scratch. They also borrow and pick from various religious
traditions in the market of religion. Even the practicing New Age believers who
have their own distinctive personal beliefs are influenced by non-Western
religious traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and other beliefs. These
people are called un-churched believers. (Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016).
Religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements. For
example, websites provide information and explanations about different
religions to any person regardless of his or her geographical location, as well
as provide the opportunity to contact others worldwide and hold debates
which allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, television allows for
religious channels that provide visual religious teachings and practices. Hence,
by making the leap onto the information superhighway, which brings religious
teachings into every home and monitor in a global setting, religions have come
together into one setting (as cited in Golebiewski, 2014). Oliver Roy argues
that because of increased globalization, this “has led to a global religion
market.” He builds on this by arguing that many people in the world have a
want for some sort of religion or spirituality. To Roy, the religion “market” is
one in which is there is a circulation of products (that religion). This can be in
the form of migration, cases of being isolated within a particular area (that
might lead to new religious traditions), or access to the information online–
which can lead to the adopting of various religious beliefs or practices. In
addition, he also argues that there is a movement by some to export religions.
This could be finding new communities in which to practice ones faith, or new
areas that might take interest in this work or religion. In addition, religions are
becoming less defined by geographical areas. There continues to be new places
to worship, which might be different than decades past. Lastly, Roy argues that
a de-ethnicization of religion is occurring. Many different ethnic groups are
adopting similar religions, which is shifting the idea that one religion is tied to
one ethnic group. There is also a movement away from religion being defined
within one said culture, which is leading to further evolution of this faith. And
because of this, Roy argues that there is a freedom that individuals have to
choose a religion, or not choose a particular religion, and that we look at
religion is quite different in this new globalized era (as cited in
internationalrelations.org, 2016).

The proliferation of new religious movements may be explained partly by

globalization. With the rapid and accelerated movement of people, culture,
and information across national borders, religious ideas also rapidly transfer
from one place to another. And when foreign religious beliefs reach a different
soil, they tend to mix and blend with the local and indigenous religious beliefs
and folk practices. Hence, globalization promotes syncretism or the mixing of
different religious and cultural beliefs and practices. Syncretism promotes the
growth of popular religion or folk religion that is different from the original
parent religion or mainstream orthodoxy (Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016).
Religion therefore has always been global, in the sense that religious
communities and traditions have always maintained permeable boundaries.
They have moved, shifted, and interacted with one another around the globe.
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Globalization of Religion

If one thinks of religion as the cultural expression of a people's sense of

ultimate significance, it is understandable that these cultural elements would
move as people have moved, and that they would interact and change over
time just as people have. Though most religious traditions claim some ultimate
anchors of truth that are unchangeable, it is indisputable that every tradition
contains within it an enormous diversity of characteristics and myriad cultural
elements gleaned from its neighbors. All this is part of the globalization of
religion. Religion is global in that it is related to the global transportation of
peoples, and of ideas. There is also a third way that religion is global, which
might be called the religion of globalization—in which forms of new religion
emerge as expressions of new interactive cultures (Juergensmeyer, 2009).

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with

overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another.
Essentially, the world’s leading religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism,
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as human dignity,
equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain
the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.”
Therefore, through such religious values, globalization engenders greater
religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society (as cited in
Golebiewski, 2014). Golebiewski also argues that globalization allows for
religions previously isolated from one another to now have regular and
unavoidable contact. As a result, globalization brings to the light the fact that
since religions have similar values, not one of them is “correct” and, therefore,
can be changed.

RELIGION AND GLOBAL CONFLICT

One of the questions that is highly debated within the framework of religion
and globalization is this issue of the “promotion of the [religious] product.”
One of the questions raised is whether this promotion, or what in some cases
be viewed as proselytization, is in accord with human rights, or whether it
goes against ones right. There have been many debates on this issue. Some that
think about proselytization may view it as a right of the freedom of religion.
One has a right to speak about their faith, and to try to get others to accept
these beliefs, as long as the receiver of the message has a right to accept, or a
right to deny said message. For some, the right to practice one’s religion might
also mean the right to spread one’s faith. However, a number of other scholars
have taken issue with the idea of proselytization in religion. For them, they
view an increase in technology and communication as potentially leading to
additional conflicts over these said issues (as cited in
internationalrelations.org, 2016).

Since globalization, according to many scholars, is aimed at the hybridization

of the world cultures around the pattern of the Western culture; and since it
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 entails liberal values and norms, religion (particularly Islam) constitutes a
challenge to it. This is because Islam’s norms and values are incompatible with
the liberal values of globalization (El Azzouzi, 2013). The horrendous events
of 9/11, the conflagration in Iraq, and the aggressive assertiveness of quasi-
theocratic Iran only confirm in the popular mind that religion lies behind much
of contemporary international conflict (Smock, 2008). In a Special Report
summary of the United States Institute of Peace, Smock (2008) presented
religion’s role in resolving conflicts and peace-making:

 No major religion has been exempt from complicity in violent conflict.

Yet we need to beware of an almost universal propensity to
oversimplify the role that religion plays in international affairs.
Religion is not usually the sole or even primary cause of conflict.
 With so much emphasis on religion as a source of conflict, the role of
religion as a force in peacemaking is usually overlooked.
 Religious affiliation and conviction often motivates religious
communities to advocate particular peace-related government
policies. Religious communities also directly oppose repression and
promote peace and reconciliation.
 Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict situations,
serve as a communication link between opposing sides, and provide
training in peacemaking methodologies. This form of religious
peacemaking garners less public attention but is growing in
importance.
 Interfaith dialogue is another form of religious peacemaking. Rather
than seeking to resolve a particular conflict, it aims to defuse interfaith
tensions that may cause future conflict or derive from previous conflict.
Interfaith dialogue is expanding even in places where interreligious
tensions are highest. Not infrequently, the most contentious interfaith
relationships can provide the context for the most meaningful and
productive exchanges.
 Given religion’s importance as both a source of international conflict
and a resource for peacemaking, it is regrettable that the U.S.
government is so ill equipped to handle religious issues and relate to
religious actors. If the U.S. government is to insert itself into
international conflicts or build deeper and more productive
relationships with countries around the world, it needs to devise a
better strategy to effectively and respectfully engage with the religious
realm.

References
BBC (n.d.). Religions. Retrieved from www.bbc.co.uk
El Azzouzi, M. (2013, January 24). Religion and Globalization: Benefits and Challenges. Retrieved
from https://www.moroccoworldnews.com
Encyclopædia Britannica (n.d.). [Definitions of: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, and
Islam]. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com
Golebiewski, D. (2014, July 16). Religion and Globalization: New Possibilities, Furthering
Challlenges. Retrieved from https://www.e-ir.info
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Globalization of Religion

Internationalrelations.org (2016, April 6). Religion and Globalization. Retrieved from

http://internationalrelations.org
Juan, S. (2006, October 6). What are the Most Widely Practiced Religions of the World? Retrieved
from https://www.theregister.co.uk
Juergensmeyer, M. (2009). Thinking Globally About Religion. The Oxford Handbook of Global
Religions. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0001. Retrieved from
http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com
Kuzoian, A. (2015, July 6). This Animated Map Shows How Religion Spread Across the World.
Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com
Lanuza, G. and Raymundo, S. (2016). Religion and the Search for Ultimate Meaning. Understanding
Culture, Society, and Politics (1st ed.). Manila: Rex Book Store
Myers, J. (2016, March 17). How Strongly Do Different Nationalities Feel About Religion? Retrieved
from https://www.weforum.org
Pew Research Center (2012, December 18). The Global Religious Landscape. Retrieved from
http://www.pewforum.org
Shirley, A. (2016, May 20). Which is the World’s Fastest-growing Major Religion? Retrieved from
https://www.weforum.org
Smock, D. (2008, February 1). Religion in World Affairs: Its Role in Conflict and Peace. Retrieved
from https://www.usip.org
Weller, C. (2017, July 21). Mesmerizing Maps Show How Religion Has Spread throughout the
World. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com

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