BRICK

ARCHITECTURE

In
Ancient Egypt
A. J. SPENCER
ARIS & PHILLIPS Ltd.
WARMINSTER, WILTS, ENGLAND.
CONTENTS
Abbreviations
Preface
Introduction
Part I
Chapter One: BRICK MANUFACTURE
Chapter Two: THE EARLIEST USE OF BRICK IN EGYPT
Chapter Thr ee: THE BONDING CORPUS
Part II
Chapter Four : F U N E ~ R Y ARCIDTECTURE
Chapter Five: RELIGIOUS ARCIDTECTURE
Chapter Six: ADMINISTRATIVE AND OFFICIAL BUILDINGS
Chapter Seven: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
Chapter Eight : FORTRESSES AND DEFENSIVE TOWNWALLS
Part III
Chapter Nine: BRICK WALLS
Chapter Ten: FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS
Chapter Eleven: ARCHES, VAULTS, DOMES AND CORBELS
Chapter Twelve: SOLID BRICK CONSTRUCTION IN MASTABAS AND PYRAMIDS
Chapter Thi rt een: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS IN BRICK CONSTRUCTION
Chapter Fourteen: BONDING
Chapter Fifteen: SPECIAL BRICKS
Chapter Sixt een: BRICK SIZES
Appendix I: Met rology of Egyptian Brickwork
Indexes
Plates
iv
v
I
3
5
7
10
59
83
94
104
112
119
123
128
130
136
140
147
149
152
162
iv
ABBREVIATIONS
Annales du Service des Antiquites de L 'Egypte.
Bulletin de l'In stitut fran cais D'Archeologie Orientale.
Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Bresciani, E., Missioni di Scavo aMedinet Madi [Fayu m-Egitto].
Rapporto Preliminare delle Campagn e di Scavo 1966 e 196 7.
Bulletin de la Societe franco ise d 'Egyptologie.
Chronique d 'Egypte.
Comp tes rendus de L'Academie des Inscriptiones et Belles Lettres.
De Bock, W., Materiauxpour servir iI l'archeologie de l'Egypte
chretienne.
Gabra, 5., Fouilles de l ' Universite Fouad el-A wal iI Hermopolis
Ouest [Touna el-Gebel).
HOlscher, U., The Excavation of Medinet Habu, vols. 1- V.
Journal of the American Research Center in Egy pt.
Journal ofEgyptian Archaeology.
Jequier, G., Tombeaux de particuliers contemporains de Pepi II.
Journal ofNear Eastern Studies.
Lepsius, C. R., Denkmiil er aus AegyptenundAethiopien. Abt . I-VI.
Lepsius, C. R. , Denkmiiler aus Aegypten und A ethiopien; Text,
I-V. Edited by E. Naville, L Borchardt and K. Sethe.
Maragioglio, V. & Rinaldi, C., L 'Architettura delle Piramidi Menfite.
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung
Kairo.
Mitt eilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft.
Memoires de la Mission Archeologique fran qaise au Caire.
Petrie, W. M. F., The Roy al Tomhs of the First Dy nasty, I and
Roy al Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, [I.
Port er, B. and Moss, R.L.B., Topographical Bi bliography ofAncient
Egyptian Hi eroglyphic Texts, R eliefs and Paintings.
Pennsylvania University Museums Journal
Proceedings of the Society ofBiblical Archaeology.
Recueil de Travaux relatifs iI la philologie et al 'archeologie
egyptiennes et assyriennes.
Revue d'Egyptologie;
Ricke, H., Hughes, G.R. and Wente, E.F., The Beit el-Wali Temple
of Ramesses ll.
Ricke, H. and Sauneron, 5., Die Tempel Nektanebos II in
Elephantine und ihre Erwei terungen.
Tytus, R. de P., Preliminary Report on the R e-excavation of the
Palace ofAmenhotep III at Malqata.
Erman, A. and Grapow, H., Wiirt erbuch der Agyptische Sprache,
(5 vols.)
Ze itschrif t fiir .ifgyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde.
encI. Enclosure.
H Headers (in char ts).
M.K. Middle Kingdom.
N.K. New Kingdom.
O.K. Old Kingdom.
5 Stretchers (in char ts).
T Temple (in charts).
II. Other Convent ions
ZAS
Tytus, Palace of Amenhotep III.
Ricke and Sauneron, Elephantine.
Wb.
I. Literary
PM
ASAE
BIFAO
BMMA
Bresciani, Medinet MOOi
BSFE
CdE
CRAIBL
De Bock, Materiaux . . . Arch chret.
E.M H.
JARCE
JEA
Jequier , G., Contemporains de Pepi II.
JNES
LD.
LD.T.
Gabra, Hermopolis Ouest.
PMJ
PSBA
Rec. Trav.
Maragioglio and Rinaldi, Piramidi Menfite
MDIK
RdE
Ricke, Hughes and Wente, Beit el-Wali
MDOG
MMAF
Petrie, Royal Tombs.
PREFACE
The aim of this book is to give a detailed account of the brick architecture of Ancient Egypt
to examine the constructional techniques which were employed to overcome individual
!:":hitect ural problems. The study is divided into three parts: Part One is concerned with a number
_=general points, and contains chapters on brick manufacture and the early use of brick in Egypt,
...: well as an explanation of the Corpus of brick bonding systems. In Part Two an account of the
surviving brick monuments of Egypt is given, with special reference to technical and structural
ccnsiderations. This section is divided into chapters dealing with different types of buildings , and
:::e information gathered together provides the basis of the conclusions of this book. The conclusions
zre stated in Part Three, and largely consist of an examination of the constructional techniques
e=' ;Jloyed at different periods for various purposes, such as the building of walls, floors, foundations
other structures. A discussion of the kinds of brick used, the bonding and the brick sizes is also

The information contained in this study has been derived in part from published sources and
" 5{j from observations made on site. The sources of the published information are stated in the
zc res: where facts are given without references the details were obtained by personal study in Egypt.
-=-':e brick buildings of Nubia have, for the most part, been excluded from detailed examination,
!:OJ are mentioned only in cases where they serve to illuminate the description of Egyptian monuments
providing comparative material. Insimilar fashion, Coptic architecture is used only briefly to
zms trate the later trends in Egyptian brickwork, some features of which are already appearing in
and Roman structures.
For assistance in the preparation of this study I am grateful to Professor H. W. Fairman,
. K. A. Kitchen, Mme. F. de Cenival and Dr. B. V. Bothmer. My thanks are also due to the
=itt ee of the Egypt Exploration Society, for allowing me to use unpublished material from
" ',ci; excavations, and to Aris and Phillips Ltd., for undertaking the publication of this work in its
form.
I:\TRODUCTION
Of all the sur viving monuments of Ancien t Egypt , the most famous are the great sto ne pyr ami ds of Giza , and the
stone-built temples at Luxor , Abyd os, Dendera and Edfu , These grea t works, promoted by th e powerful forces of
funerary belief or religion, were intended to last for ever, and consequently made use of the most enduring materials
with little regardfor expense or labour. However, the vast majority of Ancient Egyptian building was cons tructed more
rapi dly and economically by the ext ensive use of sun-dried bric k as the major material. A considerable amou nt of this
bric k architecture still survives, but it is only a fraction of which must have once exis ted. Entire citi es have disappeared,
. eaving only the templ e standing, a fact which has led t o a rather one-sided view of Ancient Egyp tian life. Brick buildings
in Egypt will last for th ousands of years when buried in sand, but once exposed, suffer rapidly from the effects of wind
and rain. Blown sand quickly erodes away the soft mud-brick walls, and the occasional rain storms wash the bricks into
mud. In addit ion to thi s natural decay, the brick buil din gs in Egypt have suffered grea tly from the activities of the
sebbakhin, who destroy the ruins for the sake of the nit rogenous earth of which they are composed. Even archaeologists,
working in the late Ninetee nth or early Twentieth century, have tended to treat the excavation of brick buildings with
less care than they applied to the stone monument s. For example, the enti re town whic h surroun ded the temple of
Dend era was cleared away without record, in order to open up the temple, and a similar clearance was made at Edfu,
during restoration work on the temple of Horus. J Few excavators have thought it worth while to record details of
orick bonding, and the brick sizes have been neglect ed by many.
Fortunately, this lack of work on brick architecture is not universal, and some excellent studies have been made on
the subject by certain archaeologists. The most important of these contributions is that of a .H. Myers, 2 who devised
.! system of recording the arrangements utilized in the various brick bonds by means of a Corpus, the essential features
of which are retai ned in t he revised and extended Cor pus of brick bonds given-in thi s st udy. Some of the older Egypt-
ological publications have at tempt ed to deal extensively with the subject of bri ck architect ure, an examp le being L'Art
l e Batir chez les Egypt/ens, by A. Choisy, whi ch app eared as lon g ago as 1904. Unfo rt un ately thi s book, whilst it
contains some points of value, includes a fair amount of informati on which is inaccurate or over-simplified. The tendency
:0 over-simplify and to generalize concerning brick architecture also occurs in other publications, so that it is possible for
:hree separat e authoritie s, drawing t he const ructional details of the same buil din g, (the bri ck vaults at the Ramesseum)
:0 produce three enti rely different diagrams. ' However , at the prese nt day the positi on is mu ch improved , and many
more excavators are including details of brickwork, in additionto other-techiti"cal analyses, as a regular feature of their
excavation reports. Nevertheless, the reporting could be furthe r imp roved, and ide ally I would like to see the foll owin g
details of brick buildings recorded as a matter of course, and other aspects of the excavation described to a similar
standard:
I. The compos ition of th e bricks , and whet he r bu rnt or unburnt .
2. The dimensions of the bricks.
3. The bonding, pr efer abl y descri bed by means of a Corpus of bonds.
4. The distribution of any reed-matting or timber tie-beams in the brickwork.
5. The nature of the mortar.
6. Det ails of any plaster.
7. Whether stamped bricks occur.
8. Any special usages, or bricks of special form.
My own st udy of the brick architecture of Egypt is intended to conside r in de tail the technical aspects of brick
construction, and matters which do not relate to the structure of the buildings are, in the majority of cases, not included
The individual monuments are describ ed in Chapte rs 4 to 8, to illust rate the widespread use of bri ck and the methods used
in various types of buil dings. Th ese chapters contain a body of infor mati on which must for m the basis of any work on
Egyptian brickwork, comprising the facts which have been recovered from the excavation and study of the surviving
monuments. Since this information has, up till now, been scattered in excavation reports and other publications, I feel
that it is valuable to assemble it in one place so that the evidence concerning the techni ques of Egyptian brickwork is
readily available. In the later chapters, the conclusions based on this material are stated, in an examination of the construc-
tion of particular archit ectural features. These conclusions, especially those concerned with brick sizes and bonding, have
value in esta blishing the dat e to which various st ruct ures belon g, and it is t o be hoped that the y will be improve d by
further work on the subject.
1. Barsanti, A. , ASAE 8 (1907) , 22 4-232.
2. Mond, R. & Myers, o.u, The Bucheurn; 1, 47- 9 & Ill, Pis. CXII-CXV.
3. L,D. , I, 89 ; Baralae, E., ASAE 8 ( 19 07 ), 198-200: Choisy, A., L'Art de Battr chez tes Egypti ens, 44 -5.
CHAPTER ONE: BRICK MANUFACTURE
The mat erials used in makin g br icks in Ancient Egypt were Nile mu d, cho pped straw and sand. The se wer e mixed
in varying quantities to produ ce bricks of different characteristics. The commonest type of brick consists of mud and
chopped st raw with a small addition of sand, but variet ies regularly occur whi ch are made up of nothing but sand and
gravelly desert soil.
The whole process of brickmaki ng in Pharaonic Egypt was so similar to that used to day that a full descri ption of
the stages of production can be given.
Wet Nile mud is mixed with chopped st raw and sand, pushed into a wooden mould, and smoothed by hand. The
brickmaker th en loosens the mould fro m the brick and lifts it off t o leave the wet bri ck up on the ground. Thi s process
is repeated until the whole area is covered with nea t rows of bricks, with only the thickness of the frame of the mould
between each. TI,e bricks are left to dry for about thr ee days before beIng t urn ed over, and by the end of a week they
are firm enough to be stacked in a heap. The pure Nile mud shr inks by over 30% in drying, bu t th e sand and straw in
the bricks preve nt the formation of cr acks. Experiments with brickrnakin g in modern times have shown that the best
mixt ure of th e consti t uents is one cubic metr e of mud with one-third of that amount of sand, plus 20kg of stra w. I
Bricks containing fine sand, when well dried, can stand compressive st ress in the order of 52kg/cm 2, wher eas bricks
with the same amount of sand, but also with straw, are less strong. 2
In modern Egypt , the fellahi n will occasionally make br icks enti rely by hand , dispensing with the wooden mould,
and it is quite possible tha t thi s method was someti mes empl oyed in Pharaoni c times. That the majority of bricks were
made in wooden moulds, however, is without doubt, as this method is depicted in ancient representations, andsome
examples of the moulds have been found.r' These moul ds are identical to their modern counterpar ts, except that they
have mortise and tenon joint s at the corners instead of nails. From one side a handle projects, by which the brickmaker
mani pulates the mould. No moulds have yet been found whic h were intended to produce the specially shaped bricks used
for arches, cornices and other distinct architectural features.
Of the evidence fromancient representations about brickmaki ng, the most valuable comes from the scenes in the
: omb of Rekh mire at Thebes.
4
TIle process of mixing the mud and maki ng the rows of bricks by the use of wooden
moulds is clearly shown, and the inscription accompanying the scene reads:
"Maki ng bricks t o build ane w t he storeho use of the temple of Karn ak."
Badawy has argued that slJt db! should mean "to lay bricks" rather than to "make bricks," since the original
meaning of sa l is "to weave" or " to plai t," which would agree with the Greek use of Tr XwOuifxx; for the process of
bonding bricks into a wall. S However, alt hough the original meanin g of sal ribl may have been "to lay bricks ,"
there is ample evidence to show th at it also came to mean "to make bric ks" from the New Kingdom onwar ds. This
is demonstrated by the exa mple from the tomb of Rekh mire, quo ted above, whe re the scene clearly sho ws the
manufact ure, not the layin g, of bricks ; it is furthe r proved by the frequent scene in fou ndation ceremonies showing
the mo ulding of the first brick by the King. Since the titl e of this scene is invariably sal dbt , this can only mean
" making bricks" in this contex t. At Edfu this founda t ion ritual is accompa nied by the inscrip tion :
6
"Making bricks at the four corners of the temple."
As he holds the brick-mould, the King says to Horus:
.:ld I ~ C J c = d i ~ LJ CV
" I make a brick in order to build your sanct uary."
7
I. Fathy, H., Gourna: A Taleo/ T'Wo Villages, 252.
2. ibid., 287- 8. On the use o f straw see Carninos, R., Late Egy ptian Miscellanies, 190.
3. Petrie, W. M. F., Tools and Weapons, PI.XLVll, 55.
4. Davies , N. de G., The Tomb 0/ Rekhrntre at Theb es, PI. LVII I.
5. Bada wy , A., ASAE 54 ( 1957), 51ff. , es peciall y p.6 4.
6. Chassinat, E., Ed/Oil, II, 60.
t . ibid., 6 1, & vol. XlI, PI.CCCLXXII.
Since the King is actually holding the brick-mould, it cannot be said that he is " laying bricks," as Badawy argues.
He gives an example of the earlier meaning of slJt from a Middle Kingdomstela, but either translation of the word
couid be read:
"Now I made this tomb in Abydos, of brick which I assembled." 8
Another Egyptian word used in relation to brickwork is c4cG(Pip), 9 "to make (bricks)," which becomes
the Copt ic 1!WW1f'. Badawy also quotes a phrase from the Edfu texts referring to the preparati on of mud for bricks:
"I mix earth with water." 10
A papyrus of the Nineteenth Dynasty 11 contains accounts of brickmaking and records the number of bricks
produced by various workmen, but unfortunately does not state the length of time required to make the bricks.
In modern Egypt , a team of four brickmakers will produce an average of 3,000 bricks per day, but the rate of
manufacture in ancient times may have been slightly less, owing to the greater size and weight of many of the
bricks. The same papyrus cont ains an otherwise unkn own word l;l.1l..=.Lt gJl taken in the worterbucn t o mean
"to burnbricks," 12 This is possible, since burnt bricks were used in Ramesside buildings in special circumstances, 13
but the damaged stat e of the text makes it impossible to be sure of the meaning of the word. References to brick
manufacture in other text s are similarly lackingin precise details; Papyrus Reisner I apparently records the prod-
uction of 65 cubic cubits of bricks per day, 14 and contains several words for "brick-clay" and related materials. 15
A demotic text, Papyrus Sorbonne 276, 16 refers t o the use of old bricks for the rebuilding of a storehouse, showing
that the re-use of bricks was a common practice.
8. Lange, H.O. & Schaf er, H., Grab una Denksteine des M.R. , 20 733.
9. -Anastasi V, 3,1.
10. Badawy, A., ASAE 54 (1957 ) ,57.
1 1. Vi rey, P. , Parchemin Rapport e de The bes, in MMAF, I, 481-51Q.
12. Wb., V, 156, 7.
13. See below, pp. 44, 140.
14 . Simpson, W.K.. Papyrus Reisner 1, 62 .
15. These words discus sed by Simpson, op. cit., 72, 75-7.
16. I am grateful to Mme. F. de Cenival fo r detail s of this text.
CHAPTER TWO' THE EARLIEST USE OF BRICK IN EGYPT
It is difficult to establish precisely when the use of brick for building began in Egypt . The earliest buildings of any
size are the First Dynast y mastabas of Saqqara and Naqada, and the t ombs of Abydos. In these st ructures, and especi-
ally in the Saqqara mastab as, we see a highly-developed archit ecture makin g expert use of the building materials.
Previous to th e First Dynasty , however, very little has been discovered to illustr at e the earlier effo rt s of th e Egyptians
in brick building, and the remains which have been found are not on any sizeable scale. The sophisticated architect ure
of the Archaic Period seems, like so many thi ngs at thi s point in Egyptian history, to appear suddenly, fully formed.
Whil st th ere can be no doubt that influences from Mesopotamia helped t o promote thi s new outburst of buil ding in
the early dynasties , the re is also evidence to show that the inhabitants of the Nile Valley during th e Naqada 1I period
were not unfamiliar with the large-scale use of brick as a building material. This evidence comes mainly from the slat e
palett es, ivor y labels and mud-sealings of the age.
On the fragmentary Tjehenu palette in Cairo , a series of walled enclosures or towns are shown, in the process of
being attacked by animals representing differ ent provinces. Such butt ressed defen sive walls could only have been cons-
tructed of bri ck, and must have been of sufficient height and thi ckne ss to resist attack. Another example occurs on the
Narrner palett e, where the King, in th e form of a bull , has broken int o one of these walled t owns. The mud-sealings
from the Abydos First Dynasty tombs frequ entl y sho w oval enclosures of thi s type. Some sealings 1 show a more devel-
oped enclosed to wn or camp, where the surrounding wall is laid out on a rect angular plan in the form of the hieroglyph
[] hwt , which represent s a walled area with a gateway at one corner. 2 There is great similarity between the encl osures
represented on the seatings and the "Funerary Palaces" of Abydos, th e surviving exa mples of whi ch date from the
Second Dynasty. It seems likely, therefor e, that at the time of the unifi cation of Egypt there were in existence sett le-
ments prote cted by fortifi ed brick walls, probably of comparable size to th e Shunet ez-Zebib at Abydos, whose wall
is now 11m high and 5.30m thick. If constructions of thi s size were present to have been attacked by Narrner , then
they must also have existed during the latter part of the Naqada II cult ure, although no remains have as yet been found.
The only town sit e to have yielded remains of the brickwork of Predynastic times is Naqada, where Petri e discovered
a town of the Naqada I - II periods. The buildings were constructed of bricks measuring 29 x 11.5 x 7.5cm, and " showe d
carelessness about squareness and angles.t' ' Unfortunat ely no speci fic archit ectural details are available about this Naqada
town, but Petrie' s descripti on indi cate s that the ruins were of considerable extent.
At other Predynastic settlement sites no definit e examples of the use of bri ck have been discovered, except for some
special bricks used in the constructio n of kilns for roasting grain. These bricks take the form of long thin bars of baked
clay. and their use implies that the Predynastic Egyptians were aware of th e process of baking bricks, alt hough they
never employed it outside thi s context. Grain kilns of this period have been found at Abydos and Mahasna; th ose at
the latte r site employ burnt bricks up to 71cm in length. 4
The surviving funerary monument s of the Predynastic period make infrequent use of bri ckwork. Most tombs with
brick-lined pit s whi ch were once though t to belong to the Naqada II period have been assigned, on the revision of
Petrie' s Sequen ce Datin g, to the First Dynast y. The earliest bricked to mbs appear t o be th ose of Cemetery T at Naqada,'
dated t o S.D. 5 0 ~ 70, t ogether with the Decorat ed Tomb at Hierakonpolis.f which, it has recently been shown, 7 belongs
to the same archit ect ural type as these Naqada graves. The Decorat ed Tomb has been dat ed t o S.D. 63,8 therefore
placing it very close to the time of the uni ficati on of Egypt by Narmer, whilst the Cemet ery T at Naqad a would seem
to be of Naqada II dat e,9 but very likely running over int o th e early First Dynast y. Brick is empl oyed in these t ombs
for lining the walls, and also in some cases for th e const ruction of a shor t int ernal cross-wall, which divides the pit int o
two rooms. Detail s of thi s brickwork are non-existent , except for the fact th at the walls were apparently about 50cm
thick with plaster -coated surfaces. There is doubt as to the natur e of th e roo fing of th e t ombs: F.W.Green first thought
that the Decor at ed tomb had been vault ed, but later revised his opinion and cat egorically stated th at the roof had been
1. Petri e, W . M . F ~ , R oyal Tombs, I, PI. XXV I, 58-60, and II , ..1.XI, 1.
2. Gardine r, A. H. , Egy p tian Gram mar, 4 93, 6.
3. Pet rie, W.M. F. , Na qada and Ballas, 54.
4. Garst ang, J. , Mahasna and Beit KlIallaf, 7.
5. Pet rie, Naqada and Ballas, 18 f f.
6. Qulbell, 1. E. and Green, F.W., Hi erak onpolis, II , 20- 1.
7. Kem p, B.1. , JEA., 59 (197 3) , 36 - 4 3.
8. Payn e, i.c., .TEA. , 59 (1 97 3) , 31.
9. Ke m p, 0[1. ott ., 42 .
of wood. 10 One of the tombs at Naqada, numbered T.lS, is said to have consisted of a vaulted chamber built in
a pit, 11 but, as B.l. Kemp has pointed out, 12 this statement has to be treated with caution, specially since no
mention is made of vaulting in Petrie's field notebook. The only other interesting point concerning the brickwork
of these t ombs is the possible use of a brick arch above a doorway in T.23, although the evidence for this relies on
a scribbled note in the original excavation records. t 3 If an arch did exist, it would probably only have been a rough
corbel or gabled st ruct ure of two or three bricks, since the span of the doorway was only 60cm. I think it unlikely
that the true arch or proper vaulting would have been used in this cemetery, when we have only a single instance of
the use of true vaulting from the more developed monuments of the First Dynasty, and no example of t he arch unt il
the Third Dynasty.
The architecture of these tombs shows that brick was in use for funer ary monuments in the late Naqada II period,
and must have been used for some time previ ously, since the brickworkis not unaccomplished and the builders evidently
were familiar with the material. At a slightly later date, in the early First Dynasty, brick lining is common in tombs at
Naqada, and occurs also at Mahasna, El-Amra, Tarkhan and elsewhere.
The orlgin of Egyptian brick archit ecture seems to lie in the main sett lements of the later Predynastic period. This
would explain how it is possible for an extensive use of brick to appear at Naqada, this being an important town, whilst
no brickworkoccurs in the less urbanized communities of Mahasna or Badari, where the emphasis was apparently on
wattle-and-daub construction. 14 Probably furt her excavation at important Predynasti c sites such as Hierakonpolis and
Kopt os would shed more light on the early brick architect ure of Egypt, and its relation to the forti fied towns shown on
the palettes and sealings. Certainly, at the time of the unificati on of the country by Narmer, the art of building in brick
was well understood, ready to develop under the influence of Mesopotamia to produce the magnificent panelled monu-
ment s of the Saqqara archaic cemetery.
10. tota., 38 .
11. Petrie, Neqaaa and Ballas. 24.
12. Kemp, op. ctt; 41.
13. ibid. , 41.
14. Garstang , J., Mahasna and Bei t Khalla[, 6.
CHAPTER THREE: THE BONDING CORPUS
The only attempt to standardize the description and recording of the various types of brick bonding used in
Egyptian architecture was made by a. H. Myers in his publication of the Bucheum1 and continued in his other
excavation reports. As Myers himself remarked, the formation of such a Corpus makes for a great saving in time
over written descriptions of bonds, and it is a great pity that no-one has bothered to utilize his system in lat er
works. This Corpus, alt hough basically sound, suffers from a number of inconsist encies and consequently requires
some modification. The new system which I am about to describe was devised to eliminate the difficulties whilst
preserving the same underlying principles as used by Myers.
When a bond is described in the old Corpus, three facts are emb odied in th e code given to that bond. The first ,
indicated by a letter, is the type ofstructuce under examination - Wfor wall, Cfor corner, A for arch, and etc.
This is followed by a number which indicates the thi ckness of the brickwork, on the principl e that 1.0; one bri ck-
length, 1.5; one brick-l ength plus one brick-width, and so on, Finally comes a small letter, which is the type letter
for the arra ngement of brickwork und er considerati on. For example, bonds with alternate courses of headers and
stretchers are given the letter a, whilst those with layers of edger-headers are labell ed c. Minor variations on th e same
general arrangement are indi cat ed by numbers aft er th e letters, e.g, WI.5a l. This rather complex description can be
simplified by dispensing with the first two parts of the coding, since in most cases these are not absolutely necessary.
It does not really matter to which struc ture the bri ckwork belongs when it is th e bonding which is bein g recor ded.
Nor is it always necessaryto recordthe thickness of many structures, especially walls, since the bonding is, in most
cases, the same all through. It is only of real value to state the wall thickness in this way when it is of special interest
or directly affect s the bond being used.
The result of all this is the formati on of a new Corpus using a codi ng comprised of a letter and a number only,
the general arrangement being indicated by the letter and minor variations by the number. It can be seen from the
drawings th at all the bond s included und er one letter have the same cha racte ristic s: Type A denot es a face bonding
which shows courses of headers and st retchers (not necessarily in alt ernat e layers) , Type B has headers and st retchers
mixed in the same course, Type C always employs edger-head ers, and so on for the othe r types.
One of th e main defects of the old Corpus was its inability to deal with bonds which impart a different appearance
to the opposite faces of t he same wall. For exa mple, by drawing the secti on of bond WI. 5d, it can be shown that the
reverse face of any wall of this type would have a face bond of two courses of stretchers alternating with one course
of headers, an arrangement which is given in the same Corpus 2 as \\'1.5c_ The same confusion appli es to bond
1I'1.5a 1 which gives an appear ance to the reverse side of the wall of WI .5c. This weakness of the old system was
one of the main reasons for modifying it. In the new Corpus, these complex bonds are classifi ed by giving the
relevant code lett er for each face of the wall, and writing them together. Thus the code AC describes an arr ange ment
in which one face of the wall has the character istic appearance of a class A bond, whilst the other face conforms to
type C.
The classification of arches and vaults by Myers is rath er unsat isfact ory. f In my own Corpus, the bonding of
these structures is recorded using small lett ers to distinguish them from the capitals used for other.brickwork. The
same principles of typing are used, the letters indicating the arrangements, but the use of a.b,c, etc. must not be
taken as having any relation with the bonds labelled A, B, c..., which do not refer to arches or vaul ts. Arches consis-
ling of several rings of brick, of different arrangements, have two letters to show the bonding of the various rings.
In these cases, the first letter of the code applies to the upper rings of brickwork, and the subsequent lett er t o the
inner courses. 4
Throughout this st udy bonds are referred t o by their numbers in the Corpus, to avoid repeti tive lengthy descript-
ions. In some cases the thickness of the wall is state d in terms of brick-lengths immediately after the code for the
bonding, e.g. A2(l .5). This system is parti cularly useful for arches and vaults, where it is more import ant to recor d
the number of courses employed. Occasionally I state the thi cknesses of structures by this method separately from
the bond ing; in these cases, for example, "a wall with a thickness of 2.5," means a wall whose width is equal to two
and a half brick-lengths, It should be not ed that the drawings all show th e simplest kno wn versions of each bond,
because a wall bonded in (for example) A3 may be anything from two to twenty brick-lengths across, but since the
bonding patt ern is unaffect ed, only the basic bond is dr awn. The drawings of all the bonds so far typed are given on
Plates 1-20.
1.
,.
Mond, R. and Myers, D. H., The Buch eum, r. 4 7- 9, and 1lI, Pis. CXII-CXV. 3.
Mond , R. and Myers, o.n., TI le Bucheum; III, PI. CXII. 4.
ibid. , PI s. CXIIl -CXIV.
See Corpus drawi ngs of bonds ex t and cdl.
1. Petri e, W.M.F. , Tar knan 11, Pis. XU XI V
'2. Petri e, W.M. F. , Tarkhan 1 and Memphis V, 8.
3. Reisner, G.A.,Naga ed-Der, 1, 20-1.
4. Junke r, H., Pnedhof tn Turab; 16.
S. Reisn er, op etc, 27.
6. Emery. W.o. , Great Tombs of the First Dynast y, II, 143-158.
7. Reisner, G. A.. Tomb Develop ment, 17.
S. Emery,op. ctt., 12-3.
9. Petri e, W. M.F., Tarkhan II, PI. XVI
10. Emery. W. o. , Great Tombs of Ole Firs t Dynasty, III, 46-9, PIs. 4 5-9.
11. ibid. 102 and Pis. J16, 1'20.
The earliest t ombs to make use of brick have been discussed above, (p.5) these being those of Cemetery T at Naqada
and the Decorated Tomb of Hierakonpolis. These monument s are followed, in the First Dynast y, by a large number of
tombs at Naqada, Tarkhan, Mahasna and elsewhere, which use brickwork for the lining of the pit. In small private graves
these lining-walls are usually half to one brick-length in thickness, and are commonly mud-plast ered on thei r interior faces.
The simplest tombs of this type have a single chamber in the substructure and were originally roofed with wooden beams
and planks. No brick superstructures have yet been found above lined pits of this kind, although simple brick mastabas
were discovered by Petrie over unlined pit-graves of the First Dynasty at Tarkhan. I The const ruction of the lining of the
graves differs littl e from one sit e to another. Where t he brickwork is only a half-brick in thickness, the bonding has of
necessity to be XI . Examples of this type are found in grave 1006 at Tarkhan,
2
1643 and 1525 at Naga ed-Der' and
20.i.l at Tura, 4 but very many more examples occur at these and other sites. Other graves have a lining double this thick-
ness, and although in some cases the brickwork is still composed only of stretchers, the majority show more att empt at
bonding. At most cemetery-sites of this type the bond used is AI, i.e, alt ernate courses of headers and stretchers, but at
EI-Amra and Nagaed-Der A8 was most frequent. The alternation of three courses of stretchers with one of headers seems
to have been particularly prevalent at the latter site, so much so that for thicker walls the rare bonds A5 and A7 are utilized,
in contrast to the A2 or A3 adopted at all other sites. In the majority of cases the bricks were mort ared roughly with mud
and plastered over, but at Naga ed-Der Reisner records that no mort ar was used, and the brickwork relied solely on the
mud-plaster for cohesion. s This mud-plaster is usually from one to thr ee centimetres in thi ckness.
Further examples of small brick-lined tombs are found in the subsidiary graves which cluster around the large funerary
monuments of Abydos, Giza and Saqqara. Few st ructural detail s of the brickwork are available for the first two sites named:
it is only possible to say that all the Abydos subsidiary graves, and those of Giza mastaba V, were lined with brick and roofed
with wooden planks. Much more informati on is recor ded from the satellite burials of the First Dynasty tombs at Saqqara,
which will now be considered:
The individual graves around Saqqara tomb 3503
6
arc lined with brickwork, bonded XI(O.5), and plastered internally.
(Fig.I) The roofing is formed of two logs, laid longitudinally over the pit , with planks across them above. Some of the
graves had one course of brick laid over the wooden roof, a feature which sometimes occurs in this type of tomb in the
provincial cemeteries, examples being found at Naga ed-Der, El-Arnra and EI-Ahaiwa. 7
In the reign of Uadji the subsidiaries of Tomb 3504 were constructed by digging a trench and dividing it up by cross-
walls to form rows of small graves. 8 This technique is also used at Abydos and (in part) around Giza mastaba V. The
bonding employed in the lining and cross-walls of Uadji' s satellite graves is unfortunately not recorded, but It is known
that the lining-wallswere one brick-length thick and coated with mud plaster. The graves were roofed with planks and
reeds, above which st ood superst ruct ures built of brick and filled with rubbl e. As can be seen in the drawing (Fig.2), the
sides of these small mastabas are bonded Al and the roof consists of a slightly vaulted layer of stretchers. This vault is not
self-supporting, however, as it rests directly on the internal filling, a feature which also occurs in grave 2039 at Tarkhan. ?
Subsidiary graves around tomb 3506
10
also possessed low superstructures, but in this case they were constructed of
mud. The subst ructures were lined with brick, bonded AI (I.O), and some had a course of brick above the wooden roof.
The most interesting of all the satellite burials at Saqqara arc those around a large tomb dated to the reign of Ka-a.
(3500) 1 1 Unlike the graves discussed above, these do not have a brick lining to the pit , but they have the best -preserved
brick superstructures of any graves of theirtype so fardiscovered, and these superstructures show an advance in architec-
tural technique. The usual wooden roofing used in all other examples of subsidiary graves of the First Dynasty is here
replaced by an inclined vault, built against the enclosure wall of tomb 3500. This vault , the earliest certain example known,
corresponds to type dl of the Corpus. Above the vault a small mastaba was built, also of brick. The brick casing of this
CHAPTER FOUR:
I. Early Pit-Tombs.
FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE
Fig.] Cross-section of subsidiary
grave of Tomb 3503 at
Saqqara:
Fig.2 Sup erstructure ofsubsidiary
grave of Tomb 3504 at
Saqqara.
/
Section
mast aha sta nds on a low pedest al, and is only half a brick in thickness, th erefor e consisting entirely of str etche rs. At th e
top of the masta ba, which is of a vaulte d shape, the bricks rest on th e sand filling. (See Fig.3) These important graves
show that the inclined vault was known by the late First Dynast y and was in use in the Mcmphite area to cover shor t
spans. It seems proba ble tha t in Upper Egypt the vault was not introduced until mu ch late r.
The use of br ickwork in to mbs was extended during the Fir st Dynasty to include cross-walls in the substructure, there by
dividing the pit int o a number of com partments. An early example of this is seen in the 'Decorated Tomb' at Hierakonpolis, 12
discussed above, which is divided into two parts by a short wall built out from one side of the chamber. At a slight ly lat er
date, the subs tructu re is split int o two, three or five compart ments accordin g to the plans given in Fig.4(p.12) Thes e types
have been found at El-Amra , 13 Naga ed-Dcr, 14 and Tura. 1 5 The cross-walls are generally found t o be th inner than th e
linin g of th e pit , and th e two seem never to be Interbonded. Instead, t he lining was const ructed first and then th e thin
d,
d:
fed
I,
Fig.3 Subsidiary Grave of Tomb 3500 at Saqqara
Lang Section
I >
, -
' .
Cross Section
II:',
LJ '
internal walls were added, merel y butting up against the sides of the pit. Most ofte n all the brickwork is coated with
mud-plaster which helps to consolidate the unbonded corners.
12. Quibc ll, J.E. and Crcen, V.W., Hier atco npotisIt, 1'], L XVII
13. Mciver. D.R. an d Mate, A.C., Et-Arnr ah and Aby dos. 1'1. IV
14. Reis ner , G. A. Naga eaocr, I, 2 7ff.
15. Jun ker . H. , Fried/lOt in Tural" 18- 20.
2. Corbel-roofed tombs of the Secon d Dynasty .
The thinness of the cross-walls results from thei r being built enti rely of st retc hers , alt ho ugh in some of the larger
tombs at Naga ed-Der 16 the walls reached a thic kness of 1.0 and wer e bonded AS. These examples are mor e advanced
than the simple brick-lined pit in that th ey have st airway entrances from one side, a roof of wood and bri ck , and were
originally covered by a nich ed mastaba superstructur e.
Section of Vault
Tomb N.1586
4........
Fig.5
I
19. Reisner, op. cit., 52- 3 and PIs. 2 9 30.
20. ib id., 4 1- 2 an d l'ts. 32-3.
3 ..._ ... 1 ...._ ..
Cross-Walls ill Small Graves. Fig.4
12
16. Re isner, op. cit., 34-5 . Exa mples ar e Tombs J608, 162 1 & 1624.
17. Rei sn er, G.A. , Naga eu o-r. l. 45.
18. Mciver, D.R. and Mace, A.C., El-Amrah an d A bydos, 34 .
N. 1584. 19
Three chamb ers of the pit of t his tomb are roofed with separate corbel-vaults , the inner faces of whi ch have the
appearance of Al bonding, but behi nd the face the bricks are all laid as heade rs. Each course of the vault projects
approximate ly 3- 4cm beyond the course immediately below, and the roof is j oined at a heigh t of 1.35 metr es. The
corners of the corbels are made rounded by laying the bricks in a radial plan, and all the walls are coated with mud-
plaster. The stair way ent rance to this to mb has nanking walls of stretchers (bonding XI(0. 5) and the doo rway int o
the substr uct ure is roofed wit h woo den beams, upo n which the corbelling rests . A course of bricks on edge is included
in one of the cross-walls of the pit with the purpose of comp ensating for di fferences in the level of the ground.
N. 1586.
2o
Five individual corbel vaults, which merge into a mass of brickwor k above, cover t he five chambers of the substruc-
ture. The vaults, which are plaste red int ernally, have gra ined
corners unlike those of tomb N. 1584. Example s of gra ined
vaults occur also in tombs N.1 51 1. 1513 and 1626. The int-
ernal face of the corbel shows three layers of st retchers alter-
nati ng wit h one of headers, but the solid mass of the struct ure
is composed, as usual, of headers only. Above th e entrance
the bri cks rest on th e wooden roofing of the door at the base
of the sta irway.
There are several tombs of similar size and st ruc t ur e to the
two described abo ve, but in none is the brickwor k so well pres-
erved. Some details of their construction are given in the table
on page 15. Further examp les of the use of corbel roofing are
found in the smaller tombs of the Second Dynast y at Naga ed-
Alth ou gh we still have to examine the tombs of the First Dynast y at Abyd os and the panelled mast abas of the same
period at other sit es. I have included here a descrip tion of certain Second Dynasty tombs since they are a direct develop-
ment of th e early wood-roofed graves discussed in the previous section. The substruct ur es of the cor belled tombs are
still built in the same fashi on as those of the simple First Dynasty graves, with three or five rooms, the latt er being more
frequent . Stairway entrances descend into the pit from the side and are flanked by the thi n retaining walls of bric k. The
wooden roofi ng of {he earlier graves is replaced by a roof for med of cor belling in brickwork to form a false vaul t. Usually
a sepa rat e corbel sta nds above each room of the subst ructure and the br ickwork is built up over the tomb into a solid
mass. On evi den ce recovered from t omb N. 1514 at Naga ed-Der, 17 the supe rst ruct ures over the corbelled burial chambers
are shown to have been bric k mastabas wit h simplified palace-facade pan elling, enclosed within a brick wall. Some tombs
of this ty pe have been found at EI-Amr a 18 but no diagrams of the brick construc tion are available from thi s site. By far
the greatest numb er of corbelled to mbs, however, occ ur at Naga ed-Der, where the constructional det ails were so comp-
letely recorded that the best pr eserved examples can be desc ribed individually.
Base of corbel to show
thickening of walls.
k_ are stai rwa y tombs wi t h usually only a single chamber in the subst ructu re. Most of these graves have groined
_ :. :: rJy \". 1619 and showing the radiating of the bricks used to produce rounded comers.i ! The corbelling
'"' :. :-egins at the third or fou rth course of the walls of the pit, and quite often these walls show thickening at this
: : .:- ;:-o\ide a fi rm base for the brickwork above. (See Fig.6) The bonding of the face of the vault s is rat her irregular
in these small graves, but the backing is invariably built of headers.
Mud plaster is used on all th e brickwor k. Two tombs from Cemetery
N.3000 are the best preserved examples of this group. Their construc-
tional detail s are as follows :
N.3014.
2 2
The roofin g consists of a grained cor bel made up en tirely of headers,
which bond irregularl y at the angles. Th e vault spri ngs from the thi rd
course of th e subst ructure walls and covers a span of 0.95 met res. In
the buri al chamber the cross-walls are bonded neithe r with the main
walls nor wit h each ot her, but great quan tit ies of mud -plaster have
been spread over the j oint s.
,; - _ : 3
-=-.::.:s : omb is const ructed with bricks measuring 24 x 12 x 6cm. largely unrnortar ed. but covered with plaster. The
_- 5:: =of the corbel has headers on the face, whereas the East side alte rna tes hea ders and st retche rs for five out of
sever; .ourses. This has caused the West side to have a greater degree of curv atur e than the East, maki ng the ju nct ion
. '-. t wo sides markedl y off-cent re. (See Fig.7, below) Internally, the vault is piasteres and groined, bu t in the thickness
- tz.e crfckwork the corner bondi ng is very irregular.
.- :? Section of corbel, tomb 3022
at Naga ed-Der:
7 -:.= use of the corb el-vault t o cover the substruct ure of these tombs represen ts an advance over the earlier wooden
. ut shows J probable ignor ance of true vaulting in Upper Egypt at this date. A disadvant age of the system is
- l :3.:-ge amount of brickwork has to be cons truc ted behind the face of the vault as a cantilever to th e weight of
, erlapped courses. The bricks used at Naga ed-Der averaged 28 x 14 x 7cm. Corbelling in brick seems to be
;:d to Upper Egypt in the Second Dynast y, practically all the examples coming from Naga ed-Der and El-Amra.
cs " IS and 669 at Qau were apparentlv also corbelled, but no details of the construc tion of the se tombs are
=;L The corbel-vault recur s later in graves of the Four th and Fift h Dynasties. but with out the entrance
"''' ypresent in the earlier type. (See below, p.29)
Abydos Cemetery B and t he Archaic Tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab,
C -= to mbs of Cemetery Bat Abydos are dat ed to the early First Dynasty, and are a larger version of the brick-
.:: ;-itgrave discussed above in Secti on J. Unfor t unate ly, very little information has been published about the
.... ..... ork of these to mbs, alt hough the lining-walls of the pi ts were of considerable thickness. Apart from the fact
: the walls were plastered with mud. the only other details available are the sizes of the bricks in t ombs B.15 and
- -e , These are given in the table on page 14 . TIle roo ting of the tombs was made of wood, in some cases supported
tervals by upright posts.
is rather mor e infor mation available abo ut the const ructio n of the large royal tombs or cenotaphs at Abydos.
_- -.c gives a list of the brick sizes for the various tombs,25 and the measurements arc stated in the summary on
> P. Fur ther detai ls of the brick const ruction can only be obtained from th e photographs published by Petrie
,=_yJI Tombs of tire Earliest Dy nasties, vol umes I and II. The tombs take the form of a brick-lined subst ruct ure
_ -": -:-.:! into several rooms. the roofing. and, in many cases. the bur ial chamber, being made of wood. Reisner' s the ory
- . ertain of the tomb s were roofed wit h bric k cor belling
2 6
has not found general acceptance and seems unl ikely.
= )51 "ases the facts concerning the brick const ruction are so few that they can be summarised in a tabulated form
-elo w) but there are some detail s from certain of the to mbs which can be stated individually .
Re isner, op. ci t. 59- 6 1.
iN cL, 7') , 80 and Pis. 64-5.
: 3. in, 778 und 1'1. 62.
24 . Bru nton, U., Qall 11/11.1 Badari, I, l 2-3.
2S. Petrie, W.M. F., Roya l Tombs, II , I S.
26. Reis ner, G.A. , Tomb Development, 355.
13
Tomb 0/ Udimu: The bonding is type Al throughout the lining of the pit , but in the fourteent h course from t he
base the bricks arc laid on edge on the South and West sides of the to mb. to adjust the differences in level. All the
walls were originally mud-plastered.
Tomb 0/ Semerkhe t ; This tomb is remarkable in having the brickwork of the lower part of t he walls bonded in C1,
which is very rare at thi s period. In t he highe r courses the bond becomes AI with occasionallayers of edger-headers
for levelling. Anot he r example of a type C bond in t he late First Dynasty occurs in mastaba VII at Aim Roush.
excavated by Montet. 2i
Tomb 0/ Ke-a: The bric kwork her e is so irregular and rou gh that no disti nct bond can be identified. Pet rie considered
that the careless natu re of the brickwork was due 10 the Iact that t he defects would have been concealed by the wooden
lining of the chambe r. 28
SUMMARY
Site & Tomb Dynasty Bonds used Brick Size (em) Notes
Naqeda:
T. 15 Pre- X I
1037 Pre- 23.5 x 11 x 5.5
Tarkha n:
4'
23 x 11.5 :\ 7.5 Plaster 2.5cm
195 A I 25 x 12.5 :\ 7.5
414 XI Plaster used.
1006 XI 23.5 x 11.5 x 7 Plaster 2.5c m
M I1It I1SI1I1:
11. 120 I-II 26. 5 x 14 x 5.5
H.12R I- II 'on edge' 26.5 x 14 x 6.5
Il l 29 I ' on edge' 24x 11.5x 7.5
El-Amra:
b.S I 25.5 x 12.5 x 7.5
b.33 I XI ( I-O) 25.5 10 2S long
b. 137 11 Corbel of headers.
b. J78 11
Hierakonpolis:
100 ( Dec. Tomb) Pr e- Xl ? x 9 x 9 Floo r paved wn h
23:\ I L5 x 8 brick.
Tnra:
20.i.! XI (0.5)
QUlI:
443 1- 11 26.5 x 11.5 x 7.5
455 I - II
}
25.5 x 12.5 x 7.5
1803 I- II
509 I- II
}
516 I- II 24 x 11.5:.. 6.5
SIR I-II 518 corbelled.
1592 l- JJ 23x IOx 7.5
1742 I- II 28x 14 x7.5
Abydot:
BJ 5 I 22.5:.. 11.5 x 7.5
8.19 I 24.5 x 11.5 x 7.5
Djer I XI 24.5 x 12 x 6.5
Mernen I 22.5 x 11.5 x 6
Udimu I 24.Sx 12 x 7.S
Adj.ib I 25 x12x7
Semcrkhet I CI . AI 23.5 x I I x 6.5
Ka-a 1 Irregular. 25 x 12.5 x 7.5
Pcnbsen 11 24xl l .5 x 7
Khasckhemui 11 26.5 x 12.5 x 7.5
'"
\ 1<",t, , . K,", / 7 ( 19381. 11rr. 2R. l' d ri,' , R"J'ul r",,, I,,:. I. 1s .
14
&. Tomb.
( 3-0 <"' 1":
t" ' -
. :--
.
e ; .:.
...... --
- ' ':'
:0: :
X.: ssra.
50..: .:":" graves
- 3503
350-1
3506
x.w.
.. Serapeurn.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
II
"
"
"
Bonds used
XI(D.5)
A8(irregular)
AB(I. D)
AI(l .D)
AS . XI
AS . AS
XI(D.5)
Xl (D.5)
XI(D.5)
Xl (D.5)
A5( 1.5)
XI(0. 5)
A I( I.O)
AI( I. D)
Brick Size (em)
14 x l 1 x 6
21 x l 1.5 x 6.5
14 x 14x 7.5
22 x 11 x 6.S
Notes
Mud plaster on all
brickwork. Only
average brick size
given, @. 18 x 14 x 7
This is t he hond of
the cross-walls.
Corb el is orheade rs.
Plaster Inside.
Average sizes.
Bricks line the pit.

-
The Palace-Fa cade
hi gh level of competence which the Egypt ians showed in their brick architecture du ring t he First Dyn asty is
res; :..:.splayed in the large panelled mastabas of the period. Since t his st udy is concerned with the st ructu ral and
aspects of brick architect ure t his is not t he place for a discussion on the origin of t he palace-facade. Suffice
- c thai t his style of buildi ng seems to have been one of t he many influences whiclt Protodynastic Egy pt obtained
.... cc-;
Lnfort unatcly. the published report s on the excavation of early masrahas are not all of the same st andard, and from
sites. therefore. the informat ion abou t constructional details is limi ted . The panelled mastab as of Naga ed-Der,
_:=. wor ked out with meticulous care. were so denuded that barely a single course of brick remained . Thi s study
therefore consider the foll owing tombs.
-.e mastaba at Naqada, nscrthcd to Nett h-hot ep.
.. Tombs 2 185. 3035. 3036, 3038, 3111, 3357, 347 1, 3503, 3504, 3505. 3506,3507.
Tr.... '".1I1 Tombs 1060, 2038, 2050.
_ Roash rnastaba VII.
G.....:. mast aba V.
1:-. addition to t his list t here are tombs of t he Second and Thud Dynasties which revive t he palace-facade, somet imes
.-:- "..., r the face of the mast aha. These arc:
Tombs 240 5 and 3070.
Ga..:. mast aba T.
brickwork and associated str uct ural details of each of t hese tombs will now be described separately.
Xoqa da JIastaha.
large palace-facade lomb ascribed to Nett h-horep at Naqada 29 is t he earliest example of this t ype of funerary
- . cncnt so far discovered. The early dating is suppo rted hy the fact tha t t he burial chamber and subsidiary rooms
:l .: ; ends were not sunk into the gravel, as in all later mastabas of t his type, but stood on tlte grou nd surface. The
si the lomb consis ts of five chambers, t he cen t ral one of which was t hat used for t he burial. Bet ween these rooms
; ou ter wall of lhe mastaha are sixt een magazines. whose cross-walls are interbonded wit h the ext eri or wall of
Burch,,, dl. / A S, 36 (111 98) , Iliff.
IS
16
The Saqqara Mast obas
.1U. Se e ;\I' r",,di x I In< a d iu ' us", ,,,, u f U,,' o" l ru l",,",, .
3t. I,m"r)' , w.n., H,,"'AII(J. 1008.
31. 1:m, ry. W.D.. H""'AI,,,. 15. 34, I .mer y, \\'.B.. G"IJ( Tomhs j'/lh,.l,"jrsl DrlllJs1.v, 1. 13-7. 11.... 1).
)). ihi<J... 17. 35. Th e b)' wt' ic h the joinls ar e ,rl u ",cd In br k h ..-ork is "'. "bruki"gjoinl".
3
1
'i n.
L(
"i
Fix.S Sections of mau abe wall. tomb 3357
the lomb but not wi th th e hlock of cha mbers in the cent re. These cha mbers appear 10 have been laid OUI in cubit
measurcmcnts.P '' The bricks used in the tomb are of t he follo wing dimensions :
29 x 13.5 x 7cm 26 x 13 x Scm
26 x 12 x 7cm 25.5 x 12.5 x 7cm
For the intricate niche ccnsuucuon of t he facade smaller bric ks were employed, measuri ng 17 x 9 x 7cm t hereby
making the task of t he builde rs easier when cons t ruct ing niche s of a speci fic size. Un the face of the rnastaba lite bricks
are frequemly laid as stretchers, and, in some parts. as t hree layers of str etchers alterna ting with one of headers. However,
the th ickness of the main walls, behind the out er face, is composed enti rely of headers placed together wit hout taking
care to off-set the lines of t he joints. Bricks on edge occur rarely in The masonr y. bei ng used occasionally to even up the
levels of the courses,
3471( RL'i f{ll o{ Dj ('r /
J4
The palace-facade of t his rnasta ba is of t he same type as t hat of 3357 and is constructed in simi lar fashion. In the
core of t he walls the bricks alte rnate two layers of headers wit h one of str etchers, wit hout brea king t he joints. JS Layers
of st icks occ ur, as in to mb .U57, hut it is 1101 known at what level these si kh WNe inser ted. There is no lining on the
inside of t he main walls of this t omh.
T11 e walls of the magazines in t he superstructure present identical feat ures to those of 335 7, having the same (5
hond ing and no intcrbon din g with th e mastuba 01 wit h each other, The use of th e bond ( 5 is ext ended to the walls of
the subst ructure, and the roo fing beams arc again set half J brick-length inlo the walk
Wi thin this superstruc ture were a series of' magaztnes buill above t he pit. The dividing walls of these magavincs
were bon ded C5 and did not interbond with t he main wall s nor with each othe r. The reason why they were not bo nded
into the masraba i\ thut th eir cc nsrrucnon could not lake place unt il t he burial had been completed. as the on ly access
to the bu rial pit was from above. Tl ICSC magazinevwould have been hast ily buil t within an already existi ng superstr uct ure.
The substruct ure of t he to mb was roofed wit h wood en beams and planks. and the details of this rooft ng have been
desc ribed hy Emery. 33 The bea ms and planks were onl y lei hal f a bric k-length into the walls of the pit. and probably
because of th is the beams arc set close together (every l Scm) to dist ribu te the weight of the roo f and t o prevent the
beams CUlling into the brickwork.
All the bricks used in t he st ruc ture were of a uniform size 13 x 1"2 :\ 7cm.
3357
T his large ruast uba J I of the time of Aha is enclosed wit hin two enci rcling walls, bot h of which were covered wit h
whi tened plast er, The outer wall is bon ded A11(3.0). a for m of bonding not found in any ot her mastabas of t he First
Dynasty. The inner enclosure wall is built in the more common A3 bonding, except that the arc nor staggered
as they are in later periods. This habi t of nor brea king the continuity of the joints b common at thi s lime . especially in
these Archaic tombs.
The walls of the lomb itself average m across and consis t of t hree sections . These are ( I) 311 outer pan in
which the niches ofthe facade are built. Cl the central mass of the wall. and (3 ):1 thin wall in a different bonding
:-1.::1: t he mstc e and serving as a lining oi C). (Sec Fig.S) The first of the se sect ions, the panelled facade, is
If. t his tomb of the same size bricks as the rest of t he buil ding. altho ugh half-bricks are used in some of the
r; rurhe-. The projections which occur bet ween the recesses arc bon ded int o the body of th e rnastaba. Behind
::":$ i..l.:e th e '; OIC 01 the wall is composed enti rely of headers. laid in th e manner of t iles. with all the j oint s
::: cn e. In t he tenth and sixteenth courses above thc grou nd level layers of st icks were placed between t he bricks to
lssisl the bonding. These lie t ransversely in the wall and average j cm in diameter, set in rows Scm apart. J2
Against t he inner face of t his cent ral pari (If t he wall is a lining wall built in C5 bond. which may have bee n inten ded
to cover the poorly-bonded brickwork behind it.
There is a problem concerni ng the size of bricks used in this tomb. Emery records a measurement x O.07m.
16
..:-..:.:h cannot possibly be for the length and width of tho: bricks. but is mor e likely to be for the length and t hic kness,
.eavt ng the width unknown. Conseq uently. the size can be assumed t o have been 29 x e?) x 7em. but as a lengt h of 29cm
:; evcepuonally lung at !his period. t he measurement must be regarded as dub ious.
: : Reign ol Oj('r)
This t omb was not reponed in so much detail 3Sthe First Dyna sty masta bas discovered by Emery. and so little can
QIJ. of its struct ure. TIle size and style of the tomb arc very similar t o 347 1. descr ibed above. and the palace- facade
::...;; the same type of niche const ruct ion. Unfortu nately. the brick size is not given in the report
J7
and the photograph s
r-e nOI distinct enough t o sho w details of bonding.
'3 I Reign of Dier; ascrihedto Merit-Neith]
Tho: const ruct ion of this masla ha
J lI
shows it to have been built J uring the reign of Djer, since it is ident ical in st ruc-
t o tomb 347J . TIle main walls have the same arrangement of bri ckwork as used in that tomb, and the proport ions
. : the recessed facade are ill agreement. Bot h the walls of the magazines and of the pit are bonded C5. The brick size is
:-. r ;i\ en by Emery. and I could not obtain It , since the tomh has by now been denuded down t o the rock.
t Reign of Uadi i j)'J
.-\n enclosure wall surrounds the tomb, being 0.95 metres t hick andbuilt in bon d AI. The bondi ng of the mastaba
.::;.t;i consists of three layers of st retc hers alt ernating with one layer of headers. t he bricks being laid like t iles with open
. cn s. The re is a lining wall on the inside of th e superstructure. built in AI bonding with reeds bet ween every sixth
.ase of brickwork.
4o
The facade has niches of the same pat lern as tomb 3471.
The magazine walls are bonded , \ 3. and eachrnagarin e is lined wit h a laye r of stretche rs on the inner face of its walls.
presence of th is lining makes the cross-walls appear to bond into each othe r, although in fucr there is no real bond ing,
.lJ shown in the diagram below.
wood was used for the roof and l100r of t he substructu re, and also for facing a series of brick pilasters which adorn ed
. :.. walls of the burial chamber, 41 These pilasters originally had decorative st rips. of gold foil applied 10 them. Their
-nstrucuon isillustra ted in Fig. IO. where it can be seen how the edge of th e wood en floo r runs beneath the pilaster.
woo den facing of the pilaste r was fastened t o beams built into the brickwork. one at floor level and anot her nine
__ above.
when the t omb was plundered the robbers sci lire t o the burial chambe r, wit h the result that many of th e bricks were
-,;;,:tJ red. Alth ough t he resto rers of the t omb made use of some 01" these burnt bricks, the innovation was not generally
.l: :>pted. and mud-br ick remained the sta nda rd building material of Egypt.
The bri cks t hemselves measure 2 1 x 11.5 x 6. 5cm.
F(r:.9 Brick work uf maga::im' lvall.t.
TO/ll h 3504.
Fig.fO Wood-f aced pilaster.
Tomb 3504.
Plan:
Sect ion:
_; J35 t Reign of Udilllll ) 42
In the core of t he exterior walls, the bucks are all heade rs. laid with open joints running right t hrough t he mass.
A.; JlTIst the inne r Face of these headers is a lini ng wall of st retchers. one bri ck-lengt h in t hickness. The out er sides of
main walls have the usual niches. but the const ruction of th ese is facilitat ed by the use of specially small bricks
.. suring 17 x 5 x Scm. f ile proportions of t he large niches differ from those found in the t ombs discussed above,
;. 3 greater wid th across t he inner recess.
:;-. up. r ic ; 11. /oIio.. t in l,," ," (1. 2'1 O.7m.
V" ihd l, .. A".,h" kM" u " b..... I S 6. 1'I,- V.V II
::'-. w. fl., ( ;".,<11 l'",,, b.. u/ l lII' Fir." D)'''''_'' \', ll. J :29- 1J Il, & 1'1... xxXVIII-X LVI
:; 4. ;h i' L. 15 1:1,,,,,1 1'1,,, I-XV 4 2.
17
ibid. , 'l..
I bioL. I t ,
I.mer l. w.B.. Th,. Tmnb of lkmlJk<1, 3-'J.
In the magazines there is no bonding at the corners of the dividing walls, nor do the walls bond with. the mastaba
itself The bon d of these walls seems to have been Al or A2. Above the magazines was a roof composed of beams and
planks with five courses of brickwork laid on top of the roof. These bricks are laid with ope n joint s in alternate layers
of headers and stretchers.
The walls of the pit are retained by brickwork ofrather irregular construction, with. courses of stretchers, headers
and edger-headers in no stric t sequence. Except for the palace-facade, the tomb was built of bricks measuring 23 x
13 x Scm.
3036 (Reign of Udimu] 4 3
Both the enclosure wall and the tomb itself are constructed of bricks 24 x 10 x Scm in size, bonded AI . walls
had reeds laid between every sixth course. H There is no lining wal! on the inside of the superst ructure in this tomb.
The palace-facade is much simpler and shallower than that of tomb 3035 or the earlier tombs. and no special bricks
are used in its cons truction. 015
Wi thin the superstruct ure arc magazines divided by crosswalls built in AI bonding. These walls interbond wit h each
other at the corne rs. but not with the main walls of the lomb nor wit h the sides of the pit . The burial pit itself is roofed
in a different way from any ot her of the Saqqara First Dynasty tombs. by using bricks. for the roof. Wooden beams. 30c m
in diameter, cross the chamber, and are set so close together that the gaps between them are spanned by bricks. This roof
was then consolidated by anot her course of brick laid over the first. Below Ihe beams is a ceiling of wooden planks, 14cm
thick, with their edges set into the brickwork, as shown in Fig. I I . Asimilar use of bricks for rooting occurs in tomb
N. 1647 at Nega ed- Dcr. for which see Reisner, NQKQ ed-Dcr, I, 19, especially Fig. 10.
Fig. I I Roof ing ofpit. Tomb 3036
at Saqqara.
3507 (Reign of tkiimu. ascribed to Hemeith] 46
The main walls of the masteba have three layers of headers alternating with one of stretchers, wit h reed matt ing
every lifth or sixth ocurse.
4 7
There is no lining wall on the imide of the main walls. The cross-walls of the magazines
are bonded with each ot her at the corners. and with the rnastaba itself, showing that they were built at the same time
as the main walls of the tomb. None of the magazine walls pass over the burial pit, but Ihey join on to its retaining wall.
This leads us to the view that the only access to the burial chamber after the building of the tomb was from directly
above, through a brick-lined pit which penetrated the tumulus structure upon which the magazine walls stood. The roof-
ing of the burial chamber could only have taken place after the burial. and must have been comp leted in the confined
space of the pit ( :5. 25 A 3. 15m) Once the roof was in place the tumulus could be completed in its cent re to cover the
substr uct ure. It seems rather str ange to see the builders confin ing themselves to work in such a narrow spuce, instead of
leaving the constr uct ion of the magazines until after the Interment. as they did in allthe earlier mastabas. The only altern-
ative to this view is that the enti re supers tructure. includ ing the main walls of the tomb. was built aft er the burial. Emery
states 48 that the bondi ng of the magazine walls was ,\8. but from the published phologl aphs
H
it seems to be too irregu-
lar for classification. 111e tumulus WJ S cased '.'lith a single layer of bricks laid nat. so
The bricks measured 24 x 11 x Scm. including those of the palace-facade. whose niches are of a simpler type than
usual, omitting the small niches in th.e sides of lite outer recess.
5
I
3506 [Reign of Udimu ]
According to the published report s2the main walls are built in an alterna tion of three courses of headers to une of
st retchers. with. reeds every fifth course. Whilst the face of the walls have this arrangemen t in parts. I found that the
thickness of the wall was composed entirely of headers laid toget her with very little mortar. TIle inside faces of the walls
have buttresses every four metres en the long sides, lind every two met res on the short . These arc 0.8510 wide ami are
bonded into the mastaba. The palace. facade Uses special bricks. ranging in size from 14 x 7 x 6.5c m to 15 x 7 x 70n.
This size occurs also in Mastaba 1060 at Tarkhan,SJ and is probably intend ed to be 2 x I x I palms.
Tomb 3506 has 110 magazines within the superstructure. which WJS filled with sand.
01 3. [ me r,.. W. B., Cu at Tombs of tile First Dyna sty. 1,1 1-5 s, Pis. 14- 7. ibid.. 76. 49. sota; 1'15.. 91 3- SO. i l>id.. 71.
401. ibid.. . 7 5. 4 5. i/lfd.. 7 3. 46. Emer y, op. etc. III . n ..7 &. 11, . 51. una; PI. 85. sr . ibid.. 37-4 1. & Ph.. 4 0. 6 5.
47. Emer y, W. B.. Grea t To mhllif rile Firsr DY"4S ry. Ill . 76. $ ). I"clri ". W.,'d.. F. .. nd C.A-, Ti1,llh.." J de "" ",phis V, i4.
18
3038 (Reign ofAdj-i bJ
s4
Only headers are used in t he main walls of the mastaba , and no small bric ks are employe d for the facade. The niches
r-e oi the same type as those of Tomb :-';0det ails are available of the const ruc tio n of t he stepped mound over t he
chamber, bu t t he cross-walls wi thin the superst ructure are known to have been bon ded AI, whilst th e walls encl osing
::.e pn were of type .-\ 2
.An interest ing feature of the lo mb are the bric k-built granaries, which are roofed ove r by corbelli ng in the brickwork,
t he ou ter surfaces ....i th mud. The bri ck size is unfortunat ely not given.
? J JJ (Reign of Adf ib) 5S
The mastaba walls at e built of he aders, wit h an inner lining wall of st ret che rs. But t resses occur alo ng the inside of
this ...."3..l 1. and there arc no magazines in t he superstr uctur e. Instead, the pi t is divided tnto seven rooms, but t he handing
;-the cross-walls is not recor ded. The facade of t he mastaba uses the same size of bricks as the rest of the structu re, bei ng
: 0 .\ x Zcm.
( Reign of Kaa] se
This is a large rubble-fill mastuba with outer walls built in AI bonding. At every sixt h course of bricks, reeds arc laid
transversely t hrough thc walls. s' TIle facade has the usual niches on the North, South and East sides, but simplified 0 11
west. Th roughout th e- tomb the bricks are 23- 4 x 10-1 x 7cm in size.
The remaining mastabas in the First Dynast y cemete ry at Seqqara do not have the palace-facade, but instead have
offering niche at the South end of t he East face. These tombs are discussed below, t oget her wit h other plain
ma stabas of t he Archaic Period. in Secti on 5. Furt her examples of palace-facade masrabas. however, are foun d at
TldJtan. Giza lind Abu R03:>h.
The mastobas 0 1 Tarkhan.
There arc three palace-facade mast aba s at Tarkh an, all approximate ly dat ed t o the feign of Uadji. The details are
-':> follows :
JIj IjO 58
The bonding of t he main walls seems to be intended to alterna te layers of headers and stretchers. but the re are
-tany irregularit ies. Stic ks and reeds are bid bet ween t he cou rses of brickwork to assist bon ding. Wit hin t hi s super-
st ruct ure lire dividing-walls. bonded AI, which lire not built into the main walls. The bric ks are 23 x 10x 7cm in size.
with a variat ion of .O. SCIll, whilst for t he niches of the facade smalle r br icks at 15 x 7 x 7cm arc used. The recess
Sourb cf tile centre of tile East face has a wooden 1100Tcomposed of five planks of wood, the outer one of whic h
runs under th e sides of the niche.
60
This is a filled rnastuba and consequent ly has no magazines in the superst ructu re. Two stzcs of bricks were used .
. :H' of :!4.5 x II. S x Scm for the bulk of the tomb. and anot her of 17.5 x 8.5 x 6.5clTl specifically for t he palace-
:.:. : ;.t de. In general plan and design this mastaba is very similar t o number 2038, described below.
: ljJ8
61
The bricks of this tomb were umforrn th roughout the structure measuring 25 x I :! x 7.5c m. The fourth recess
' re m the South end of t he mastaba. on the East side, has a wooden floor as in to mb 1060. No derails of the bonding
t he main walls are recorded.
In t he East corridor 01 the lomb two subsi diary graves were found.
62
having slight ly vaulted superst ruc t ures restin g
-n 3 sand filling. The " rick covering. made of stre tche rs b id along th e axis of the vault. was stro ng enough to be self-
supporting when t he sand filling ha d been removed, showing how a t rue vault could be produced by accident. 6 )
!,':'. l-m,r y. \\f. R.. err" t Tomhs (I! rh.. Finr Dyuast.". 1,&2 " $; T'1l. 21 )5.
; ; . ibid., 'I s ' and .. l 6.1
;0). "-me ry. " p. ci t., III , S IO &. I'b<. 2- 22.
s ", i bi<L. II.
I' cl ei", \V.M. I. &. G.A ci t I Jrr. &. /'1. XV Xt X
;'1. ibi'L , 14 " nd 1'1. XVI
':'0. l'dric, W.M. F. Tllrkl"'" II. 5 8 and I'I!>. XV, XVII I
,11;d., "'5 ''' ' d 1'1. XV. XVlI l
" : . I'cu le. W. .\ l, l'., 1"l1rl(l'IIJl I I. 4 S. 63. ihid., J>I. XVI
'9
Palace-Facade Tombs 0 1 Abu Roasti.
Mastabo Yaf Gi: a.
Revival of Palace-Facade ill Dynasties II and Ill.
72. Ihld., I I.
73. b t", r y, W.Il .. Ardw;c /,y,' p l , 18 2.
20
Apart from the First Dynasty tombs so far described. the re are certain mastebas of the Second and Third dynast ies
which revive the use of the palace-facade. The style persists into the Fourt h Dynasty at Meydum. but there the niches
arc of a simplified form,0 11 These examples from arc dealt with in a later section. The ot her tombs 10 be consid-
ered here are Gila T, of the late Second or early Third Dynasty. and Saqqara 2405 and 3070. both dated to the Third
Dynasty.
Saqqara Tomb 3070 7 I
As in the tomb of Hcsy. the panelling is enclosed in a corridor chapel on the EaST side of the mastaba. Special
bricks measuring l Ox 5 x 5cm are used for the niche const ruction. However, the niches in the antechamber of the
South chapel are made by a different technique. This involves the use of pre-cast mud d abs fastened to the rnastabu
by means of wooden plugs.72 11le same material was utilized to make the lintels which occur over the otrertna niches
of Archaic mast ebas. Emery stales thai the mud ", :IS reinforced with S!lips of linen and dried unde r pressure.
i J
h UI
how Ihis pressure was applied is unknown.
Giza Mauaba T l>'l
TIlis is a very large tomb measuring approximately 55 x. 28 melres. It is enclosed hy a thick wall, built of bricks
whose average dimensions are 24 x 12 x x. Scm alt hough some examples were down to 20 x 10 x 7cm. In the
mastuba itself the size of the bricks was 14 x 12 x R.5em. like the larger ones of the wall. TIle palace-facade used
special bricks measuring only 15 x 7 x 6.5cm. No det ails of the bon ding arc available.
Montet excavated a number of tombs at this site, of which numbers I, II, and VII were panelled mustabas. He gtvcs
little det ail in his report 6l> aml only in the case of tomb VII is any information (Ill the brickwork given. This mastaba
had niches along the faces of the same type as those of Saqqara tomb 3507. TIle style of the mast aba dates it at the
curliest to Udlmu and at the latest to Ka-a. All Interesting and unusual t ulck bond is used in both the tomb itself and
in the encl osing wall. This bond is type eEl of the Corpus. and uses headers and stretchers on their edges altemutiug
with courses of bricks bid fla t. The laying of bricks on edge is very unusual m this period. except when used in Isolat ed
groups 10 adjust the levels of the cour ses. In this tomb, however, the bricks arc deliberat ely and regularly laid on edge,
in a style which usually occurs only in the Roman age. It may be significant that there is only one other large monument
of the First Dynasty w'hich employs regular layers of bricks on edge. this being the tomb of Semcrk het at Abydos.
67
A poi nt worth not ing is that the bricks have to bc made with the thic kness equal to half the breadth to achieve the bond
I' El . .....hereas the usual ratio of breadth to thickness is 3: 2. The brick Sill.' itself is not given in the report.
04. 6 ( I
Q
0 5). v-rr,
6 5. I'<-lri .., W. M.r-., G.....I, & 2-3 I I. Vt
6 6. K",,,, t 7. (1938). I IH.
6 7.
nil . K..i' I" I . (j. /\., T",,, h l),",. I" pm{"u r, 22.1.
69. Cov' ngtull . o.. ASAc' 6 ( I Q(l S) , 19 3f r. & 1''' l rk , 0l,.cir. 7 & PI. v n
7U. Quiiwll, 1.1"" POlll b of f i<'_.-". " anim, I V I.
7 1. Emer )' , ,I f:A 54 (1968) , /1-3
This large panelled mastaba, dated to the reign of Uadji, was partially excavated by DaressyMand finished by
Petrie. oS Few facts are recorded about the brickwork, but the brick size is known to be 11 x 10 x 6cm. Datcssy
states: .. u s briques se nt generalement couchdes dans le sens de la longuer..." hy which he must mean that there
were mostly st retchers visible on the wall races. Detailed measurements of the facade were made by Peine. and these
are discussed below in Appendix I.
Saqqara Tomb 2405 (Th e Tomb of Hcsy] 70
The niched Facade is limited ttl the East face of ' he mastaba and enclosed by a corridor chapel. The brick sizes
are the only struct ural details recorded. being 21 x 13 x ('?)crn for the mavtaba and 14 x 7 x 7cm for the recessed
panelling. As in all niched tombs a coat 01plaste r covered the facade. in this case being zcrn thick.
12 Pre-Cast niches. Saqqara
Tomb 3070.
SIDIMARY: PALACEFACADE MASTABAS
:038
Gi=a
" Abu R(){ull:
\. JI e El
Palace- Facade s tastabas later than the First Dynasty.
Gi:a:
T
Saqqam:
3357 All headers C5
3-:71 Llayers of headers: C5
1 of st retchers.
Nc information availabl e.
3503 2 layl"rs ofH to I of S C5
A7 A3
All Ileaders AI . A2
Al Al
3 1nyers of H 10 I of S Irregular.
A7
3038 All Headers AI ,A2
31II AllHea ders
3505 Al
Tarkhan:
1060 Irregular AI Al

2 I x l 1.5 x 6.5 Encl. wall Al
23x 13 x 5 Reeds every 9t h course
17x5:1.5
24 x 10 x 5 Encl. wall Al
24x l l x 5 Reeds every 5-6 courses
14 x 7 x 6.5 Reeds every 5th course
15 x 7 .\ 7
? x l l x?
26 >..12x 7 Simple niches
23--4 x 10- I x 7 Reeds every 6th course
23 xl 0 x7 Sucks & reeds used.
24.5 x 11.5 x 6
}
17.5 x 8.5 x 6.5 Sand-fill mastabas.
15 x 12 x 7.5
21x lOx6
End . wall also eEl
24x12x8.5
15 x 7 x 6.5
21xI3x ? Solid brick rnastabu
14.\ 7 x 7
IOx 5x 5 Small bricks for niches.
21
Sire & Tomb
Xaqada:
mast uba
Saqqara.

3070
Bond, main walls
Al l , A7
.,
" "
Cross-walls Brick Size (em)
29 x13.5 x7
26 x13 ;(8
26 x l2 x 7
25.5 x 12.5 x 7
17 x 9 x 7 (i\ iehes)
23 xl 2 x 7
29x '? x7
Not es
End . wall bend A3
Sticks betwee n
courses.
5. Archaic Mastabas of Plain or Two-Niche Type.
Palace-facade disappea rs OIt t he end of the First Dynasty, and th e standard maslaba of the remainder of the Archaic
Period hils plain walls, usually with a North and South offeri ng niche. Examples of t his t ype begin to appear in the
late First Dynasty at Saqqaru. most dating from t he reign of Ka-u. The most impor tant of these is Saqqara Tomb
3500; 4lhe subsidiary graves of .....hich have been described ahove. on pages 10- 11. The othe r to mbs of this grou p
are 3120, 3 121. 3338 and " Tomb X" ,7S me last being a solid mastab a. As the informat ion about the bric kwor k of
these tombs is rat her meagre. it is all given in tabular form on page 25.
The following general observations may be made about t he const ruction of mastabas of t he Second and Third
Dynasues--, They are usually compos ed of a thick ou ter wall of bric k. with a rubble or mud filling. Small tombs.
however, are frequently made of solid brickwork, and th is me t hod of const ruction is extended to large masta bas
in the Third Dynasty for example Saqqara 2405.
76
The common, almost universal, bonding uf t he main walls is
type A2 or A3, whilst 1\6 occurs less frequently. The use of the se bonds means that t he great mass of the brickwork
is composed of headers only, laid perpendicularly with respect to the face of t he wall. This leads to the forma tion of
a diagonal joint through the angles of the mastaba. (See Fig.13)
Fig,13 Comer bonding i/l
typical mastaba.
Many to mbs have layers of edger-headers showing in the bric kwork, t hese being used for levelling. The use of
bricks on edge raises the level of the course by about acm with bricks of this age, the reby enabling the builders to
compensate for sloping ground or irregularity of t he ho rizontal join ts. This way of dealing with changes in level was
used in Egyptian brickwork at all peri ods. The bricks are most often composed of black mud and chopped straw, but
there is also frequent use of bricks made from desert raIl (desert gravel). These contain just sufficient mud to held
the gravel together. and have a distinct pale yellow colour. They are most common in the smaUer mast abas at this
period, but arc used for all of tombs in the Old Kingdom. The size of t he bric ks is very little different from that
used in the First Dynasty, although there is a tendency to wards a slight increase. )lost frequently t he bricks are 22-
26cm in length. In nearly all C3.)CS t he brickwork is covered over with a coa t of whitened mud-plast er . This plaster
contai ns a great amount of chopped st rawf Arabic libn) to give it protection from weatheri ng, Mud is ab o used for
the mortaring of the joints. alt hough someti mes raj1 is ut ilized for this purpose. The morta ring is carelessly do ne, and
is confined to the horizontal joint s.
Naga ed-Der.
The Secon d Dynast y corbelled tombs at this site have already been described (p.12); thei r superst ruct ures are known
to have been rnastabas hut har dly any brickwork has survived. There are a number of small mastabas with :'Ii orth and
Sou th offeri ng niches at the site, examples being ;-';.477 1, 5302 and .J506. 77 Their const ruct ion is very unifor m. the
walls being built in t ype Xl or A6 bonding, and t he bricks averaging 26 x 12.S x 7cm in size. Most of these tombs have
vertical outer walls. h UI some have a slight hat ter on the face. In early examples this batte r is obtained by leaning the
entire wall inwards from the base. but later by step ping the bricks inward slightly every second coum.
78
Beil Klwlla{.
Tomb KJ. .
This is a very large (86 X 46 rn) solid brick mastaba dated 10 the reign of Djoser.7 9 Prac tically all the bricks are
laid as head ers. although it is likely that the original face would have showed al ternate courses of headers and
stre tchers, these having weathered away. TIle brickwork W3$ laid in sections from the exteri or inwar ds, finishing at
7-:r.--rmu r . W. Il., TQmbs Qfrl,r Flnt Dy 'I IUt.I'. Ill . 98- 102, an d I'ls. 11*- 120. 7 5. Ibid.. I. 101 129.
76. S.... Qui h..l l. J.F". , 7"" Tomb Qf flr sy. 77. M<lc.., A.C., Nrljrll ..d./JCr. II, 22 24 . Ol h"r nx. in C.. mer er v SOO3r.. N. SH.
511S & 689. e Il...;"n er, G.A., NIlj{IJ .. d-Drr. til, 220, 224 , 24So6. 18. Mac e, (>1'. el f.. t 1.
19. t; arsta n8. S. , Edt KhlJllaf, lI- lt. I'I. VI_VI!
22
the stairway and shafts. The cons truction of the bri ckwork in secti ons, separated by a clean joint right through the
mass. may have been to allow t he bri cks to dry out, but is more likely t o be connected wit h an intemaltumulus
structu re as existed in Saqqara Tomb 3038. An import ant innovatio n occur s in the descending passage of the tomb,
as this is roofed by a bric k vault, resting at its upper end on a brick arch. This is paralleled by another example from
rcmb K} at Beit Khallaf The arch is co rnpcsed of bricks on edge (ty pe c I) and is a single cou rse in thickness.
8o
Tomb K2 8 1
like t omb KI, thi s mastaba is built in sectio ns and has a vaulted stairway passage. It is dated to the time of
Sanakh t and is a lwi n rnastaba wit h North and South shafts. The vault over the stairway is built in inclined courses
Hype dl of t he Corpus) and rests against an arch of type d (0.5 ). In some cases th e bricks of the arch have been
shaped into the required wedge-form by chipping or by adding mud.82 This is t he earliest well-at test ed arch so far
discovered in Egypt .
The other large mastahas at Bcit Khallaf are not repo rted in det ail, but to mb KS had a corbel-vaul t over the
descent to t he substruct ure. 8) It is st range that cor belling should be used here when t rue vault s were being e mployed
in t he nearby tombs KI and K2.
Reqaqnah
Twu tombs at t hls site date fro m the Thi rd Dynasty: nu mbers Rl and R40.
11 4
Both of the se employ the typ e
cl (O.5) arch over th e descending passage, and Rl h3Svaults used in conjuncti on with the arches. 85 The exte rior
faces of mastaba RI show alternate courses of hea ders and st retchers, so the t hickness bonding ismust prob ably
A2 or A3_
Tura.
Tomb 27. \\'.1
This ts a sand-filled mastaba with a brick-lined shaft. 86 The walls of the pit are bonded with t wo layers of
st retchers to one of headers. and some bri cks on edge are used for levelling.
Saqqara.
is the largest cemetery of t he Archaic Peri od, hu t it is uufonunately only pertly published. Quibell excavat ed
a large number of t ombs of the Second and Third Dynasties, the majout y being rubble-fi lled brick mastabas. 87 The
hrick bonding in these tombs is not t oo regular AI , A2 or A3, the choice bet ween the last two being dependent on
the t hic kness of the wall. Some t ombs also make frequent use of bond A6. which is the same as A3 except t hat the
st retcher course is doubled. of the tombs arc bui lt of black mud-brick but some of the smaller r nastabas use toj/-
bricks, examples being '2 1JI /2, 2149, 2 166 alit! 2370. The cons t ruct ional features of the Archaic mastahus at Saqqara
arc Stl uniform that they can he collect ively described: The brickwork was invariably covered over wil h whit ened mud-
plaster, from 2 to ocm in thick ness. alt hough a few to mbs usc yello w plaster made from lull. Mortar was placed in the
ho rizontal joints only, and is far more frequent ly composed of tafl than of mud. Layers of reeds 1)(;I,:U r bet ween t he
brick courses in many tombs, and are laid bot h along and across the axis of t he walls. The shafts and stairways of the
masta bas are often strengthe ned and retai ned by brick walls. bon ded AI , and the stai rs t hemselves are some t imes built
of brick , each step bei ng formed of a layer of headers over a laye r of Si retcheIS_ In other cases a single course of brick
on edge is used for the slept The sizes of t he bricks are fairly closely graduated in this cemetery, as the examples below
illustrate:
24-- 5 x 11 :\ 7-&m
24- 5 x 11.5 x 6.5
26 x 12- 12.5 '>.: 10
22.5 x 12 x 8
21-2 x IO.5 x 7
20x I0.'>.:7
2I x lO.S-I lx6
KH. I.. TI ,ircl I:ifvpriall {) y ",u t y . 1'1.. 14. 1i14.
iii!. Car<ta np.:, J" M alt a.l ll a and s etr K ll al/ a[. 11-2, 1'1s. XV ll -XVllI 8S,
82. Gan t anr. J " TI, .. Third Eg.l'l" ill ll D)'" a.ry, t 4. 86.
IU . {;u " tung, J . . MIl I' ll sl1 r1 and Rdl Kl lI/llaf, I S, PI. XXV. f1 '.
23
Gars lall l;, J Tlli rcJ Xypriall DJ' nan y. 11 3. J'l . tVAUII<J R.
ma; 1'1s. 5,6 and 14.
J un ker, H.. Fr/edit "!'n 25 6.
Qui t-ell, J. F., Ardwlc Mau abas,
Here the sizes all fall between 20 and .::! 6cm for the length. whilst the breadth varies less. from 10 to I Bricks
seem 10 have been of iI fairly uniform small size throughout Egypt at this date, and these figures may be compared
with a range of brick lengths covering 24- 28cm at Qau
811
and 24- .::!6cm at Naga ed-Dcr.""
Aparl from the great mastaba-tombs of the Archaic Period. small vault ed graves were discovered at Saqqara by
Qutbell, 90examples being QS.2 l .::! 5 and 1 126. These are covered by a brick vault, built in c 1 bonding, and a single
course in thickness. TIle gapingjoi nts between the bricks on the outside of the arch were filled with potsherds. These
arches arc of the same type as those in the mastabus at Dei! Khallaf and belong to the same dynasty. Arches are used
only over short spans at this dat e; that of Q5.2125 covers O.92m.
The table below summarises the deta ils of the tombs described in Section 5 and includes supplementary
information from cemeteries which do not merit individual lreatmenl.
SUMMARY
Location
Bonds used
Brick Size (em)
Notes
Beit Khallaf"
KI A1 or A3
28xI2.5'l:9
Vault of type dl and c l arch in shaft.
K2
d I vault and c I arch in shaft .
K;
Corbel-vault in shaft.
Reqaqnolr:
RI
Al m A3
c I arches and d I vault in shaft.
R40
cl arch in shaft .
Tura:
17.w.1
1 layers of S to J of H
Edger-headers for levelling.
Qau:
419
483
485
50.
24 x 11.5 x 6.5
These dimensions arc from subst ructures
551
of tombs at Oau, included here for
562
comparison.
829
402
}
443
25.5 x I 1.5 x 7.5
All these tombs are dated to S.D.79- 84.
484
to 2(1.5x 11.5 ,\ 7.5
; \4
8;5
81 6
}
852
1%2
28x l 3x Hto
1738
28 lo; 14 xf)
1742
3112
25.5 x 11.4 x 6.5
Dated by vase fragments 10 lle rcpsekhemut,
Naga ed-Dcr:
4506
2 1ayers ofS to lof l l
5147
XI
5104
AI
528
XI
24 5 x 13 4>:.6
Armant:
I.::!07
2J xl h 8

x 11.5 x 6
tlR. Ihunl Dn. G e ar. alld Badarl. I, I ) .
119. Mot. A. C Naxa .. II . 10.
90. Qu ihel1. o,," cu:.. 1'1. XXXIt
24
Notes
taj7 bricks
Solid bric k tomb.
Sand-fill mastaba.
Brick sizes (em)
Class A
Al
A I
AI
Al
Bond s used
22 x 12.9 x (?)
24 x l l x 5
22 x l l x 8
22x l lx8
24 x lOx5
2S lon g.
27x I4 x8.5
22 long.
A2 or 1\3 22 x 11 x 9
A2 , A3 some A6 x 12 - 12.5 x 7-8 tafl mor tar. Edger -headers for levels.
1\2 , A3 21 2 x 10. 5 11 x 7 Reed layers in brickwor k.
Some Type A bon ding in mast ahas. Plaster over brickwork. No other information available.
Location
Saqqara:
3500
3338
3 120
3 121
Tomb X
'::: 307
21730
'::: 172E
303 0
3050
3518
He/wan'
For more infor mat ion on t he hrickwork of archaic mast abas at Saqqara. see t he chapt er
by A.J. Spencer on the brick architectu re of the site. in the final report of the rece nt
excavatio ns by the Egypt Exploration Society. ( Fort hco ming)
6. Brick-bu ilt Tombs of the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period.
111e mas taba continues as the standard type of tomb througho ut this period, but many exa mples arc made of stone
and have no brickwork in t he ir st ruct ure. Mastabas built wholly or partly of br ick are not, however, uncommon and
the usc of vaul t ed chambers is greatly extended in bo th superstruct ure and subst ruct ure. Corb el-vaults arc also common
for coveri ng the burial, but, unlike the corbelled graves of thc Second Dynast y, these have 110 st airway entrance t o the
subst ructu re. Th e features of th e brick constructio n are illustr ated by the descrip tions of part icular monuments given
below.
Giza.
At t he West extremity of the great ceme t ery of stone mastabas West of the pyramid of Khufu, t here lies a group of
small brick tombs which were excavated by Fisher. ')I These are rubble-filled mastabas with br ick casing-walls and sha ft s.
The bri cks of the outer walls arc stepped inwards slightly <I t ouch course to give a batter to the face. or alte rnativel y, thi s
is produced by thickening the wall towa rds its base. ( Fig.14) Among the earlier tom bs the bric ks have sizes of 35 x 17
x 11. 5cm. or as lit t le as 28 x 15 x cern. Later. bricks up to 44 x 22 x l Scm arc used, alt ho ugh the avera ge is less than thi s.
TIle casing walls are one or one and a half brick-leng ths in thickness, and are bonded Al or A2, as are the ret aining walls
of t he shafts.
FiJ:.1 4 Types of brick casing-walls, Giza
(0) (b)
All the exposed brickwork was originally coaled wit h mud-plaster , which in many cases is of a yello w colour in this
cemetery. Arches of type c 1 arc used above doorways, and d l or cd I vault s cover t he chambers in the superstr uct ures.
Some of these vaults arc especially interes ti ng because t hey are built wi th speci ally-formed hnc ks, wit h rounded moul dings
on their edges, to imit ate the app earanc e of a primit ive vault of reeds.
92
For this r.eason the plast er on the undersides of
t he vaults is usually pain ted red, t he colour of dr ied reeds. Examples of these " reeded" roo fs occur in tombs G.209 8 and
30.B. Further use of special vaulti ng bricks was found in some tombs excavated by Abu Bakr in 194 9 - 50.
9 3
Two of the
mastahas discovered had bricks shaped t o copy reed vaults , and in aile case, the tomb of Nefcri . t hese bricks were employed
t o build a very flat arch, not t he semici rcular vault generally found in Egypt ian architecture. These special br icks are disc-
usscd in Chapter 15 and t he details of tu e arches in which they occurred are included in Chapter 11.
Some examples 01" domed roofin g are known from t he Giza cemet ery. The to mb of Seneb had J chamber covered by
a dome '14 for med of cou rses of st retchers in circles, t ilt ed inwards by raising the outer edges wit h chips of st one. Conseq u-
enlly r11C circles decrease in diameter as the height increases. and also incline inwards until they mee t ar the apex . A similar
roof was usud in t ile rnastuba of Nefer i, in which was t he flat arch menti one d above .
'11. C, Tilt Mill'" at Gi za. 93. Ah u liakr, r.'xc<I"<ltiUllJar 1949- 1950, 110 1
92. Fi,hC'r , C. , up. cit. , ,,,,,1 1 16-7. 94. R.. Ancien/Egyptian Maso",y. 18 6. & J unke r. H.. Gi .a V, )D-J.
25
KIwi. 10 0
The tomb is small. with two chambe rs roofed by d l vaults formed of a single course of tap -bric ks measu ring 26.5
x 13 x 7crn. TIle largest span b 1.35m.
Dcsi: 1 1,1 )
This lomb also has t wo vaulted chambers, the vault ing being type cdl (1. 0). The plaster on the underside of the \'!'!
was paint ed red. a feat ure not ed 1I Iso at (i in . (Sec above. p.2S) Ail ihe bric ks measure 22- 4 x 12 x Scm, and they are
bonded very roughl y and irregularly in t he outer walls. Over this poor brickwor k is a thi n coat of grey mud-plast er in
Teti Pyramid area.
26
Brick is used in the construction of various type s of to mbs at Nor th Saqqara. in some cases for the entire struct ure
and in others only as a casing arou nd a stone core. There are a numbe r of examples of'the lat ter use in mast abas oi-
Fifth Dynast y; the inner parr of the solid superstructure is built of roug hly-luid stone blocks. around which is a
of brick about a me t re in thickness. leaning inwards against the stonework. The bricks used for t he casing are very
made of desert tafl and usually measure 28 x x 9 to 30 x 14 x Scm. although larger sizes can occu r. The bonding
the brick wor k is generally of the A2 type. and black mud-plaster is very common ove r Ihe surfaces. Some tombs
num ber of simple niches in t he East face, and broken-off stretchers are used occasionally 10 simplify the constr uct !
of t hese. 99
Brick is used in conj unction wit h stone in cert ain tombs for purposes ether than making an oute r casing for the
mastaba. In many instances the posit ion is reversed. and the casing is stone-built whilst the inner core is of brick.
Examples of th is occur in the Teti and Unas pyramid cemete ries. where brick is also frequently used for vaulted
roofing and lining shaft s. TIle descriptions of indi vid ual mastahas given below show the characteristic points of the
brickwork in t he different forms of t omb.
North Saqqara
Tura
Abusir
Around [he temple o f th e pyramid of Neuserrc are severa l brick trun bs of t he Fifth or Sixth Dynasties. 9711lOSC
of the Hfth Dynasty origi nally had ex ternal vaulted brick chapels. such as occ ur at Gila. The later graves consist of
small brick mastebas wit h the burial chambers roofed by dl vaults, Dther vault ed tombs occur near the Solar Tempi.:
of Userkaf. 98 slightly 10 the Nor t h of the pyramid field; t hese graves employed vaults of ty pe c l ( 1.0).
Some brickwor k occurs among t he stone mastabas at Giza in the const ruct ion of exterior offering chapels. .....hi.:t
roofed wi th vaults of type dl , In tumb G. I 203, t he well-preserved Nort h wall of the offering room had four
formed of slits in the brickwork five to seven courses high. separated by parti tions half a brick wide. 95 A similar .
was found in G. 1406. Other examples of exteri or brick-buill chapels occur in G. 1205. 2 100. 4360. 4460 and others,
In the cemetery at Tura some closed corbelled graves were found.
9 6
bdonging to t he Fourth or Fifth Dynast y.
An example is tomb IO.pS . which has lining-walls consisti ng of four courses of stretchers. above which are anothe r
four courses of brick for the vault. These are laid as headers with a thi ck coating of mud on the outside. (Fig. I S)
Grave 27.v. 1 was also of this type.
Fig,J5 Section of tomb l O.p.5 at TUFa.
'H . Reb" ... . G.A.. "I ,/I .. C I:lI.'V<'c-1Vpolis. l. I K8.
96. JUIl k" "''; ('<11'''1 1.. Tu ' tI"- 20.1. & l1s. x VU-.'( VIII
97. Ru r.:ha rdr. L . C",/>dc-" A. ",tIl Nn.$t" ,.... 109 134. \ -1 1 156. ::lfld ... .. 20 -7.
98 . K... k". II. D.l., s""" .." / d llgt rm' d.-., A' O"i!:s Usc-,iu/. I. 34.
'19. 1'0' more in fut mHl on un the h, ickwor k in l umh, of t he , m page 25.
10 0. S:!ad. Z. Y.. AS Ae 4 3, 4 5 \ 0 l. Or io ""n. E. ASAE' 43. 505---(, an d "F" on plan.
which lines have been dra wn to imitate the appearance of well-bonded courses of headers and stretchers in alternat ion.
This is an interest ing example oi an att empt by th e builders t o hide had internal work under a fine facade, and the tech-
nique is illust rated in Plate 46A.
Unnumbered mastaba West of the Tomb of Mereruka:
A large masraha, now mostly buried, was excavated hy ZY. Saad at t his site, 10 2 and it is of interest because of the
dimensions of the mud-bricks of which it is built. These are 52-3 x 26 x 19cm in size. which is certainly int ended t o
be 7 x 31h x 21h pal ms, or 28 x 14 x 10 common digits. It is interesting to note that the tomb of Ka-em-heset, which
lies only a few met res to the south of th is mast aba , also used bricks of this size, and furt hermore had pillars composed
of bricks a cubit square (53 x 53 x 23cm). 103
Fur ther informat ion on t ombs in the Teu Pyra mid Cemetery is given in t he table on page 34.
Unas Pyra mid area.
Tomb of /la/shfe/. 104
Brick is used for t he body of the mastaba, whilst the walls of the internal chambers were lined with stone. The bri cks
are co mposed of mud containing limestone chips and potsherds. and are laid in A2 or A3 bonding with reeds between
the courses at irregular int ervals. There is very litt le chopped st raw in the bricks, whi ch measur e 31 x 15.5 x Scm. On the
side of the lomb there are thr ee arches in the br ickwork; t wo are dummies for the sake of symmetry. but one leads
by an arched tunnel t o the bur ial shaft. This tunnel is roofed wit h an arch of type c I(2.5), a form of bonding also used in
the other arches, bu t they have t wo courses of bricks in place of five. The span of the mai n t unnel is I.SSm, and its stde-
walls are built nf srretchers,
Tomh oflmpi 10 5
TIle brickwork of t his tomb has been greatly eroded. but enough remains to sho w t hai t he bricks were simil ar
t o those used in the mastaba of Haishtef having potsherds and stones included in t hem and being 32- 3 x 16 x I l cm
in size. They were laid-in mortar formed of loll. and in Al bonding. but no reeds were placed bet ween the courses.
Tomb of MelllL 106
Against t he East side of t his stone mastaba is a mass of bric kwork, bonded A2, and con sisti ng ent irely of taj7-bricks
measuring 30-1 x 14.5 x cern.
Keirer. 107
Bricks of dark grey mud, 27 x 13 x Scm in size, are used in this lomb. The ha nding is AI and is rat her rough, the
irregular gaps in the wor k be ing filled up with gravel and plastered over wit h mud.
Built ugutnsr this tomb is anot her mastaba whose owner is unknown. The bricks here are larger, at 36 x I S x I 1- 12cm.
and arc bon ded A2 to some degree. Some parts of thi s brickwork are very ruugh and use bricks on edge or lumps of
mort ar to close the gaps.
There arc a number of smaller mastab us in the Unus Pyramid Cemete ry which have remains of bric k const ruction. and
details of these are incl uded in the summary 0 11page 34. The use of bot h mud- and lafl -brick . the class A bonding, and
the employment of mortar made from tafl are characteristic feat ures of these t ombs.
A few bri ck tombs at Saqqara stand away from t he Old Kingdom pyr amid cemeteries, t o t he Nor th and West of th e
St ep Pyr amid enclo sure, lite most Interesting of these, fro m t he st ruct ural viewpoint, being the mastaba of Sebekemkhent. I oH
ntis is built enti rely of ycl luw (aj7 bricks measuring 33 x 16 x 12cm. bonded Al in the thinner walls and A2 in t he thick
masses of brickwork. Reeds occ ur between the bricks, laid bot h t ransversely and longitu dinally in the walls, five courses
apart on the North side. On the West face of t he tomb is a door roofed by a c1 arch of a single ring of bric k; anot her arch
on t he East side is also c l but is t wo courses in thickness. A vault of ty pe d l is used to cover one of the internal rooms in
the supcrs t ruc ture. Some at tempt has been made to poi nt all t he joints on the faces of t he walls. but in t he inner work
the mort ar is rough and limited 10 the hor izonta l interstices only.
Two brick mastabas u and in the area j ust North-East of the famous to mb of Pt ahhotcp, both built in A3 bonding.
The bricks contai n nu merous inclusions of sto nes and potsherds, just like the br icks of cert ain tombs in the Unas Pyramid
Cemetery. Both nf these mastabas originally had mud-plaster 0 11 the outer sur faces or the waIls to a thi ckness of 1- J. 5cm.
The brick sizes arc given in t he table on page
102. ASA H 4 3. 452 and i'l. XXXVII !,.
Ill.'. Q" l.....l1 . J.E. & llayl< r. A.LO. K., rot P)ram il1.. Nn..,lr se . 19 20.
104. Su d. V.. ..-SA F. 40 ( 1940).
IO!'. 1'<... pc";li un.'ICC A. J. , 43 (1 914). t'I. L
27
106. SUd. 1. Y., up. <:1t.. 687-69 0.
10 7. h " p<K;lloR, Speocer .-' .J.. Orimuzlia 4 3, (1 914),1'1. L
l Oll. La uer , J.I' ASA E Sl (l9SS). ISS 9 an d SS f U SS). 20 7 5 1.
Dostmr.
Meydllm.
116. n- \ 1""311. r., Faull/,s D4('11 0ll' . I H94 S. 1 23.
11""1. i" id. , 3.
118. i/'oid.. Mars- JOl in 1894 . 13-4.
119. !' e1rie. W. J.1 . L . Med '''' L IS.
120. I' e trk . W. M. F.. .. "k y J"", ""d M''I1.phls f ll. 17 and 12.
12L lI.e;" ,,,r. Tom" D.. 1089.
In. e u: 209.
28
A series (If masrabas at Meydum were originally built with plain walls wit h Nor th and Sout h niches. but were later
mo dified by t he addi tion of an c uter Coat of brick work , which . besides retaining the main niches, added simplified
panelling on all four sides of the tomb. 119 Details of the cons t ruc tion of this panell ing are no t reco rded, except for
some brick si zes fro m tombs 16 and 17. 120These measurements a re st ated in the ta ble on page 34.
The substruct ures of t he Meydum tombs are largely built of stone, bUI a few ma ke use of the brick arch t o cover
the ent rance passage. In number 3'13 of Rowe 111 the vaul t consist s of four rings of brick . but the bon ding is nut
clear. Tomb 552 used an arch of type d . resti ng on st one walls as sprin ging, and spanning abou t two mcl res.
111
The group of tombs just North of th e pyramid of Amenemhat II. and dating from the t ime of Sneferu. is cornprsee
small brick mastabas. some of which were face d with stone. I 16 TIle only feat ure which can be noted is t he f requent
of brick vault s t o roof the chambers in t he superst ructure. No det ails of the cons t ruction of th ese vaults are available,
to Tomb J a bric k wall was discovered. huilt on a wavy plan like the encl osure walls of certain Middle Kingdom py
De Mor gan dat ed this wall as contemporary with t he mastabas, 117showing that thi s mod e or const ructio n was not a
feat ure of the Middle Kingdom only.
The other mastabus of the Old Kingdom at Dashur, those Sou th of the pyramid of Sesost ns III. also show the use
of arches and vaults. Tomb 7 of that grou p has a nu mber of small chambers roofed wit h vaults of t ype c2{O.5 ). t I S
South Saqqara:
The tombs of Sout h Saqqara. dat ing mostl y from the Sixt h Dynasty, make extensive use of brick vaults t o rooi :!ir.
chambers, bot h above and belo w ground. Two mast aba s excavated hy Maspcro. 109bdunging t o Rokhu and Xenki.
have a st rong bri ck vault over the burial chamber, in one case three courses in thickness, and in the ot her fou r. In '
examples the bond used is ty pe c l .
The tombs discovered by Jequicr I I 0 around the pyramid of Pepi II are of similar form. A brie f list of t he main :
of brickwor k in the se mast abas will show t he types of vault ing in common use.
,U1II. ( Tomb of Mit I II
TIle descending passage is covered by a bric k vault t wo courses thick, and anot her vault , of four courses. st ands
t he roof of t he bu rial chamber. This latt er is t o take t he: pressure off the st one roofi ng of the chamber . The larger
is built in ed t bonding, the inner inclin ed rings suppor ting the bricks above.
jU v.
111
TIle pits give access t o burial chambe rs roofed with vaults of typ e dl.
,1L Vl
t13
TIle substruct ure has br ick relieving arches over t he st one roofs. whilst at ground level are rwo rooms wi th vaulted
of type c1(3.0).
M. VIl
' 14
Brick relieving arches cover the Slone roo f of the burial chambe r.
A-LX
ll S
The pit comm unicates with the burial chamber by means of a passage roofed with a cl {4.0) vault .
The remainder of t he tombs in this cemetery also make much use of brick arches and vaults. Common bo nds em
for these arc c l or cdl , with much mud-plaster covering the brickwork. The walls of the mast abus al e usually bonder
or A2.
109 . Ma, p. ro. G. M MAF 2, 194- 6.
110. l . <ltl ier, G. C<mr"mporoi"s de p"SSi>'L
I l l . it>id. , 9-23.
11 2. ihid..3001.
113. ibid.. 31.40.
1 14. (, ., op. d r.. 4 0054.
I I s. Ibid. , 626. a"d I1l' . 73.
Some of t he mast abas in this cemetery had timber ties built into the brickwork in irregular fashio n. These lies
no t nccessartlv st ratetul c es. but had branches running off in various di rections. so muc h so that Pet ne at
thought that a'n enu re IIeC- had been built into the struct ure of the tomb of Rahot ep.l 13
Dara.
At this site. near Manfalut , 3. masraba cemet ery was discovered124 cont aining some ext remely large tombs of the
.n e Sixth Dynastv.
.vtastaba ofJdi 125
.-\ lar ge square tomb within an en closu re wall, wit h multiple shafts and a chapel on t he East side. The enclosure wall
seems 10 be intended t o measure 100 x 100 cubits. whilst the mastaba is 50 x 50 cubits, The internal chambers are
covered by d I vault s. tha t over the bu rial chamber being ten courses t hick. Over the doors and passages c l arches arc
csed. fro m 2- 3 co urses in thickn ess.
'Edif ice M: 126
This was once thought 10 be a dest roye d py ramid , but it is in fact a large square mast aba of 130 metres (250 cubits )
along each side. A t unnel enters through t he North face and conti nues as a descending ramp with arches of t ype c l
-ver it .11 intervals. The entrance t unnel is roofed with :J very strong cx Zarch , wit h eleven courses of brick remaini ng.
\\eill states that a funh...r five courses had been lost from t he in\i de,1 27 but Pillet , writing in the same repor t .
128d
oes
not menti on this. TIle t wo au thors also diffe r over the construction of the arch , Pillet st ati ng t hat ea rth centring was
probably employed, but Weill claiming that no cent ring was used at all. In this respect I consi der it cer tai n t hat the
former opinion is correct. since an arch of this size and of this bond could not have been built wit hout some fonn of
temporary support during const ructi on.
Reqaonah.
There ale several tombs of t he vaulted and corbelled t ype in this cemetery . some enclosed by walls with offe ring
ruches. whilst others were simple graves in t he sand. Tomb R.56 had a corbel-vault similar 10 those at Naga ed-Der.
binh mai nly of headers mor tared with mud. 129 In graves R.59 and 251the corbelling was rounded t o imi tate burial
under a pot.
130
(tl l\ aga ed-Der 77 1. below) The lowest course of bric k is laid on end. ....-it n horizontal layer s above,
A thi ck coal of mud cove rs the corbel t o help solidify the structure.
True vaults were used in tombs R.SOand 110.
131
the for mer being enclosed by a wall wit h an offering niche. The
vault of R80 is built in inclined courses ( type d l ], whilst tha t of R. II Ocorresponds to type ex I of t he Corpus, The
mnct ring of st retchers has a half-brick at the apex t o fill up t he space. I n
A more un usual covering for the burial occurs in R.66. in which the lined pit is roofed by a flat cover of bric k.
l J3
This is made of t wo bricks cant ilevered out from the edge of t he pit , as shown in Fig.16.
Saga od-Der.
Ibc Old Kingdom t ombs at t his su e consis t of small rnastabas wit h a simple South niche. the walls being constructed
. n :\ I or Xl bonding. In some cases t hese mastabas have th eir shafts reverted wit h brickwork.
xfore interest ing, from the pOIII I of view of the brick constr uction. is the frequent use of t he co rbel va ult t o cover the
pn or burial. Some of the corbels are small and rou nded. imit ati ng t he pot -burials which are commo n at t his period. There
are also some graves which use a tru e vault over the buri al inst ead of corbelling.
Gars b n, . J.. TI lt' Tll itd f.:6ypnll" V y"oLI fy. pt. 14.
ibi d. . PI. 27.
ibid.. 1'1. 23.
tota ; 1'1 _ 14.
J Th .. Thir d Egyp ri all D.I/Unry. 4 6 an d PI. 23.
R,.i<",-,r, G,,\.. Naja 111. 242 and PI. 28.
129.
130.
13 1.
D 2.
I n .
134.
.\: 645, 134
TIle maslaba superstruc ture has out er walls bu ilt on a foundat ion layer of bricks on edge. to even up t he level of the
ground. TIle pi t is hned wit h ni ne courses of st retchers. which inter bon d at the angles. Resti ng on t hese lining walls was a
corbel-vault of eleven courses. bu ilt almost en t irely of headers. and cow-red over wit h mud. The bric ks were radiated
Jround the corners to produce 3. vault of oval shape.
I'tlri ... W. :l.I, l '.. 16-
t wem. R. s: Pinel . \ L . Dara.
I !S. ihld. , 93ff.
I w..iII. R. .t Pill t l , DaM, 7ft.
I sua , 9.
1211. Ihld.. 11 9.
29
,
)?;7;O,OrO,
Fig. } 7 Naga ed-Der N. 645. Fig. J6 Reqaqnah R. 66.
I .
" .
,
30
N. 781 and N. 787. 137
Th ese t wo to mbs have mas taba superst ruct ures above corbel-vaulted burials and are similar to one anot her, excc?I-
lite wooden co ffin
I38
0f N.787. In both tombs the corbelling rests on t he brick lining of the pit, and much mud-place
coven the brickwor k. 111e details of the brick arrangement arc shown in Fig. 19, where the corbelling is shown to be
of headers. In the case of N.781 , the vault is t opped by t wo laye rs of br ick on edge. laid st rai ght across the radiat ing
below. This feature is also found in N.79 I, 139 which is of ..ery similar form 10 the se t wo to mbs.
N. 985.
1 4 0
The superst ruct ure is dest royed but t he grave has a well preserved corbel-vault. covering an area of 1.56 x O.9Om. T:
const ruct ion of the vaul t is rather irregul ar; it consists most ly of he aders, with occasional stre tchers here and t here. T
courses on the Nort h side arc laid on edge in order 10 equalize the levels. An oval shape is imparted 10 the vault by
radiating t he bricks. the wide joints so produced being filled with chips of limestone and mud. The upper 5- 6 courses
are mud-plastered on t he exterior and are covered by the fill of the pit. Below the vault is a chamber lined wi th six
courses of heade rs in Xl bonding. upon which the corbelling rests.
Fi;:.J 8 Section uf N. 771
N. 771. 136
The buri al is covered by a large pot , and it is over thi s pot t ha t the brick corbel was const ructed. Fo r this reason a
circular vault was built . by using radiati ng circles of headers for the upper courses and rings of stret chers below. The
detail s of this arrangement can be seen in the secti on in Fig. 18. TIle vault was coated externally with mud, and srccc
beneath a small mastaba.
N. 760. 13 5
111is is a small mastaba standing ove r a brick-lined pit . roofed with it corbel-vaul t. The lining consists of five coc:ys
str etchers on one side and six on the othe r, so the vaulti ng starts at a different level on the opposit e sides. The corbel
five cou rses high. covered with mud, and has mud-mortared joints . On the top of the vault rested the gravel filling oi
mastaba.
13S. Kel,n". G. A-, op. <:it . 25 1.
136. ibid. , 1 52 a nd ... s, 30- 1.
I J 7. ibid., 2S3, 25 5 an d PI. 31.
I3 R. {bi d., 2SS.
1J9. ibid. 157.
140_ G. A-. op. cit . 263 "nd ... ... 1 9- 30.
Fig.19 Sections orx. 781 and S . rsr
N.78 7
N781
"
Fig. 20 Sections of N 985.
"W E
n
UN_S"
III
~
!li
l
'v
Some of the t ombs at Naga ed-Der in the Fourth and Fifth Dynasti es replace the corbelling seen in the exa mples
described above by true vaulting. This occurs in N.578- 9, 790, 792 and 994. The form of the vault in N.790 is not known
since it had collapsed, but the excavator s surmised that it had consisted of stretchers (i.e. ty pe xI ). 14 t The vault of N.792
was rat her irregular; it used two stretchers combined with two bricks on edge to fill up the space. 14 2 Over the arched roof
was a coating of mud. In grave 994 , the vault had been of two co urses. resti ng on
Fig.21 Section of N 994 a single layer of brick on edge as a springing. 14 3 If the headers of the upper course
went right across, then this would be an example of ty pe bxl ( 1.0) .
The tombs N.578- 9 have rather bett er-built vaults than the above examples. 144
m;- --- -T-./ 77'" f Around the pit was a lining, formed in both cases of three courses of bricklaid as
stretchers on edge, upon which the vaulting rested. The arch in N.578 consists of
two stretchersand a central header, as shown in Fig.22. In N.579 the construction
is the same, with the addition of a second course of brick, entirely stre tchers. above
the first.
All the bricked tombs described here from Naga ed-Oer belong to the Fourth to
Fifth Dynasties. After the Fifth Dynasty the use of brick in the tomb diminishes
and is usually restricted to the blocking o f the burial chambers.
Fig.22 Sections of N578 and N5 79.
I-H . Reisner , G. A... o p; ci t. , 257.
In . ibid. , 25 8.
14 3. tsta: 264.
144. i hid., 222.
3 1
N.579
Dendera
Qau, Matmar and Smaller Ceme teries.
153 . i bid. , IlJ (1 9 39), 7-9.
154. ibid.,I1I (1939),3 1-2,&fig. 17.
I SS. Brun to n, G., Qau and Badari.I, PJ.XX IV.
156. Brunton, (j ., Matmar, To mb Regist ers.
157. Brun ton, G., Mostagedda, I'l. L XlIl.
158. Brunton, G. , Matmar, PI.XI X.
159 . Mand, R. and Myers. D.H. , Cemeter ies of Armant, 20 .
160. I'eet, T.E. and Lout, W. L.S., Cemeteries of A bydos, III . 1: -
32
Fig.2] Section of Tomb NO XXVI at Ed/ u,
145 . Petrie, W.M.F., Dendereh, passim.
14 6. E. g. th e t omb of Haishtef at Saq qa ra, above, page 27 .
147. Petrie, op.c it., 9 and Fro n tispi ece.
14 8. i bi d. , 1S.
14 9. Michalowski, K., Tell Ed[OIl, I (193 7), 2533.
ISO. Micha lows ki, K., op; cit., 26 .
15 1. tma. , 25 -58, & Ill, 1 60.
15 2. tota.; II ,(1 9 3 8), 177-80.
At a number of sites there arc remains of brickwork in the substruct ures of tombs and small graves, where all t race
of the mastabas which once stood over th em have vanished. Th e use of bri ck in these graves is therefore confined to
the variou s methods of covering the burial pi t , and the most comprehensive series of bricked graves occur s at Qau.
Brun ton divided the tombs into types, 155 of which numbers 6 to II are from the bricked pit s, and these arc shown
in Fig. 24. Very man y of the se t ypes of graves were found at Qau, beginning in the Fou rth Dynas ty, becoming cornm
in the Fifth, and pr acti caily dying out in the Sixth. Aft er this date brick is used only for the bloc king of the buri al
chamber. Types 9 and 9A occur at Matmar 156 and Mosla gedda, 157 and at the for me r site the re is also a new type u s ~
a vault of fd l form over the burial. 158 Type 10 is found at Matmar but not at Mostagedda. and 9 occur s at Armant.
1
=-
Nine graves from Abydos 16 0 had a rough brick covering over the burial, in most cases built as a cor belled struc tu re
against the side of the pit. Thi s is probably to be regarded as the antecedent of Brunt on' s type 7, which replaces the
cor bei by a haif arch.
A number of brick mastabas wer e excavat ed at thi s site by Petr ie 14S but the information concerning the bri ckw
is limited. The only points describ ed are the use of an arched tunnel in th e t omb of Adu I and th e pre sence of a d
in tha t of Merra. The arched tunnel was used as th e passage t o th e burial pit, and is present in other Sixth Dynasty
mastabas at Dendera and elsewher e. 146 In the example found in the tomb of Adu I, the tunnel is roofed with a dl
vault in the internal part , with an arch of type cl at each end . Petrie says that the arch is four courses thick, althoes
the drawing
147
only shows three.
The dome in the tomb of Merra, 14 8 built over a shaft , is not a tru e dome, but rather a cir cular corbel-vault co .
of superimposed rings of stretche rs of decreasing diame ter. Most of the weight of each course rests on the bricks
it , and even at the apex the dome was not trul y vaulted. Thi s technique recurs in bri ck pyrami dal tombs of th e Xc
Kingdom.
MJ.
This tomb, belon ging to a per son called Sabni, is a brick mastaba cont aining vault ed rooms in the superstructure.
The exterior has a slight batter produced by stepping back the courses of bricks a little, and th e walls are covered wr
whitened mud -plaster. The bon ding on the faces of the walls sho ws alt ernate layers of headers and stretchers , which
almost cer tainly mean s that the bon d used is A2 or A3 as in most mast abas of this peri od. Vault s for med of incline:'
courses of bri cks (type dl) are used over the rooms in the superstructure, and the bricks throughout the tomb me
30 x 15 x 8cm. ISO
There ar e several othe r mastabas at Edfu which bel ong to the Sixth Dynasty,151as does the preceding example.
they are so similar to the tomb of Sabn i that indi vidu al descripti on is not necessary. The main point s abou t their
st tuc t ure are given in the summary table on page 37. A few interesting differences are found in some of the tombs.
such as the arched doorway at the entrance to the burial chamber of mastaba C.1. The arch is bonded cl and is three
cour ses in thi ckn ess. 152 The gable-roofed br ick coffin built around the bod y in tomb NO XXVI, of the Fifth Dynasty
is also worthy of note, (See Fig.23) Simi lar ( 0 this tomb is the buriai un der a corbel-vault in NO III, 154 which resernl
examples of th e same form at Naga ed-Der and Tura. The corbelling of the bricks takes four courses to j oin above the
grave, and mud-plaster consolida tes the oute r surfaces.
Edf u.
1
'
" lOriM' " plI oli ,],od in (!.:u "nd I [I r. ,I{Q' " "" , ' ''d ,1/",w,,', I,!" ,'.m"'" , .,<0' numbl"r 0' b",' ,j,,,
uk", (,on, ,I.. in Ill,'''' Jr."," '''.0'''' .'''''"'' ,,. .l i'l<" " " ,, 1,'OJ , ", ly"J ,n O " pl<l J"
Tke " we ", 10'"" ."" 1' ,,,, , , ynL!><.";, of tho m'Jor foo",, o( hrl,' " , I, i' ", ' " I" I" , I,. f""" ..y ", o". " rn,,, I, uf L], <
0\,' Kln, .J" m , ,,d ft,,, J'" i.x!. Sorn. infO!,",l lo" fro," , ,,,,II "", ,, rt,, h,,, n,,' I",," .I'",u>\ <<1 in
rh, k'" '' " du<l , d c.m
Flg.24
Fo"'b Tyl''' "' aa'",
Type. S<>; twn l)<,,,; p'io,,.
\J
1., IJI. d <O\' " ", g built "" fioo< of plt
,
hJ
l-Iol f-"d, of , I typ' o
Uf H" ,()()( o( b,l<' ' nd w:<lll "f ",.t'Cl,.fl,

' I Y,ult ow, ]ow , ,,I.will, of " ,..tchm.
OA
1iJ
G.>bJ," ,,,,,fhULIl on "J<w. ll.
"
1{)f
,'.ull.
"
1(')J
So ,,,,,i ,,,, I,, <I ,,,il
FOURTl J -TENTH lJY:"ASTIES,
Gi:J:
:'081
:' 086
:'093
M

3033
GI203
S<..,. h
I'"
Mom

'1,r,,;
T"", '
IO. p.S
=7.\-. 1
bonds U",d
AI A,
d

A2 "
36 x lE. 1l.5

3h I8 ,J)
4h 21'1 5
41h 17 , l S
n.l h l t.S
.15 ,17 , 12



24 x U< 7.S
30xl 0 , 7
x 12----4 7_10
II , '1- 10
Y. lIuw pl.m,.
l"lI>i" u, brick,
Y. lluw pl., t: ,.
Sop",",1 h,lok' fOt ,' oolt
bri, k. for ,', ult
B,td
Don,. ,,,,, fOV<[ one room.
Fbl . n:h u",d to 11I ppOrt ",ul".
Arch wit h mooldoJ od!". reJ poJntod
V, ullcJ cm ril ul ,
A" h uf ,,,,,"iol brick... Dome roof.
Cu,b,] uf lL" ti.".
Curnel uf h" der>.
Location
Bonds Used
Brick Sizes(cm)
Notes
Ahusir:
Djadjaemankh
AJ
32x 1Sx 9.5
Brick casing.
Userkaf-enkh
30 x 13 x 9
Princesses t ombs
32x ISx.9.S
Small Vl t h Dyn. graves
c l d l
26x 13 x 7
N.Suqqara:
(TeH area)
Khui
dl
26.5x13 x7
Taft bricks.
Desi
Al cd l
22-4 x 12 x8
Fake bonding in plaster.
M, rn
A2
28 x 14 x 8
Mast aba A
A2 AJ
27 x 13 x 7
Mastaba E
A2 AJ
27 x I J x 7
Kaemsenu
3S-6 x 17- 9 x 11-2
Taft mort ar.
Kaemheset
52x 25 x20
53 x 53 x 23
Squa re bricks for pillars.
Anonymous t omb
N. oflast
A2 A3
52-3 x 26x 19
(Unas area)
Haishtef
Al AJ
31x 15.5x8
Arches of type cl.
lmpi
Al
32-3 x 16 x I I
Taft mor ta r.
Mehu
A2
30- 1 x 14.5 x 9
Bricks on E. of tomb.
Ka-irer
AI & irreg.
27 xl 3 x8
Peh-nefer
A2 AJ
28 x U .5 x lO
Taft mortar.
Adjoining last
A2A3
24x12x8.5
Taf l bricks. dI vault over room.
Re-Khuf
A2 A3
33x l6xll
(Elsewhere)
Sobkemkhent
Al A2
33 x 16x 12
Tafl bricks. c l & dl vaults.
Kaemheset
A2 A3
34x 16x 12
Brick casing.
2 Tombs N.E.
of Pt ahhot ep
A3
3 1 x 15 x 12
whne-ptast ered faces.
29.5 x 14 x 10
S.Saqqara:
Rokh u
cl
Arch 4.0 thic k.
Nenki
cI
Arch 3.0 thick.
M.m "'I
Relieving arch over chambe r.
M.V.
dl
Vaulted chambe rs.
M.V1
d
Vaulte d 3. 0 thi ck.
M.VII
Arched roofs.
M.x.
cl
Vaul t 4.0 thi ck.
N.eernetery.
c l .xx l vault s common.
Dasnur:
Cern. N. of pyr.
of Amenemhat 1I
Gerreral use of vaults.
Cern. S. of py r.
of Sescstris III
Vaults & arches, c2 in tomb 7.
Mey dunL'
16
23.5 x 11. 5 x 7.5-
24x 12 x $
17
39.5 x 18.5 x 12.5-
4 1 x 22 x 13
Kaf r Ammar:
O. K. cern.
26 x l 2x8
Average figures.
29 x 14 x 9
Average figures.
32.5x16x9
Average figures.
Location Bonds Used Brick Sizes (em) Notes
Gurob:
167 23x 11.5 x7.5
369 29 x 14.5 x 8 Brick como.
517 28 x 14 x 7.5 Brick lined.
Sedment:
1253 35.5 x 18 x 7.5
1255 35.5 x 18x9
1257 33 x 16.5 x 6.5
1261 37 x 16.5 x 7.5
Dora:
M cl cx2 30x l5 x8 Many arches & vaults.
p
cI dl 30 x l5x 8
Qall:
678 xl 29 X14.5 x 6.5 Tomb type 7 (See page 33)
1123 gabled 33 x 18 x 6.5 Type 6
3125 Xl 32x 15 x7.5 Type 8
1105 XI , xl 33 x 16.5 x 7.5 Type 9
1141 XI , xl 33 '< 15 x 7.5 Type 9
1142 XI , xl 33 :< 15 x 6.5 Type 9
1/ 45 XI , xl 32 x 15 x7.5 Type 9
1164 XI . xl 33x l5xlO Type 9
915 gabled 32 x 15 x 7.5 Type 9A
98-1 gabled 33 x 15 x6.5 Type 9A
1090 gabled 33 x 16.5 x 6.5 Type 9A
1150 gabled 30.5 x 15 x 7.5 Type 9A
611 xl 30.5 x 16.5 x 6.5 Type 10
1102 xl 33 x 16.5 x 7.5 Type 10
532 xl 32x14x 7.5 Type 10
654 c1 33xl5 x l0 Type I I
3105 c1 29x 15:<6.5 Type I I
1602 28x 14x 7.5
1044 32x 15x 7.5
1658 32 x 15 x 6.5
3422 29 x 14x 6 First Intermediate graves: brick
4815 30.5 x 14 x 5 blocking of the burial chamber.
4822 30.5 .'1. 15 x 9
7514 33x l5x9
7563 30.5 x 16 x 9
4981 33x 18 x7.5
.Halmar:
830 xl 32x1 5 x7 Type 9
839 , 1 30x15x6 Type 9
849 xl 32.5x15x7 Type 9
850 , 1 3 1x 15 x7.5 Type 9
856 gabled Type 9A
865 gabled 33x17x 7.5 Type 9A
415 31 xl 5x 6
427 30x l 4x5
575 3 1",1 4 x 6 First Intermediate Period bricked
graves.
632 32x1c5x 6
3042 31 x 15.5x6. 5
5309 31 x 14.5 x 7
35
Location Bonds Used Brick Sizes(cm)
Notes
Mostagedda:
532 gabled
689
X I , xl 31.5 x 15.5 x q Type 9.
Naga ed-Der:
N.645 XI
Corbel of headers.
N.760 XI
Corbel of headers.
N.771
Circular corbel.
N.781 XI
Corbel of headers.
N.787
Corbel of headers.
N.791 XI
Corbel of headers.
N.985 XI 26- 8 x 11.5 x 7- 8 Corbelled.
N.792 Al A8
Vault in pit.
N.994
bxl('!)
Arched pit.
N.578 Irreg.
Arched pit.
N.579
Irreg,
Arched pit.
N.739 Al A2
N.788
Xl
N.nO Al 30 xl5x 8
Door blocking.
N.893
32 x 10 x 10
Retaining edge of shaft.
28 x l3 x7
Reqaqnah:
R.59
Circular corbel.
R.251
Circular corbel.
R.56
Corbel of headers.
R.66
fl at brick roof.
R.80
dI vault used.
R. II O "" I
Vault 1.0 thick.
Abydos:
910
28 x 13 x 7.5
Serdab roofed by dome. Vth DF-
DI I7
01 18
0 125
OUO
Ol 47
Bricked pih:- corbels and s=J!.
D149
vaults.
01 82
0184
0 253
Dendera:
Merra
Dome ever shaft.
Adu I cl
Arched tunnel.
Armall1:
1310 cl 29.5 x 14.5 x 10 Arched over.
25x l 1.5x9
1323
35x l 5x9
28 x 14 x 7
1330
25x 12x 7
35x l7x6
30 x 15 x 10 (vault)
29xl 3x 8
26xl 3x 8
1354 34 x 12 x6
Edfu:
M.I
Al dl 30x 15x 8 Whi te plastered.
~ \ . l I
AI dl
36
Location Bonds used Brick sizes (em) Notes
Al 30x l4x 8
\LVI
AI Pointed vault.
Ineg. 32xl5x 8
30xl5x 7 Yellow plaster.
AI 30x l4 x 10
\I.X 30x l5xlO
C.I At cI Arched door.
Al sox u x s Brick cof fin.
'0.11 AI Sand-fill mast aba.
Corbel of headers.
7. Royal Pyram id s of t he Middl e Kingd om.
TIle funerary monu ments of the earlier kings of the Elevent h Dynast y at Thebes had brick pyramidal supe r-
str uct ures of modest proportions, that of l nyotef Il being about 15 metr es square.16I These tombs are mentioned
in the Abbot t Papyr us as having been inspected in the Twentieth Dynasty. and the description given confirms them
to have been pyramidal to mbs. Manett e discovered the pyramid of Iny otef Il , but it was destroyed to its foundations
and no det ails of t he brickwork are available.
In the late r Elevent h Dynasty, stone was used to build the roy al tombs. the most famous example being the
temple of Mentuhotep \I at Dcir el-Bahari. This great mon ument contained t wo tombs, one behi nd the pyramid and
another in t he cour tya rd (the Bah el-Hosan). t he lat ter being blocked with bricks measuring 37 x 17 x 12em.
For tunately, much more remains of the pyra mids of the Twelfth Dynasty. Those belo nging 10 Amenemhal I and
Sesostris I at Ltsht. and Amenemhat II at Dashur, were const ructed of stone and therefore are not incl uded in th is
survey, but t he const ructio nal details of the bt ick pyr amids are given below.
Sesostris 1/ ( LaI" III ). t 6 2
TIle pyramid isconstructed of bricks measuring 45 - 9 x 22 - 5 x teem. 163which are all laid perpendicular with
respect to the nearest face of the pyra mid. Walls of limest one run through the diagonals of the st ructure. with cross-
walls between them, ther eby dividing up th e area into separate compartments in which t he bric ks were placed . and
a casing of limestone originally cover ed the surfaces of the brickwork . (See Fig. 25, p.38) Around t he pyramid is an
enclosi ng w:!I1 , built in A2 or A3 bonding, with layers of reeds bet ween every fourth course of bricks. The dimens ions
of the bricks ill this wall arc t he same as t hose of th e pyramid itself.
Sesosms III t Dashurl: 164
Acalculat ion of the volume of this pyramid leads to t he result tha t 24Y.!. million bricks woul d have been used in
its const ruction. 165The average slzc of these bricks is 42 x 21 x 11.5cm but variations occur from 39 x 19 .5 x l l cm
to 4.1 x 22 x l Scm. 111ey are laid in even rows of headers wi thou t any bond ing. and wit h only a layer of sand between
the courses. The stone casing of the pyramid rested partly on t he previous course of casing-bloc ks and partly on t he
brickwor k. which was built up in steps behind the limestone. (See Fig. 26) It seems most likely th at the cour se of
stone blocks was laid First. then t he brickwork built up inside it to the same level, followed by t he laying of t he next
course of stone, and so on. until the structure was complet e. Some of the bricks bor e marks similar to the qua rry marks
seen on t he masonry of stone pyramids, and De Morgan suggested that the marks denoted t he products of different
royal brickyards. 1M',
To the South of the pyrami d enclosur e t here was a boat grave in a large tre nch in the ground. This t rench was
coveted over by a dl vault, ten courses thick. with the inclined rings of bric kwork resting on the end wall of t he
t rench.
Sescst rts III had another tomh at Abydos. cut into the rock . The orick-built temple of tbis monument is desc ribed
in Chapter Five.
161. .. 1, 1::.. 5., PY'llmlds of Egy p t, 2 12.
161. " cl r' "" W.M.F., [-ll!llm 11, P<Jsd....
163. Approx. fr um ulIt",
37
164. 1><: Morlan, J., Fn",11"s,) Man-Jutn 18 94, 41- S0.
16S. ibid. . 47 ,
166. ibid. , 4 9.
TIll: Py ramids of Ma:glllmelJ.
......",...--1 . ..
Brick Stone
. ..
rlg.26 Section of Casing. Py ramid
of Sesonru III.
38
171. hno" N. TIlt of N"f"nlptah.
171. Fa "" . N.. op. elL, 2.
Pe tri e, W. M. F. & Mackay, E Till! Lc.byrl" rll, G..r: eh & .lla:
175 . Ibid., 11.XXXIx.
176. Hq ulee, G., Del'x de Moy"n e mpl ,,, pll ssl ",.
Fig.25 Structure of the Pyramid
ofSesostns II.
Since Pet rie found a sarcophagus and an offering-table inscribed for Neferuptah l 71 in the pyramid of Amen
Ul, it has been assumed that she was buried in her fat her' s tomb. But recentlr a separat e pyramid has been disc
belonging 10 this princess, not far from that of Amenemhat III at Hawara. 17 The only derail recorded about
brickwork uf this structure is the size of brick employed, being 46 x 24 x l acrn. l 73
Amenemnat III [Hawara]:
The bricks of the pyramid are 45 x 22.5 x 13.5crn in size, and were laid in sand in most of the structure . ?- ...a
the building of the pyramid, they had been splashed with a yellow wash whilst st acked, 10 prevent any beings:
Agreat arch was built above the roof of the burial chamber, through the mass of the pyramid. to relieve the
on the stone roof. This arch consisted of five courses of bricks and was of type cx2. Below the arch the bricks
longer laid in sand, but had mud mortar in the horizontal joint s. Petrie point s out that the weight of bricks
used here is 40-50 pounds. I 7 which means tha t they must have been set into place fairly slowly and carefully.
The two pyramids of Mazghuneh are so similar in const rucrion to that of Hawara that ascribed
to Amenemhat IV and Queen Sebekneferu on this evidence alone.
I N
At the Xorth pyramid the superstructur e !:.!I
ent irely vanished, and the only brickwork of note is a ret aining wall around the site. consisting of two thin wills
AI bonding with rubble filling between them to form a single thick wall.
The South pyramid was buill of bricks measuring 46.5 x 23.5 x 12.5cm. laid as headers from the faces with
in the joints. Around the pyramid is a wall built on a serpent ine plan. I7S formed almost entirely of stretchers. VI
dimensions range from 30.5 x 15.5 x 9.Scm. to 32.5 x 17 x to.Scm. The thickness of this wall at it s base is only
41.5cm.
Most of the royal tombs of the Thirteenth Dynasty are as yet unaccounted for. hut Iwo pyramids of this age
discovered at Saqqara by Jequier, 176 One of these belongs 10 king User-bore Khendjer, but the ident ity of the
of the other pyramid is unknown.
De Morgan states that this pyramid had the same basic conu ucticn as that of Scsost ris III, but he gives no =-
The sizes of the bricks are given in Mariette's Les Mastabas de L'Ancien Empire
l 66
as having a fair amount of
the examples being: 33 x 18 x ll cm. 38 x 19 x t zcm, 35 x 17 x I l cm and 40 x 20 x IOcm.
Ameuemhat III {Dashnr],
Neferuptah (Jlawara).
167. n e Mor lan, op. ci t , 87.
163. A... t t l m<Utabru dt 1' ''tI<:,I.." Emput', 57 1.
169. co lrl.., W. M.F. , Kal ru", GUl'Oba" d HlI""' f'Il, 14.
170. Ibi d., 6.
171. Ibid. , IS & 1-'1. V.
Khendier.
TIle py ramid is cons t ruc ted in the usual manner , wit h t he bri cks laid as headers on layers of sand. One brick,
found loose . bore an inscription giving a da te, 177 just as dates OCCUr on the masonry of the stone pyramids at
Saqqara and Dashu r. The average size of the bricks is 42 x 2 1 x l l cm.
An outer wall of br ick. of which no details are given. surro unds t he pyramid . and wit hin the enclosed area is
another wall. in this case of stone. Near the base of the stone wall Jequier fou nd tr aces of a wall of the sinuso idal
type, 17 8 as exists at t he '-b zg}l uneh pyramids (Sec above ). This led Jequier t o suggest tha i the sinusoi dal brick
wall was built to keep sand off t he site during the construction of t he burial pit. and was replaced by a more impres-
sive stone wall if time permitted. 1'79
Unkno wn Pyramid (S. Soqqarat.
TIle bri cks of t he pyramid arc all laid as hea ders, and present some variation in size. as the following examples
show: 40 x 21 x i 2cm, 44 x 22 x IJ cm, and 42 x 23 x l Zcm.
Ahove the pointed roof of the burial pit is a brick relieving arch of type c l , four courses thick at its edges and
live in t he cent re. 180
There is a serpentine enclosure wall around t he pyramid standing 10 a height of 2 met res on the North side , and
65cm thick at its base. 181 It is built mos tly of st retchers. wit h headers inserted infr equen tly at irregular int ervals,
and the face is coated wit h rnud-plaster. Near t he South-East angle t here is a st airway t o the 101' of t he wall. 182 The
bricks are smaller tha n t hose of t he pyramid, bei ng 34 x 17 x Scm to 36 x 18 x Scm.
8. Other Brick-Built Tombs o f t he Mid d le Kin gdom.
Th ere is little materia! for the study of brick architecture from cemete ries of the Middle Kingdom. partly due t o
the frequency of rock-cut tombs at t his period, and partly to defici encies in the report ing of excavat ions. Sites which
give only slight informati on are not discussed here. all the facts availabl e being stated in tabulat ed form at the end of
this sect ion.
111 the cliffs aro und Delr el-Bahurl arc a number of t ombs of the Eleventh Dynasty, having passages and chambers
cut int o the rock.
183
The facad es, ho wever, were faced with th ick masses of br ickwork on each side of the ent rance,
and in some cases brick was used also to line t he int ernal passages. A sloping face was imparted t o t he facade by
steppi ng back the br icks slightly at each course and then coat ing the surface with mud plaster t o a thi ckness of 3c01.
This plaste r was or iginally whitened with gypsum. Th e facade Wl S th us formed of a thic k wall of trapezoidal section,
with its rear sur face against the rock. In most cases th is wall is composed entirely of tr ansversely laid heade rs, so that
only t he ends of t lte hr icks are visible on the exter ior. One t omb, numbered 513, 184had this mode of constru ction
only in the upper half of the facade. whilst t he lower section was built in Al bonding. thereby reducing the angle of
slope of the face. The br icks arc usually composed of grey mud. and measure 30-32 x 15- 16.5 x 8cm. although some
examples were smal ler, for instance in t omh 512. where they range from 28 x 15 x 7.5cm t o 29.5 x 16 x 8. Scm. Any
mor taring of the joints is roughly done. occasionally with mud but more often wit h tap. Most of th ese tombs have an
approach in front of the facade. flanked by walls of whi te-plastered brickwork. The bon ding of these walls is nearly
always At. but in a few cases A2 occurs. In areas where the rock was of poor quality and liable t o crack, the passage
of the tomb was reinforced by a lining formed of a br ick vault of type dl a single course in thick ness. 18 S
It is in these Eleventh Dynasty tombs that funerary cones first appear, used in a single or double row over the
facade. These cones have no inscripti ons but are 3 purely decorat ive special form of bu rnt brick. The most plausible
suggest ion as to the ir origin is t hat t hey represent the ends of the roofing-logs of an Egypt ian house. 186 a theory
1'77. Ibld., 29.
178. if>/d.. 1'1.IV.
179. 0 .. up, cit. S6-
180. i hi d., 6S & I'I. XVIll
Ihfd..56.
182. Ibid.. 56-
183. PM I. pun ll. 6S0 and !'fan V. AIM)8MMA XVlIl ( Dec. 1923, II). 11-20.
184. Win lock' s 314 of P,U
I Example o ccursfn lumb 51l o f Winl ock.
186. Wlnl uck. BAIMA XXlI (hb. 192 8, II) , 7.
39
40
Abusir,
c l ( 1.5)
(1)
(?)
(1)
c J( 2.5)
01(2.5)
(?)
(')
Arches over doorways.

- -
Tomb. Burial Cha mbers :
Vaults.
I bdl (2.0). dl( I. S)
2 ,dl (6.0)
3 dl (?)
4 dl (O.S)?
10 (?)
11 d l or c l
12 (?)(2.0)
14 cI
Fig. 27 Special brick from Tomb 9 at QattalL
which is supported by the depiction of roofing-beams carved in stone over the ent rance t o the tomb of Khnu rnhc tep
(I at Beni Hasan, 181
Fur ther t ombs of t he Eleventh Dynasty occur on t he lower ground in Asasif, a recently discovered example
the lomb of a certain lnyotef whic h lay beneat h the causeway of the temple of Tuthmosis III in Deir el-Bahari .155
Details of the brick construction of this l omb arc given in the table on page 42.
Qartoh.
A number of Middle Kingdom graves were built around the mortuary templ e of the pyramid of Neuserre. most of
the m being stone tombs with brick approaches.
193
A few (for example, mR.20) had vault ed burial chambers. the
roo fs being inclined vault s of t ype d l , one course t hick. wit h sto nes used 10 fill the gaps between the bricks. As an
example of t he brick sizes used in the cemete ry, t he measurements 28.5 x 14 x 9cm and 38 x 19 x 12.5cm may be
quoted from tomb mR. I. 194
This cemetery has brick-bu ilt tombs wit h vaul ted chambers sunk into the ground until the roof is just under the
surface. 189 The vert ical walls built aroun d the sides of the chambers are bonded Al or A2. and t he mud-bricks, in !!
except t ombs 2 and I I , measure 25 x ] 5 x 12cm. In number 11 they reach 44 x 22 x 14cm, whilst the size of bri cks
in the vaulting of lomb 2 is not stated.
19 0
One unusual brick was found in tomb 9 with a moul ding do wn one edge:
perhaps it was a re-used bri ck from a comlce. 19 1
Since drawings of all the vaults are not given in the report it is difficult in some cases to be absolut ely sure of the::
constr uct ional details. The list below states the t ypes of vault ing used in each tomb , and where the phot ographs do
not sho w sufficient detail the ent ries are marked with a query:
187. Ntwbt rr r , P, E. , 8 t''' ' HaJa" . I, Pl. XXII.
188. Arnold. D., 0..1 Grab d t'$ J,.;jr.f: die A rchir" kr"r.
189. Gau l hi..r , H. er aL, Fo..ml!J d t' QoJ tt-Jh, passim.
190 . Ibid., 8.
19 1. Ibfd. , 27.
192. Gau lhi er, I l , er ai , de Q<lffolh, 23
193. SchJ r..r, H.. Prlrnt'1frlIbt'r df:J N rr 'J<'rt't. r s rr.
194. Ibid.. 19.
The to mbs 5. 6 and 8. absent from the above list, were simple pits devoid of any brickwork.
l 92
It can be seen tha t
the inclined vault (t ype dl ) is common over fairly wide spans, sometimes in conjunct ion with an up per course of
brick laid di ffere ntly. In these cases the inclined first course, which itself was built withou t cent ring. would act as a
centri ng for the ring of bricks laid over it. In all th e vaults a co at of mud plaster covered the interior surface of the
brickwork.
Dashur.
The group of Twelfth Dynasty mastabas which lie to the North of the pyr amid of Sesost ris ID seem to have used
brick vaults for the roofing of the passages to the burial chambers. In only one case is the brickwork reported in any
detail: 19S tomb J7 had a corridor roofed by a vault of type d I , which rested at its end on an arch of rather irregular
const ruction, the bricks being laid mostly on edge except for one !:rid fiat across the apex.
196
Riqqeh.
Bricks were used at Riqqeh mainly for retaining the sides of shafts or descents to t he tombs, t he chambers them-
selves being eit he r sto ne-built or cui int o the roc k. The builders had much t rouble with veins of loose sand in the rock
which had to be held back by brickwork. Engelbach gives a vivid descript ion of one of t hese ret aining walls being pushed
over by the pressure of the sand, 197and suggests tha t three enormous bricks found in Pit 305 may have been made as
an experiment to see whet her it was possible to hold back the now. The bricks in question measured 71 x 35.5 x 30cm
and must have weighed well over a hun dredweight each. A more normal example of the brick sizes in use in the cemet -
cry is 45.5 x 23 x l 5cm in tomb 300.
19S
Some of the shaft s at Riqqeh were found t o be capped over with a bri ck dome
or circular corbel, whilst one example had a vault. 199The purpose of this is not clear, but it may have been for security
from thieves, or connected wit h the problem of the Joose sand.
Abydos:
Despite the great amount of excavation which has taken place at this site there is a lack of lnforrnaticn about the
tomb const ruction, especially for the Middle Kingdom monuments. The large vaulted tombs which Man ett e restored
with pyramidal supe rstructures he da ted to this period, but an examination of t he results of later excavations mows
that he was mistaken: The type of to mb shown on Plates 66-67 of Mariette' s Abydos /l is of a style belonging to t he
Twent y-Sixt h to Thirtieth Dynasties, and the typical Middle Kingdom tomb was different, with burial chambers at
the bot to m of a shallow shaft, and a small mastaba on t he sur face. 200 A few details of t he construction of t hese
mastabas can be given. They were usually square, wit h a slight baile r on the face, and had small offering chambers
within them. In most cases the roofing of this chamber has gone, but t here is one instance of t he usc of a vault and
anot her which may have been corbelled. 201 In mastaba N, found by Peet,202t he entrance was by means of an arched
passage of type c l , and probablythis was generally used. The above information is derived from Cemetery S of Peet ,
in which the best-preserved mastabas were found. Tombs of Middle Kingdom date also occur in the Nort h Cemetery,
dug by Peet, 203and in Cemet ery G of Pet rie/
04
but their superst ructures were denuded and consequently no brick-
work is available for study.
Edf"
The Middle Kingdom tombs at this site make frequent use of the brick vault to cover the burial apart ment s, and
in most cases t he chamber is reached by means of an arched doo rway from a shallowr: The arches are universally
of the cl type. one course thick, four examples of t his being found i n tomb XXV.
20
Above the chambers the vaul ting
could be either d l , as in tomb X. 206 or cx l , as found in tomb XXVIII-XXIX_207 A common size for t he bricks is
30 x 15 x 7cm, and they were laid with a coating of mud-plaster.
Small graves were also discovered, 208just long enough for an ext ended burial, walled around wi th four courses of
stret chers, and covered by an x1 vault of a single course of brick.
19 5. n e Morgan. J " olllll t:s 4 lJ<lch",,,, M:ns- Juin 1394, 3 1 2.
196. I bid. , 32, 1itt-6 2.
197. .....Iri.... W.M. F. &. R. , Riq q.-l, and Mrmphis V/, 2.
19 K. ib i d.. , 4.
199. Ibi d., 7- 8-
2UU. !'eel. T. K , C,, "'ett:rlt:S uf 1I, 3 Sff.
20 1. sua; 31.
202. Peel , T. ., 0,," cit , 37.
20). Ibid., 54.
204. Pet rie, W. M. F 1, 34-40.
205 . Miehal"""kl, K., Tell t ;rJloII. 111 (1939), 8 5-8.
206. sua, 9 3-9.
2 07. Ibid" 8002.
208. Ihld. . 91.
41
Kuban /ell.
.,
Notes
Nubian \tK.
vaulted chamber.
Vaulted chamber.
Egy pt ian M.K.
v aulted chamber.
Vaulted chambers.
4 doors wit h c I arches.
Vault ed chambers.
Facade all headers..
Taft mortar.
Facade all headers,
30 x 15 x 7
30 x I S x 5.5
30 x l5 x 7
30x15x 7
Brick Sizes(cm)
28.S x 14x9
Bricks laid in mu d mort ar.
dl
38x 19x 12.S
Vaulted chamber.
AI
40 x 20 x l 5
Brick blocking.
<X2
Arch roof, 9 courses thic k.
22x l lx7
lined shaft.
dl
Vaulted passage.
45.5 x 23 x 15
71 x 35.5 x 30.5
Exceptional bricks.
36x 18x 9
39.5 x 20 x 11.5
33 x 16.5 x9
33x 16. Sx l O
40,S x 20.5 x IS
Al
Al
AI
A2 A3
dl
of
Xl , cxt
ct . d l
Al c1 Arched passage and domed room.
Ceme tery of brick vaulted t ombs, using xI vaults.ZI5
28- 29.5 x 15- 6 x 7.5-8.5
30-2 x 15- 16.5 x 8
30- 2 x 15-6 x 8
31-2 x 15.5-16.5 x 5.5-7
35-6 x 16-8 x 8. 5- 10.5
Cemetery of bric k vaulted t ombs enclosed by a wall . (Detail s not available)
Bonds Used
Irreg.
dl
Xl , Al , d l
l rreg.
AI , xl , c1
Kli baniC'li :
(North)
19.1.6
21.f.2
10. g. 1
l 1.k. 2
14.1. 1
Buoonts:
Abustr:
mRI
mR. 20
Saqqara:
Gemni emhel
17
11 4
91
Dashur:
17
Riqqen:
300
305
La/1I1II :
608
905
Harageh:
6
13
172
Abydos:
Mastaba N
ElKab:
Ed/ It:
X
XXV
XXVIII XXI X
209. , ...n",r, H.. ...", ,"ord,"'"" S"d.
210- J unk" . H.. VO" Nord. 41- 50 .nd 153-60. 2 1). An>nl<J. 0. , IN" C, ..b ' ..iit.t:
11 t. J unkol'f. H., Frl"'dh(l]m ,..m d ..K II I,.",k h Sud, 166-9. 2 14, Quibtll. of 1"i l 'y u mi d
212. Wlnloxk' , nurnberi n,- 115. s.-..Cdt;4S (1 970), 4().44.
T11t 'bes.'
512
111
513
510
loyotef
1t
)
location
Tombs have been found at the sites of Kubanieh North and Sout h
109
which are similar t o the t ype used at Qatu.:..
alt hough somewhat smaller. They consist ofvaull ed st ruc tures sunk into the ground, wit h brick side-walls and roo - ..
The vault s here are bu ilt of one or two courses of brick in x 1 bon ding and the side-walls are usually a single bri ck -
in thickness. As the width of the graves is only one or two metres the thin vault s are quite adequate. At Kubanieh .
t he size of the bricks was 30-3 x 15- 6 x 5.5- 7.Sc m , 210 whilst at the Southern site they varied from 3 1 x 13 x
to 3S x 17 x 1Ocm.
211
SUMMARY: MIDDLE KIJl;GOOM TOMBS.
Locati on
(Sooth)
23.r. 1
28.q.2
24.t. 6
24.l. 1
Bonds used
AI , XI , xl
XI , xl
AI, XI, xl
Al
Brick sizes (em)
35 x l7xlO
31x13x 9
32xl 6x 9
28x l5x9
27 x l 6 x 8
Notes
Vaulted chamber.
Vault 1.38m high.
Vaulted chamber .
Brick-lined pit.
9. TIle Second Int ermediate Period.
Most branches of Egyptology lack information ahout this period, and brick architecture is no exception. Such facts
as can be assembled from individual sites are given here, and a few more det ails are added in the table on page 44.
Tell Da'ba.
A number of small graves of llyk sos date have been discovered at this site, consisting of x l vaults sprung from low
side-walls built in AI bonding.
2 16
Fig.28 Tell Da'bagrape.
Daslwr.
In the peribolos of the pyramid of Amenemhat III a deep pit was found
2 17
containing the lomb of king Jw-!b-rr
lIor, whose position in history has been disputed. Probably he is the sevent h king of the Thirteenth Dynasty, named
J I \ .. ib-rr in the Turin Canon. The fact that seals of Amenemhat III were found on some of his funerary equipment 218
does not date the burial to the Twelfth Dynast y, as the pries ts of the pyramid complex would conti nue to use these
seals long after the death of Amcnemhat III. Unfortunat ely, De Morgan gives no deta ils of the bricks in this tomb, so
it is no t possible to see whether these are the same or diffe rent from those of the pyramid of Amenemhat III. The
interest of the tomb, from the st ructural viewpoint, centres on the arches which are used over the chambers. One of
these is of type x I, whilst anothe r is of the uncommon type fl . TIle lat ter is used as a relieving arch to take the weight
off a stone lintel. Another arch of the same form occurs in a wall of brick about hall-way down the shaft.
1 19
Sedment.
In the Second Intermediate Period graves brick is used for lining the pits or making brick coffins with vault ed tops,
similar to the type used in the Fifth Dynasty at Qau.
12
0(See above, page 33, type 9A) The brick sizes at Sedment form
a fairly d ose group, ranging from 34.5 x 16.5 x 7.5cm to 38 x 18 x JOcm,221
11 6. Bid ak, M., MDIK., U. (1 968), 9(1..99 and a.x x V.
21 7, 1>... Mo rgan. J., Fcnlllk :rl Dilehou" 1894, 8 8-9.
118. ibid. , 105.
219. lhid. . 89.
220. W.M.F. , S ed",,"",. I, 1&-7.
22 I. Ih id., IS Y.
43
Edtll.
-
Alt hough the cemetery at this site is mainly of the Late Peri od. there are also a number of t ombs of Ramesside
dat c.
226
These l ake the form of undergrou nd chambers, probably vaulted. leached by means of shallow pits.
examples deserve special ment ion, since they are buil t entirely of red burnt bricks. One of t hese, number 35, dates
from t he Nineteenth Dynasty, whilsl t he other, numbered 21, belo ngs to t he laic Ramesside age. H 7ln the latter
lomb t he bricks measured 34 x 16 x (?)cm and were laid irregularly without mortar.
22 8
Unusual type f'l bo nd in arches .
Not es
Brick vault ed graves.
Vault ed graves, of Hykscs date .
Bricks used for lining pits and
making coffins.
} vaulted cbambe rs.
Brick Sizes(cm)
AI, x l
fl
, 1
, 1
'I
x l ?
xl , A1
Bonds Used
35.5x 18x8
33 x 16.5 x 6.5
37 x 16.5 x 7.5
38x 18xlO
34.5 x 16.5 x 7.5
37 x 16.5 x 10
Seventee nt h Dynasty brick pyramid-tombs.
Sedment:
1253
1257
1261
1274
1277
1218
n ,ebes:
l:.alu:
IV
V
XXVII
221.. Mkh.l o.....k.i, K. , Edfol4, n (193 8), I9S.
223. Perri" . W.M. F.. ami I 'rtu/ir" Cirif"t. 10- 16.
224. Winlock.H.E. , inJEA lO( lQ24 ), 2 17fr.
225. f OI usmp le,.1 Diu ' sh u' . Nsg.a.
226. h lri... W.M.F., N ebe8l1f: h in Tanis. II. 1119.
121. eu; 19.
128.. Ibid. , 19.
Three t ombs of the early Secon d Intermediat e Period at Edfu have vault ed chambers of typ e x l but no other
det ails of interest are noted. 222
Despite the presence of tombs of this age in other cemeteries, such as Esna and Saqqara, virtually no details of
the brick construct ion are available. Some graves at Tell el- Yahudieh
2 23
had vault ed br ick covering, probably
similar t o those found more recently at Tell Da' ba, which may mean th at this type was not uncommon in the Delta
during the Hyksos period.
At Thebes, th e tombs of the kings of the Seventeenth Dynasty stood in the Asastf region, 224but they have been
so completel y destroyed t hat t heir st ruct ure cann ot be examined. It is known, however, that they had pyrami dal
superstruct ures of brick, the cons t ruct ion of which would in all pr obabili ty have been very similar to the New KingdIIc
t ombs of the same
Yodudieh:
Tell DQ'ba:
Dashur:
Ho'
SUMMARY - SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
Location
10. New Kingdom Tombs.
Tell el- Yahudieh
Graves with brick lining and gable roofs occur at Tell el-Yahudieh in the Twentieth Dynasty, and continue with
litt le alteration down to very late times. (See below, 53) The New Kingdom graves are walled around with
stretchers laid on edge and covered by gabled bricks, 2 as illustrated in Fig.29. Within this brick st ructure there is
generally a potte ry coffin containing the burial . HOThe graves lie beneat h tumuli formed of i rregular blocks of basalt,
a single one of these supers tructures sufficing to cover several burials. 23 1 A number of brick measurements from the
cemet ery are given in the char t on page 48.
Guroh.
Anumber of graves with bricked subst ructures have been found in a ext ensive New Kingdom cemetery. 232 the
different forms of brlckwork being shown in Figs. 29 and 30. The first type there illustr ated is an attempt to repro-
duce the form of a coffin in br ick, with the lop covered by a gabled roof. A similar structure is created in type F,
with the sides composed of large bricks standing on end, in place of stre tchers, and the space above spanned by
single bricks laid na t. Types Band D both enclose the burial behind a half arch of brickwork. the bricks being laid
as in cI arches, and covered over with mud. Examples of the brick sizes used in these graves are given in the table
on page 48. where they can be seen ( 0 form a fairly homogenous group. the large size 38cm in lengt h being the
most common.
Fig. 29 Ramesside Grave,
Tell el-Yahudieh:
Fig.30 Types of Graves. Gurob. 233
A
B D
Abydos:
F
l o r
The tombs of the Eight eenth Dynasty are beginning to make use of the brick vaulted chamber which is so charact-
eristic of this site in the New Kingdom and later.
23 4
These burial chambers are const ructed in a pi t, so that their
rooflevel is just below the ground surface. and entry is gained by means of a shaft about two metre s in depth. The
doorway from the shaft t o the chamber is spanned by an arch of type cl and the roof of the subst ructure consists
of a vault of stretchers (type xl ), usually two or three courses in Probably there .... as a mastaba built
on the ground surface over the vault. but no preserved examples have yet been foun d. The use of this type of tomb
continues throughout the New Kingdom and develops further in both subst ructure and superst ructure in the Twenty-
Second to Thirtiet h Dynasties.
229. Grif fit h, F. Ll. , in Na vlll.., E.. MOlmd of lire Jew, 4 2.
23 0. tota , 4 2 &. PI. XIV.
231. ihid. , 4 4.
232. Br un t"n. G.. pu...
2.ll. arc o r HrUU1"n. S.." op. etc. PI.XVll l.
234. P.. T. !::., ('p m ..t erk r "r AbydO;t, HI . Chapler IV.
235. sua; 29.
45
Anoth er form of t omb was also used at Abydos in the New Kingdom, having all the appeara nce of a small tempk.
with an open forecourt and inner roofed chapels.
236
Like the un derground vaulted graves, t his t ype begins in the
Eighteenth Dynast y and lasts throughout the Late Period. The act ual bu rial chamber was cut in the gravel and
by a pit from th e chapel, In some examples the roofing of th e inner chambers was partiallr preserved, sho wing it t o
have been formed of brick vaults. as in New Kingdom tombs of similar form at Aneiba.
23
Further parallels occur i:::
the mortuary chapels of the Twentiet h t o Twenty-Fifth Dynasties which st ood behind the Ramesseum238and the
temple of Medinet Habu at Thebes. 239 the latt er group being reconstructed by HOlscher with vaulted roofs. 240
quentIy, this type of tomb was no t rest rict ed 10 Abydos but was fairly widesp read in the New Kingdom, with minor
variati ons from one site 10 anothe r. The form of the vaul t ing used in t he Abydos tombs could not he discove red due
to thei r poor sl at e of preservat ion. bu t it would most pr obably have been that composed of incli ned rings of brick-
work, (type dl ) since t his is the form most commonly employed at t his period. At Aneiba this ty pe of bonding w'2.$
certainl y used. since special bricks derived from th e roofing were found to measure 42 x 19 x 7cm, 241 bricks of these
proportions being the standard type used in the const ruction of d I vaults.
Thebes.
From the struct ural Viewpoin t, the most inte rest ing tombs at this great site are those situated in Deir el-Medina
Dira abu'l Naga. Some t ombs of Sheikh Abdel Quma use brickwork fo r the facade or for making a co urtyard outside
the entrance, but t his brickwork is rarely reported in detail since it has no special poi nts of interes t, being co nstructed
in common Class A bond ing covered with whi le plaster. The interest of the t ombs of Deir el-Medina and Dira abu'l X
sterns from the use of brick vaults and pyramidal superstr uct ures, and these two groups will now be descri bed separsr
Deir el-Medma.
The small tombs of Deir el-Medina make universal use of the brick vault t o roo f both the burial chamber and the
chapel, these vault s being const ruc ted in eithe r d l or x l bonding, the former being mo re where the roci
is t wo courses t hick th e courses are often inclined in opposite directi ons. a technique also used at t he Ramesseum.
Special bricks are employed for the vault s, wi th a thi ckness of Scm and grooves on thei r faces to provide a better
for the mortar. These bricks are mad e with one side slightly longer tha n the ot her so as to take a wed ge-form more
suit able for t he const ruct ion of vaults, and at this site the y are always 35 x I S x 30 XScm in size.:
43
A num ber of
other specialised forms of brick nave bee n found,244 having been use d for cornices in t he tombs; these are discussed
together with the special bricks from other sit es, in Chapt er 15.
Borchardt has shown tha t some of the Deir el-Medina tombs had beams of wood under the vaulting, running beth
the lengt h and br eadth of the roof, and the l omb of a cer tain l rinefer was provided with a cent ral column of wood
support these beams? H He sees a symbolic reason for the pr esenc e of the roofing beams, derived from the imitat ion
of earlier st ruct ures made of woo d. This suggesti on is proved by the fact thai some tombs which have no woodwork
imi tate its presence in the painted decorati on, th e broad bands along and across the roof representing the beams.
246
However, Bo rchardt can find no explanation for t he presence of the column in the tomb of lri-Nefer and concludes
that it must have had a st ruc t ural functi on. 247 Such a support is t otally unnecessary for a vault of the type used here.
and it seems mor e likely that the woodwork is conn ected wit h t he Egypt ian conce pt of the tomb as a dwell ing-house:
the column and beams would be built into the sepulchre t o make the resemblance between house and tomb more
apparent
The supe rstruct ures of the tombs consisted of small brick pyramids built over a vaulted chapel, in front o f which
was a cour tyard entered through a pylon-like gat eway. 148 A part ially preserved example of one of the pyramids was
found over the tomb of Nakht-Min, which mows thai they were constructed in A2 bon ding, corbelled inwards to
create the sloping faces, and covered wit h plaster .249 Above the vaulted roo f of the chape l WJ.S the hollow interior
of t he pyramid, in some cases partly filled with gravel. The doors to bo th chapel and courtyard were surmounted by
cornices. 25 0 which could be made of special bricks designed for the purpose. Often the walls of t he cou rt were built
of rough stone, but those of the chapels were mo re commonly of brick, bonded AI and plast ered internally. Examples
of the brick Si7.eSarc given on page 49: the gene ral dime nsions arc around 3Q.....-3Sc m for the length. but larger bricks
re-used fro m the royal mort uary temples also occur.
D. R. &. Mace. .cc., /.A",,.,.IlIlIl<J A byd<l$, 70. 243. a. &. Kuenl z. c; T"",hcs dl."""4lch,MI" er d Arl-.' -
237. SI.,jndortr. G.. A"ib<l. n, 42 7 lind PIA". 14 4. Bruy'he. 8. . De/. ../.Jkdl' l<'Il. 1934-S. 2S.
236. Anthel., Ro, MDIK 12 (1 '1 43). 164 2 . nd 1'1.1 . 24S. Zt"in../"i!t!urBllu.....JII' '' 79 ( 1\1 29), I I I S.
239. U.. .M.H. . I V. 22-5. 246. L . " p. ci t.. . 113-4.
240. Ibid., 2J. 4. 241. ihid" 112.
241. Slci ndorU, G., ;llliha, 11.43. 14S. Bru y<-,e, a. & C_.up.dt.., I' I. XXI I
242. ll .uyhc. ll.. [ki.../.,\ k d UlI."II. 1922 1926. 249. ibid.. 4 aud l'I.U. 250. ihieL. PLXXn
46
Fig.Ll Section of a Tomb at Deir et-Medina:
Dira abu'I Nage. l SI
The brick pyramids which stand over the rock-cut chambers of the tombs of the Nineteent h and Twenti eth Dynasty
nobles show great uniformit y in their constr uction. 252 They are built of grey mud-bricks averaging 33- 34cm in length,
most frequentl y laid as headers from each face, although in one case (Tomb 35) the lower courses are of A3 bonding.
Reeds are laid in mats bet ween every fourth or fifth course and mud morta r fills the joints on the outer faces. The
internal work is roughly done and has har dly any mor tar, bricks frequentl y being turned on edge to compensat e for
changes in level. A doorway on the East side of the pyramid leads into an interior chapel, which is roofed with a dI
vault of one or two courses thickness. Special bricks, with a thickness of only 4- 6cm and grooved sides, are used for
this vault. Above the roof the pyramid is hollow, and is gradually closed over towards its apex by corbelling-the brick-
work on all four sides (Fig.32) . The passage which leads to the chapel is covered by an arch of type c1 consisting of
two or three rings of brick, whilst the side-walls and door jambs are built in Al bonding and mortared with mud.
Fig.32 Section of Pyramid, Dira abu'l Naga tomb.
Originally all the interior walls were coated with whitened plaster, as were the outer surfaces of the pyramid. Further
brickwork occurs in these t ombs in the walls around the courtyard before the entrance to the rock-cut sepulchre.
These are built of similar bricks to those used in the pyramids, bonded A2 or A3, and mor tared with mud'.
The above descript ion applies to the brick pyramidal tombs of Dira abu'l Naga as a whole; minor differences bet ween
the individual monuments are st ated in the table on page 49.
Parallels to this type of tomb are found in Nubia at Aneiba
2
53 and Soleb, 2 S4 but at those sites a large vaulted
chapel stood on the East side of the pyramid. In construct ional details, however, the Nubian tombs are almost ident-
ical to thei r Theban counterparts, as is revealed by the information included in the summary chart on page 49.
Apart from the cemeteries discussed above there are two New Kingdom tombs at Thebes which are of special
interest by virtue of thei r const ruction. The first of these is the tomb of Nebamun, which is of Eighteenth Dynasty
date and lies in Dira ubu'l Naga.
2S S
This tomb has a facade of brick pierced by five doorways, leading int o the ttans-
verse outer room, the cent ral doorway being larger than the others. On the out side, these doorways are roofed with
stone lint els, but the inner part is covered by brick arches of type c1(l.0), or , in the case of the larger centra l door,
c1(1.5). The remarkable feature about the arches is that they are quit e flat, not the usual semicircular arch of Egyptian
archi tecture. 256 The transverse hall, int o which the doorways open, is roofed with a vault, probably of type dl. All
the brickwork, as usual, was originally hidden by a coat of mud-plaster .
The other tomb of structural inte rest also stands in Dira abu'I Naga, and although not precisely dated must belong
to the New Kingdom. It was excavated by Gauthier in 1906 and described by H. Pieron in the published report. 157
H t. For po .it;"" 'co Fishel, C. , PM! 15 ( March. 1924), 28-4 9.
25 2. TI, e ddall . of ,truelut e are de rived fr om pen; o na l o b, cTvati " n.
253. Stein dor ff, G. , A " iba , n. 1'1,. 40 3 45.
254. M. S., 11, Chap"'T II .
255 . Nort llampt on , E;'ava l/""s (I( rhl" Tl wball 14 & 1'1. XIV.
256. ibid. , PI. XIV.
25 7. Pieron. H. BIFAU 6 (1 90 8). t 73-7 ami Pl.xtV.
47
SIIO.
Gable-roofed graves,
Few XVlll th . Dyn. brick graves. 26,
Graves of burnt brick .
Notes
Graves lined and covered by brick.
Brunton' s Type : A
Type A
Type A
Type A
38 x t9 x 9
30.5x15 x lO
38 xl 9 xl 0
33x16.5x9
38 ", 19 x l l. 5
35.5 x 15 x 10
35.5x 18x 9
38 x 18x9
38 x 19x9
Brick Sizes(cm)
33x 16.5 xl l
35- 8 x 16- 9 x 10
35_5-38 x 17-9 x (?)
40.5-43 x 19-20 x (?)
34x 16 x {?)
i bid. . 146. hra d nOw in Ljverp n",1 Un;v<"n ity .
Ga f. t.1l1t<, J A. SAF." 8 ( 1007), 146.
ib/I1. I'ls.X IV- XV.
ibid., 14 8.
Pe lrle, W. M. F_. I t yk$"1 dud I ml d / r... CHin. 41. 268. f1runl on , G. , Marm..
48
263.
26 4.
26S.
,..
267.
Irreg.
Bonds Used
Nebesheh:
21
35
Yolmdieh:
Location
Garstang excavated a cemetery at Esna which ranged from the Twelfth t o Twenty-Second Dynasty. but only one IX
two tombs of the Twentieth Dynasty arc described in any detail. 261 The monumen t E. 250 , called by Garstang " The '
shrine of Hath or" on account of a gilded head of the god dess found within it,26] is of const ruct ional intere st. It co
of a squ are building with chambers on two levels, linked by a stairway.264 The lower rooms all have vaulted roofs, ';\
are exceptional in making use of the poin ted arch, not th e semici rcular arch nonnally found in Egypt ian archi tect ure.
These pointed arches are clearly shown in the photographs which accompany Garstang' s report 2: 65to have been of
cl type, t wo courses in t hic kness. Apparently there were other tombs of the same form at the site, but no details of
these are given, except to say that they belon g to the Nineteenth or Twentieth Dynasty. 266
SUMMARY: NEWKINGDOM TOMBS.
Salt :
Gurob:
53 Xl
256 XI
289 XI
290
291
410
4 17- 8
434 XI
456
Sedment:
1204
Maimer: 1 68
N. K. Cemetery
25 8. PiNon. H. , tJIFA O 6 (l90 R). 176.
259. Ibi d., 177.
160. Ibid.. 177.
1 6 1_ L. aL, ZAS 70 ( 19 34 ). :2 S-3S.
262. Gan ta nl, J .4SA 8 (190 1). 14 1 6.
The int erest stems from t he use ofa dome over one chamber, const ructed of bricks measuring 33 x 15 x ecm, scorec
wi th grooves on their uppe r and lower surfaces. Unlike ot her domes found in Egypt, for example in t ombs of the CIC
Kingdom at Giza, this dome rests on pendennves at th e corners of t he room. The dome, built of rings of' brickwcrk -
decreasing diameter. is not a true hemisphere, but is composed of an arc around each comer of th e chamber, which is
nOI in the correct curve t o form a t rue ci rcle_
1S8
Consequently dist ort ion occurs in the shape of t he dome. and
irregularit y takes place above the pendentives. since th ese are not at the same degree of curvatu re as the dome above
them. All thes e faults would have been hidden by t he coating of plaster which was applied to the interior of the _ _ .....
In t he second chamber of t he t omb the roof is formed of a dl vault . resting at its end upon an arch over a doorw _
Pieron considers t hat it was here t hat the use of' pendenuves origina ted, 260 since t he first ring of the vaulting left a p:;
bet ween the side-wall of the room and t he arch of the doo r, which had t o be filled somehow. The gap was cl osed by
using pert-rings of brickwork extending down from t he vaul t , t hereby creat ing a type of pendent ive. the idea of wID.:::.
may then have been retained for use with t he dome. Whet her thi s explanatio n is co rrect or not is hard 10 say ; in any
case it seems t o have been a short-lived experiment, as domes on pendenuves do not occ ur again un til Coptic times.
It is in the New Kingdom t ombs at Thebes tha t burnt bricks appear in a special usage: stamped with the name
ti tles of the owner they are set in t he angles of the pyramid, and above the frieze, as an exte nsion of t he use of funmq
cones. 161The forms and uses of these bricks are fully described in Chap ter 15.
Locat ion Bonds Used Brick Sizes(cm) Not es
Qau:
N.K. Cemetery 30. 5-35.5 long. Bricked pits .
Abydos:
Underground vault s x l Vault ed chambers at base of pit.
Chapel-Tombs 35.5 x 15 x lO Brick columns in court . Vaulted
inner rooms.
Thebes:
Dira abu' l Naga
35 A3 33-5 x 17 x 9-10 Taft mort ar. Reed byers in brickwork.
158 c1 dl 34-5 x 17 x 12 Mud mortar. Reeds every 4th course.
30x20 x 6
282 ct 33-4 x 16- 7 x 9-10 Mud mortar, reed layers. Pyramid
is all headers.
283 c1 d l 34-5 x 17x9-1O Mud mortar & plaster. Reed layers.
Vaulted chapel in pyramid.
Deir el-Medlna
1138 30x l 5 x 10
1156 28 x 16x12
1159 34x 15x lO
1170 30 x 14x lO.5 Brick pyr amid superstructures.
1296 4Ox20 xl 2
1300 40 x l 8 x l 2
1308 30. 5 x 15.5 x 9.5
1448 31 x 15x8
1453 38 x l9 x l l
30 x l5x9
Chapels W. of Ramesseum A2 A3 42x l 9x 12 Sorne bricks re- used from royal temples.
30 xl3 x lO
h ila:
E.250 cl Pointed arches.
Aneiba:
N.K. Cemetery of brick 37 x 18x9
pyramid and chapel tombs. 32 )( 16x7 Brick pyramid tombs with vaulted
35 x l 7 x 9 chapels.
36 x 17 x 8
34 x 16x7.5
Sol eb:
N.K. Cemetery of brick 34-7 x 15- 7 x 8- 1O Common sizes.
pyramid tombs. 37 x20x 10
38x 15x10
31x 15.5x9
33 x 16 x9
}
31 x 17 x 7
38 x 18x5 Vault bricks.
37 x 16 x. 6
49
At thi. , il ""hich Ii.. not r"l from S.f, . 1!101l m b, 111<<< " a " m"',y l"l "h. or Ihe
!)Yn""ty .nd b ler. ,n Tho.. of thr Tw.nl j-Six[h Dyn"ly or. . n,1>roh, d. wlt b mof, [om,oJ o[ " d. ..
brl<;4 ;hou\ 1 "' '''. 1><10,,' th, , ",f.ce, 0' 01.. th.y I,." Ih. pit dil'i,l. d 1010 foo, "h. mb", brl, k ..
On 1 mound [0 tlle No,lh hnt of S.;,., ,,"own .. K.w;ldj' mound. II the !,",p<>lll u[ Ih. L iI< l'triod b,I",, 9"I
tu , hc. ity. ,., 11It bunai d"mb<rs or tho \o nlb, .re r""f, d WIt h ult>uf type dJ . nd . nl " .J by me,n, of IWTC'O'
Squm b'ick m, ,,u' i"S11 x n om, >Ie U><d in the oon' Ir\\C[;on or til. ' omb ooth for t h< 110m 1rld b-
tho w, lb of tho ch.mh " " , od Ih, fonnu u" " not lI" CO!l \lllOn '0 Egj' pt , t h, ocou", nCO ol.qu.'" _
in w. ll, i>UlIU' Uo! Po",bly tlIll indi o.l.. 101110 fo," ,ll'l il,ftu<"" . <I nc. "1\1><0 brick, oro the !On",,1 r" lo in
.mi., . od t h<)' "PI"'"' 10 , i[.. In Sooth,,,, 1':>1",,,,,,, , n" to. Twont y. Sooond " r
, ,,. 'hi"-. ll.
,,"- C""";". r. r.' ,. ' '''' r., Th< """,,.. '" rh, J" ., ' 0,
,,,. ".L ,X", ',", ',"', ' O, ,, ' l'1.XYF
' '". """, r",,, rl" ""'B"""" HL" ....",
"" M" ''' I<, "". '" PI' ,00-7,
, Ol. ",. r, '-'--. CI""""""' of . tt, . ,..
TIrc oh.."I" i, Ho I)' P< uf lumb flOm tho T"' <" ly.S. ,,,,, d 10 Thirt ;"lh Dyn" ' k . 4[ Ilri" ilO\l tho Ii,,,,,
sopulclm wi[h un, or mo" . rei"," bu, i,] , h' mb, ,. ,. lhe h.. b<en som, di","" ion " 10 i1> , ""'''0of lhe . up<m::
lure>uf ' ho'" 10rnbl: Morloll. " ." ""d t hom .. py=nid, . '""P'bie ' nol p. , t for ' "" "" 1,,1pj' r;mi' h. ..hi!<:
"I"". bd loYod th<"ITl 10 loa b...n dOOl<d. >Or A, lhc ",-, p,"'ru' l u," irO 10. In" Ie..t il is dim
lu dodde t>c l",,,n lito", o!rom, ti , u"-!!Iions. Ih. 1.>. 10'>0 ",m' to t>e unlikely, Tho " Olml.
Ihnllh, ",h" lI" IfUn,,, Il..! ur nOl, 01 00,1 over til< <I" ",h,,, . nd had w:ill. ", hieh , 0rb,lIe<!
AIJ)'dOG,
Tho form of p'" '1'hi.:h OC' Url 'I Ihi, <.i t . ill T....." iet h Dyn.,ly, oQmiltl ng 01. brio. i'bkd . 1 """ a
potlery ""rrl!l, CO<I linu" into lhio period, but tho T" <ntySi <th Dj'o..(y """y I" """ rllip,n>< wilh lho oorn::.
"",'., t ho int. rm. nt di'o<lly "' it h bri'k-.r.' nrk;70 In ill. m. jori ty o[ oa= Ihe , id.. of ln<5'''''''' fo,m,d
COUr" of ""toh. " 0" t b, i, , nd (he g, b\,d mo[ 0<",>i, 1> u, brio", inoHn, d ' I"'i",\ e:loh ot h., in pool". "' teo-
on, B"'" 1... 1>0, "reoord, d in ",bk h lh, brio"" we" b jd n. i "'0" Iho "'01,' "
. ounl"'r of brlek n" ><Il "n" nl ' "e ",,,,d, d from Bn " " of th , Tw'Olj'S;"Jr t o Thlft""h Dynll>l]o i U. Il.:-"O
bot thei, , on' ill ' nl'imiJ. ritj' to Ih, , i, ... u",d In ..dier lomh, " lho " Olo , ite ' "iQlcm tlr, l th<y ", . y be" u", .:L .co
hut l wo or 1", , 11'0 ex. mple. loJl he' ween 32 x I I x 7em Ind 34. S 16,-'j x l Oem, \11< ' ''' 0 oxe<ptiOnl 30.5=
... di",u",ion uf ,h, hric' mm urem,ol>or . n ro< ,ioJ. ' I Q,"1< indodod in th, "", lion on bl id , , i", in 0..;:...
Qa".
11 . Tomb> of T went y-Firs tt" Thirt iet h D)'nn t ie..
T 0'/. Ya/muM,.
Th, tumh>of lh. l w. otySixlh Dyo.. ly .i Ntb. :J:t.h . re of l wo Iyp": un,I" R, oon d B"'''', p, ob. bly ,,"ul,,<1.
""h<d hy "'oJlu'1' pil... . nd brick m" lti-.eh. mbored tomb< ",lIi,h wore buill on lhe t' 0und ,u, f. oo,, ,, S o '""
'"
\ U, o! d...il, of lltt t omb' ,,, " . il, bl., ox, tpt fo, "";oxmmu"""o' of 36 11.S , 12.5<-m from ([)mb
Su_.
' ,", D, '''' ".S. I(., -'I!J/K " (" " I, '" ' 0,
170. .. , ' . ,
,,,. "''';' , "' ."1.>'., G<'"'. " .LXXII .
' " ,"" t"., ". M.>.. H""'" "" <' u
'" ;bft.l, "'_' "
, "- f",'.,W.". E , "<I,,,... " r , .h II,
Sui.\
1Il ... lh. 1II1.lio, l><ing l, fl hoUo.." 1.0 th. , ,,II,, poop of &rOund lh. T nlyS<oond J)ynm y. lh. " Ul1
and lh. ' U"'h u, tu" not ."oot.d. bo' 101. , the ' '1'0P" " of lbe hoUdini ,. nlo" inl<g13t,d and ' h. .....11'
or til. chambe' , onlinu.d up", " d' to fOml lh. sid of lI:t, ,uP''''',u''u". ' " Th. buri.l , 1I. mb<". wlli,lIll. " " ",,11
10'" d. p'h b.n.ath lh, ilound. " . ,oof. d wil h "'''''Iybullt vault. of typ, dl . " rylnl f,onl ".,. ' 0 '1'0' 0 oou,"', in
thld""",, '" In ",n" c=In, brk ko "'m lIol1 ow. d nn tb, undorsid' 10 1:''' a . o"lino,,", """" to lh. n ult. , .. whk h
wn furth" , moot h<d by , 0>1 or pb."'. Gr"",' m. ", ,,,,d on the f",,, of t he brkb. to p,,,,,,d k,y ro, Ill<mort. !.
ro, te n, por:.1}' ". nt ring "'., no' u"d during t n omtructi"" of th o ,oonng. In <0"" ''''''.....", 11 .. E.460 dJ n ull
wn . n. ploy. d ' " but " " fl ing was .tillnot ,equ".d . in" th. nm ring of incli".d bn," "'ted " , upport f ", , h, bri<:b.
a, d on , dl ' .bu".,Th...ulllll g u,,,:illy ' p", ng ftum linint"will or " "I, helll on lh, in",I, uf ,I,. ,,,,,Ill . obu rnetu,"
w:lih. ar ""own in Fil',- J3 , Ailhoufli Ih"h" t "mb, " , u:illy Iud only on, burill! c1 " ",b<, b,m' lh th, , uo<"" u" o,,.
1',,,,,, Ih, Dynnly it I><e"",,, mo" """"""" to h,,', m"lI;p l, "''''t>." ' . ow .d t h,our,h
"0""" .1 h)' moh" of Iyp' d .
Fig,.n V""lt"' . '''' "p,rioJ
Tomb ot
Th. grwm " m:lin, of f,om fuo""y monument . or the Lot< Prno.l ot Th<b<, or. to b. f01l "d in t h.
I" ilt ,omb. of the Tv.'.n'y.Fifth . nd Tw.n'y.S;x' h D)'n..li" in A>... r. or , h, ,,, fo"."ry pal""". th". h, v ..,rri"d
", (fooi,ntl) to Ih, pre",nl d.y to he " r me In 0 lL udy of h,M. <OlllllUCliOll. ti,... \>< I"g nomb." 17, l4 ' nd 279. ' "
Tomh 27 (Sh"honl)
Thi , . tr ll<lU,. Ii., b..lde t h. rul.. nf the mpk oi R,mm " V.:md b,long. to tho Tw.n'y,Six[h Dyn.1., y. It wa<
" ,cl""" i by 0 hTk k 01011 , .10' 0,,1 .1 ",;, h Ioi mpl, nl,ho, in imil. lion o{ th, :uehoj, pJl....h c,d por" of which " m
" ".. In [h, Sonh ,iJe ' ''Th<: , nclo.. d or" i> di,'id,d by. b, ;, k Pl' lon inlo two <o" t" nd 0'"' th. d""Tw'oy I,
, n "" h oom!""".d uffour of b, loh"' rk.
lO'O
' i, >[cn Is b..I.,lly of t yp<<x! . ,xc,p' fo, ,h. f.., th,' Ih.low,",
com", ioh""1 il1 d l 10 .. dimin", th. noo<" ity fo, '.mpot"y Th. n the
brieh oro nJl, d wiill , hip, oflim<lIon" A ,in,il" pylon form.d th, . nl ranee t" tho toml> on the E.. t. hul th. Il"teway
of [hi. h.,!>;; ," bloded wilh a la", <ilt. ,nd!be ori"",] . [,u", o" I, nol vi,lbl . Th. lowell ,OUt... of
ih, w>.lll rc n",lIy , mployed or brick. on . dg' . but .t 1U,m<t I<-el> the bondlnB ;' . 11r,htly im gul.. A3 wrth
tTl.:" of while pl..teT 0'" the n,orb' war " " .I to fill,h. llori",n"J joint! .nd ,h. hrieh m'O'O"
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"f , h. ,"uTly"d. Thi, i> well pr",,,,,d, ol1 d i. m", tro", d of g" y mud brieb..'" 32- ; J6 . In ,i,o. b"ilI
tog" h" In A3 bondil1 j!,. On Ih, [.." of 111<brkk",,, rk [b. hoti, ,,,, I'" jnlot! Of< fill,d ";th mud mOlt" bu' [he in","ai
" "'Ct U1O Is p,., liClUy ""oid of .ny mort.,lnll wi"" ",,,", noJ [h, ... ,Ii..1in" " ''''"<' oro v' l}' wide. RoW1 of brick, 0<,
'" "" cd 10 c""'ren,, " for il1 I,,'d, a" d reedma.. occu, ""'I}' 10" ' to cou,,,'. 1".1 borh [",,,,,. ,,,1)'
, nd 100j:i I\ldln,lIy 11,,0\1&1' tlo: ,i ru, lu,o. AI the .,til" uf th, type 01 OOm" i. usod which i, u,u.lly
",,,,,,i.Lcd "Ith Al 0 bonoJ inz. (Sc, !'l.S. ) n l<mo,t ",i!:i", f' atu" of the holld;"!;, th. 1"""' h,ic k ..<h over ' he doorway
01[I" pyl"" , whl,h h ,j,; ' ;IlP ofb,iel< [om. ;nln", h"ing 10.' ......I 'oU"" f, om th, in" ,'" Th. '"" 0' COU' .. . ITC
comp,",od of Ih< ' p<:, laUy Ihin "orm,lly .,,'ploy.d for .II ,"ult, . but M" lItey are ".. on .. lg. , " if th. y woro
' >rdin.ry hIi< k, . In v' ooL"e alL " d t of Iyp< J., . , P,ol>n biy t ho 10" ", ion of tlte " . h " "uld I",. ;nded,d cour= 01
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.fOond , h. ' . mpIN' .. of RaJ".... , 111 . ' .\i.din" H.ho. ... numbo' nf Irnoll l'.... or Twrnly. Flr" J)yn..,y d' l
... found ill ,ho lhlo:kD<oo or tho ((JrIirlO<l W..l G... uf ,he ."",pIc <nc!oswc: " . the.. we'" ..mplr muelu,,,
roofed .... _ I,.. l ho , Inrlf _ 110< l"",tKhOfCb oIlhc G<Jd'o .... of """'" oIllor T.....n'j .
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thia""",l u of A! 0' AJ b<JIItlinlltld h.d 1 .;""" roc"" tpPIi od .,.., ,h. m. An u"''''''''I''''.'.,j ,h.
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tho "; Ih 11","11fn, bunol> "" ,1I1te, ."1,, "" Some thm I", oil! >I, ""Ill 01hUT.' brl,b., " 'hkh "'1",
..n;>k>y. d 1m ,Ito oJw'p"", 01 tIx ",mb<. n_ h, ,,b "",... .. n. 11.5. (': l<m, whll'" th, mud-bricb Yo'h;,;h
"'" """,, ,n .. """ '_" 1lI lIiahll, lo,!'" boinS 12.S" r lan iJI ..... J
A >hOI' , ...., f. " bt>J 'n'" tIx dnon .ro IIKI.. II....... ,,,,,,tis of dlIT' J<JIl fnrm. .onUnOllnc lll< bricl-pNod
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thor _ .. Ilnlibr 101 _ t".nbs . rT""" . IGo!><I. , ... Ro,n'lI ' limbo"' ll><chia. '11.......d of ,.,..., .ba or rnWI bri;:k
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Brick ''''''bo "I tl .. 1'1"'.... P. liO<! 0/. fo""d '" I n . " . , of ,h. Wes' fh nk . , 11><bn.. f,om .....,Ino ...,
l1' b" , Tho)' ... of ,h_,ypn: JI ' (., Lo'!l I_r ,_ .... l li). lndl.tdual " blood "'......(ill) " """r<' """"" of ' )l'"
(Ii) 1Ix- e"" III bnck <"" poll boilt on 11>< V"0!\d ....,r... or t/lyn ly "'nk In" '110 11'1 "'1. ..... by an
. """d doar. ' 1> Tt>< _ bule tomb lI'''''o undo-d II)' ......... pIa. _ from m-. , on .<>11,.... in tx;j:hl . ,h ....ooc,
n ul' .....,.pnoq f' IXII Ird.., .. ,,",," ....u.. Vl uI" Of. I Of d l e..nn ""'0' . >II .hilI ,_db.... -ls, ...... .
,..."p1.. [,,,,,, llx .... "I lb1""'"t'1 V. Uoy l'empt<boinII }4 16 . 6ao ,e m" ' ..fUI <l th. <>f , 1>0 Dd. _
onlls tofiF'l r..... 18 l i S1 10= tv JI IIS I lOan. '"
Th. am-q of '1P< d."p..d 1m o.;nll1 " trd bullll r< 1QtItI<d ..r. b';"'..l;014 pi, """" r<tI by I. blt ttJ
of ._11..... 1" ohol!t>lll .,...... e<dI Ollxr. (FitJ4) , , he . od<of '110 p." ,I.. b<io. l.: I02/l hi tll>otIx pbk
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Tho 1""'''' '' TIIiI >ilt .re R........ ODd Cop'''' Ibc f"""'" ba'l( IorI" Q:lmbr"d lIno<1u,"- ond tho I.oU b<irfJ:
hUl ... 11>< 10"" "r <lup<k- ""lo6ool 01 11>0 bllildin.t' ." of llth""'" ;11 lmnb :lO b......' br1I: u IIK'd
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it bort><t 'yP< Cl. "'''',td duinlbors we" .mploj..d III ...... of lilt tomhs. PWII . 1lit. <II 1kcoI.1N pI.oi,.,
"',,' tho b,;"k.....l. Jl'
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DOh." II>' mlMlbJl<'k. >II E....'Yore"" *'"" br<1I nud. t" . opy til . (ta' u,,, .fGr....,. R<>m 1""'" b...... ... E, ),pl.
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dlt bnch be,o. ' tltod w...,rd. ' M <:tn' ff uoll1 lhey ...."'"<Il ly moe, '" 0 1110, ' omb, In ,Iu,",,,,,,!Ory b.d
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... b,..", ,n>d' Il' bl. ' n " '" ,ho ' 001' '''' ''0''-' of ,I>< Tl,I,' '''h Dyn:u<y I<po ....ly ftnnl tile 1.... bu,ldin".
I" II>< Eu.:!"um., "", II .. III [be ,,,,,, bl of ,Il< . 0..... . """"' .. ' I... B'!p,iI, Ih. ",;';1-"'0' . l, . mployod fOl p.vi oJ.
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I

c H..... r TER FIVE: RELI GIOUS ARCHITECTURE

I . Tcmp," of lhto E.:..i i"" D) na tio.
Tho ..do," wbi<h "'" be daocd _. ' . ", plt ill Al IICI"" FeY'" " lbt axnpln of _bon .. 10
Ike Nord' ad <>iTonobnos at Sao!q_ ' I.......... I ptolOlYPf _,uwy ,nap" ...- COIl bo . .....,..d .,j,Il ,lui,
of ,"" I'ypmId of o,our. not<mplc ba ...no bo.oI. "'\JfC1y of bncl.:, _,f<! ........ .-II)' Im..... _d
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... ho oU. louf Ok d r;... .....................,. """ _ be ... iIodotttioo. W-.Iinf: IYfIHlL
n.. In- in EIJ1I I 10 llhatu". I/lc ..lOP<>- _hi,ornu< 01'100 "*<lyDu TboIflDplo of
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tbt btrl_k o' pylDa> <!at.. If-. 'lht E.ic:h1C>lb Dy....., . At lok.w-d l'f'Otod)'na$ ' lC lomplo l1>o.
llmI or.. enclosed .,.,. .-.....int _4.. UOCJ .1u<1o Ihc" _ pn>boblJ ' pconal
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fbn Uti. b,l,;l_... "'" d..tJDyl ,h.. dt'oil. <UIIW bt obt aintd.. .. "OMI I. III"'" .. ,lit tef'OII.
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IIlalJns tbomof "nit .... (Of l OUd) 01 ."Ii
2. Pyumid Ttmpla of , "" OM Kinlldom,
Tht Tr ", plrl "/ mr Rrnr PYnlmid oJ IJ<uJrll'.
s..-., ol lnol, (If .'<T<found In ,h. fO"""'1 " mpl. of ,h. H.", l'j.'for"jJ " o..l,"" 11>< fi n! ,1.". 1..,1.
bdunglng In rh, Old ..,d .nmh" . 1" .. I><lnll11m . 11>. "''' '10 ''"''i1,. i" ol. r b"" dm. ;.,. " 'OJ ,n
all 11.... .",.. Of ' Oo>l ,, "' lioo, .od.n , hI h,loh'Olkil .o, . " d with p1.ntr. In the OIJ K",. J "", 1, ..11 rh, ho,k> ore
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b tho ut>P-' TempI<of IIx p1",mld of oumbo, of brl<:klno,1t ''''''OJ> ........ ."""..lOd """ lII.uffocioflll1
publ'shf<li>y ClI.Nn. L'Thcch.mblrt ....... of lm<u '''.....' in' U 11 . 11m, ,.111.. ) <11\ plo, co>l on
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In !lie ..idled ...u of rho: Glul Cu.ul of l!>e VoIl' y r ' mpl. n.. diollncth'o ' <>"Ie:1b""din! ,,!\I,ll i>" .....0"._
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lototn<d lroIo tb< " In""'" bill tn. l .. "" ",,", ion of ,his rn'. 1e '" 'M ,ul. TIl. roc. ..... p....rr::::.,
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N" ,.:11 ' ''''''1'' WU mad< In prop." iood fo"""lall"",, lor rhc t>nct in Illy part or... compl<,.. tho
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ohiok >lid 1100 roo( _ upl>old by """"." ,""''''''' iol !t>e b ,!" " H'"" , ",,,dIoS"" or 11 ,oM ... oI.b..,..,
-\ll , h. doon In ,II< !""'plo ' <>mf'kx wc,. hwI , of"""". ""' !X,....,. brick JllDlbI. wb><h oN wilh ...
'" 01000:." T1I< c","", 0I1he jornbo .... """iIt p"...n d, '" rhe b) ""'i<lI " ....c./Ied 10 lhe """
i:l knc...... S,"". -.- -u. oIIy ""'d by lbtn n"", ... ... """"" l.o", ployOld il lao
too fIXed I" ,"" brict ...... Lby tin..., st, in,,, , "Rll. ... "",""" '" lho ",ort,...." l<mpIoof Srl..,<t_ _ .:.0
The _d 'n r''''PI.. of t.lycerlnl&. nnt<I [fOlD ] 4 x I & x '1.. , n 4 1 t :!ll c 120"'. " ,,'x of 40 x :0
11<m ..... moo' <""""on. I'"", I' ","unod ok<> In lhe I.o' n _ I1Uo."'" ,,( lhe Volley T<tnpk irllho Sl10h 010""-
hut oIuo IUY "'''''... a 1lJfIpI< ........ 0' ,h. "'1JIn..! hrio'"
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, he !<Hoc, " H"st. of tho 10. .. " ",h ch""!!co '0 AJ .boo<. '.
Wood was """" ill , h. ' pl. 'or .;oIu",u. ...d p._ "",bly fo, .""r.&J, .. ... a.. foo "'" ' ...... of
A doo"y OIl , h. :-;oolb lido I. hod I ...,><>d<<> on, pm" .I....!>od by ",un. 0' ''''' 1>< ,"" .'" int o tho b
work. .. lIbawn ID Tho: ' II......" of ,he door of """" ..
l1><" 1$ 1OIDO liotlon in ,he Iiz.. of Ilwt b, ,, .. w>cd '" lb, lornpl. 1>< 1"1 7 . II .S-II x 85.:... ' n foaJ<
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11>c "'-"'Y'...... 0I1be ", he. Pl' __d, ., " ""I" uood bn, k' 0 ftf)' Iimor.d ,,,,,,n..rile altKl , iol
"""un In , hi! "",,<rill bci"l1h< oIt1rr."'1...... ....n of ,1>0 ,. ... pI<of ",""",,,. ...hiell ..." pI"y.d 1l, l.:l . n n
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tit 16 ' .'ood,cQ1dl amb.
,1'<!e r1rbu Tempi,
3 ,\ Iorl l.l;lry of t he Middle Kingdom.
The c" lic" ,,,,mUmcnl ill t hi' gro"p which 0"11 1. 1", bn, k ennlt_ lIon il lh. t .mple of S:mkh\;.",
n Leb" , So of ' I" hl;,;\;wo, k ", e . ..f1. bl bu, it is wor lh oo ,ing th' pr.,.., noe of !inu",io. l "".11.
"" , h. I<mpI, pl, t fo!IO,"
The info"''''I''n II\< f" nmry " ntpl.. of rh, Kingdom py..mid, " m h" lImlled, Jue p,,'ly 10
10, " of ''''''' , '''''' hLll ntO" '" t o in'dcg"" I' "'port lns. ,emJln, of b, lck"",r\; 1"0,., di"""'e,.,J by Ihe
.-\m<' ric." "',""Orl " l.i>hl . hUI ooly brief ""' ''''01 of tbe work ""as glv, n In lho /lulleri" oj ,he Md rurolila,j ,\fm""",
"j An. '" oltd no fin,l " pori h", yel ' ppem d.
At 111,) , un. "0 " riok rem' iO! . re ..' o, d, d on lhe , II, " f lhe mort u,,}' tempI, of So'o,tr" II, bul 1"" . bulldillg
n, r.tr io " " , Heb-S<d 01 ' 1"'1. which Iud . b, i, k non, compo" d of h., dmwd in ",'en row' ,"Th. V, lley
Tempi_ "f Ih, p)''' '''ld I. y elmo tho 'own of tbe and w" . nclos, d On th re' ,;<1.. by brick "' all 12m thick .
Iin,d ",;,h " ' b' of Ii"'''' o,, ' ." TIll' w,1t h, d been d, ouded t o Jround 1c"01 .nd con"quon' ly tb, m .n",,.nl " f Ih'
b,;, kwork could nol b' ex,m;n,d. Rem' l'" of 1", .111 wore found In lbe te mplo >rca, one uf "'h ich I"J ' llol'lng
'0<1, form' d of h.,dm loll! On ' ' hnt. Pet rie ,ugg<lO" d tb" tlli, fc. t u" .... , 10 ' hoo t OU, 'ny w" or dt lpping
front th. t op of tho ",oJ] ' 0 ' dtalan" ", hm I' wOHl d Dol ""k into ' he , tId ' h" ohy w..ken 'h e Utm, ure."
'10 ' nfmm. li"" is ,,' ilabk from In' fu"m.T)' lelopl.. " f the Mid,lIo Kl1' gdo, n py,on, ld, of D"nur. ,h. only , u,,;, in,
bric\; bIlildln", . om, pric>'" hou" , j Ult No' II, of ' h, ,," ..w,y of tbe pyraml" Ame", mh,t Ill. Th , ,. , lroc'
ur.. ".. du cnbl ln (h' p' er 1.
..., 10m, Int m , tlng bti , k , on,lmetion ;. found In 11" " "' 1,1, of S<-<o'tti, Ill . whkh w,", ' !l ochod ' 0 hi,
ccnol , j>h ll><re. ' o F" quenl u'"' I, m.de nfw"ll bUll' on ' wavy pl.n. bOlh ;' 1Iho "" in temple . "d ",<.id, th, dontmy
"",' Wbl! ""' i, " lie d ",. by, 'Iho b, Ic" of the.. wo!Ll 30. ' X 12.S 10....", .. do ' ho htioh of ' he whol,
boddi"g." 1 h' hon d' ns u" d I" <I" , ,,lOla con,t ruellon. ;, nol In doIOil. hu' ' hc puhli' h' d pho' ogr.ph' >how
t o, t ",nt< ,tion, wcr o prob' bl) typ' A2 0' AJ."
Sc",ml, [II buLl t , V. II,y T. n'pl," t hl. ,It<.", ,,m. tm<lcd by. b" t!"... J end"",,, . 1",11. the . nBI" of "" hi, h
or, prnt ' '''" wltn ,tno, wmk. ...11 ' ho brickwork nf tl>< h.d \>co.. on, red wit h ntud.pl"' t..
0f1 t ho "terlo, ' urfoo... '
Nn hrl, k enn, !"",,"'n, h"e he.n found " noo S Ih, "'. .. worb whiclI Amen. mh' l III ond"' ''''k hi , pyr.mid
at fhw" .. .. hu' ,t \lo')lh unoh t>,1<'''' 01. brick-huill <h' pel '10' ''0 ditcov",d "" , be F..." of th, Soo'hernm",t pyramid,..
In th, w:l.1h uf lhis , h, moe, rIl O" of Ih' h, ick. '10'0 " llld .. ""teno" . with ' h, "" ..' ional l'yer lumed on Ihdr IF' for
wl" I,! I"s., brick. we t<u<od for the '"011 , TlLo following , i, of b'ick' ,,. "cordod:" 30 x IS x Wcm . 31 x 1S
, Il em. 34.S I S., I I.Scm. 38 x ! D.Sx 'km
tbo '1mth Pyramid of M",,und, there we" I",,,, uf . ", ",",w'y on Ih. to,l , id ' " tho W:llI' of "" hkh w, ,, comt
rnctcJ of . p. ;' of p:"'.lI'l 'h in wall! wi'h rnbble b" ","n. .. in Fig.J7 bolow.
,
, . .,. ..
.__. - I
. ' . '
.. . .." -'
. . "
Fil:- J7 Sid'!'-l>YJ ll of OJu",wI1Y. ,\"Im l, /'yFanM.
J/o,.'n'men.
11, "
H. Wi.r",' . XVl tN". , t;p, ",
J-J, L" . .......,,<. RImA x Ie. , . t . t '. ,",," m' o' j. ' .1> "-
JO. "'''"'. W,." ,,,_ 1..' '''' , ll, " ... .
J " ,'U, 1' , xx <0.
J'. "" " '. W.M.' , X"""" IT.." ",- ". ..
JO, "'''l..W. M. r, 1,""", ".
n . ''' '1ot.,.. , I-
'0 w.". "' '' ' .1- c'."dl, . C,T., ..,.., , II. 11 -". " .
'11. " "-, ' H. "' .uXVt ".W , '0-
,,OJ. ll.
""'- "- xU1
" " "" . D, R, " " . " , A. C" n " . ". ..... ..,au_' ,..0 . M, .
"'''.. ",
11. _ Rwo m. .1" " ",", , .. '" XXV,
"'.",.,. 1- ,,><,", . E" C,"', & M.. .. , ..
IOU." ..... XXXrX.Xll. " LV
,,;,to"-
lOll , " .
. ,..
.. Tr<r_ , ..
_ . " .IL'" ... _ Ie '0-'''' ....11.
G., ,,/fl O , ' '' ' .
1O&f.. ' ..
'-. u "
' "
............. r. _'eo-' .."
...' oo, ... ... r II, 0-' HV"'.
A' H<mf<JPC'ltl, Ihr Cr md<l .......,"'" r " d p'.""y.., ill 1 b, lel, pylno> . brlo_ ' 0 'mtplo< of.1or
oS'The b, ..b of Ihi, py",", ".. '" % 24 on: _ dr;l >lid a-hl, ..pl ....",d '0 1
_ of Z<m ""'1lDr u poood fooa.. I'Ir1 of lb< ....1o(,he '",upi< rou"d on (h. ",,,,, ..<I<, bm<Jod A.J a-it!>
lrr<pb.'!li. .. ...,,,11110 ' ho for .,,,,,, , ""'I<.1.9 bond",! _ u,.,j On "'" bs, " ' ,I>< . ... ill I a-:lII or tho
oirtwoi.bI l)l'", -.lod Xl, .,.oj n 'n>dIIItl fu, >disl_ .. of 4OIn! ' Tho I"J'J>DOC ur ' hlt " ,,,,,' u '0... ... .. .
Inc, w>Il to ' "I''''''' Illl'!'" vf i h. middl. of ' M ' . mplo-a=. ....... 1M", ",mp and p,.. h-."y bo'
tho p " . t 'J.on kiq II,. pllh".,.. pi" whiLlI bod DJI bold , ..... <><II I'" be",. " ot<l " " h 1 .'osl. <....... of
brk k."
ADUmO<r of buol btpof 'olod</\< K...._ dar........t Al...dn>. froIoI bo'h lb. ."d T... lft h Py_
bu, ill m<>fI <_,UI< hlid, , I.., " . l h, rmly """"u..J io''''''''''''''' JI..... . nd lb... are iocludod io ,t.. labl. on JI!II
61. U"_,, IItr p u , <n<Jnmc ..alI .... til< OUr.. ' ....... l"';oIbIy bull . by i> do....-rib<d'"
""""." l llil " .""'lrU<t<d 10 .. p"", !"nok of ..,d p' . """ ,I>< >pl"'af:u-.. .. or .11" 0' """",,". and;
>''''''0, fu ,u", or IIUII)' "'..... wallI, S<-< porI> ...... b>lI fOFWr<<I ill I... , ",,_ . ......ro/y is s...1
doni ...d M"",... 'i,....
Remai.. of 1 1<"'1'1< o( 1' <1' ( I 10>.. b<><n d ". ... d al flul" " ... hu,11' ..g<ly or " 0'" bul . ""' <1 by on 0'"''
btld .. ro... 1kLad< ... ,,,,,,,d<'d .>bDII' th< '" of Itt. bu' "" lori<k>of 'hij .......1'r< I '0 Iu>.
I8 'i<:III ill '
I bud' . , Ab)"doo, .10<.. lor .t<l _ ... .-.a->II . .......<1 Ib<......pleof O. " is- Kh. "' .......' ,lhr
""'" or ,h. \trieLs II>fd io ,tili ,,"...""'llon. ""d Ih",. vI ,"hor Old bulld",,, III tho ...... ' '''''1'1 ..
on I'"t" 63.
the .., lon l bYUd,nl phZCf ' n ' M Sol., I cmpl<Qr l'l<uoe" ' "bum....d bri<l.'Ior....... OOO; ..
md __<If b,;"b ",.",,,*", d<o)oo'. tho 10.., re<on"""' ho. or ,I.. ' . mploilt ".'IIIt "..," 1IiIuC ...,..
k m'" Ii ' . haloll", ut ,II< upnn ..bI. :k lito "'""lIDIm' ... . d. n " ...n 10 of lrapc1<lOotd I<Cl ioIl. OIl Ideal
, bo """""" ..tti.:h tl __10 bIUl' ofbti.:h.o.,., OIl J.,,!'b. 10id I>eadt. " W, thl. ' M ",,,ple l....lf ,h. bn.:k
... COIttm<>IIly bon.1od A! 0' AJ . nd In """'" 1eI 11 doubl" .., of pia... IJ
""or ,lor site . .. d>o,_01 ....... "".,Ioaa/ p "';'h 'w' .0.' of bti. k.Ii Uill 1'.... .... .1.110 I. ,lor
1M ,. ... pIc II ,,"'I ""'or boo, . th ohu.k 'oo,"" 01.."'iclI .'. J..d IfI PO'''''' 10i<n!Q" 'M plaolUnt of
of ..004." T1lIII<a<h '0dill\......" ... Ia -..I tho IInc'" OJ< LoId oil "I' '" auII.. ' rt<tu/.:!nU.. . ...
In 1M 1 1'10 " I UI<, f ,10. . ,. l>Jn<led AJ ,n pu'.bu' I, rq..." , ' UInpl" or """. " lots 1I1<1!"=I
tn ......,h onlyIb< r of ,he wall, _ lKatly Io<.drd. ..tw" Ib<In' .rno.l ..." k1O . ...... ur lu plt d!y laid bni;b. r
..", .. or ,to< .....pl< """" I'In! .. . n . lt ar of h nck , n , h"",tly III.gIIl.. AI bun<lma."",rcd <WII' W'il h ..hn<m<l p1oou:<
lIu: Eo.. lid. of , lor Couo<..-ay....,...duIl ' 0 t-o, Ttmpl<. fbn kod by .. b " ill 'OIlP> A
....1lI _ 1> <0"''' "q>p<4 '0 p,,,d,,co . bon I"" ".0<." II"ck, m.....' iDC18 . 13.. 1 ..
n lli'" . ,.,.... of buil<linf: tIoo 1<IrtpI<. ..M .. '-I .. od&,_ -ur ill bn<b 11.. I) .. lkIII ...d :'J .. 13 k:l
... .... "'......' . No' ...... . . , , . , ....
... -. .,. " .
n ,... ..
t. '........ n
... _,n........ ....
... _ .,.
1'. ..;. ,, 0.. . , _ ...__,,-'(1..."-'1.'._'" ,"-
'.. ,- ,.. ..
... ........lI, ,. ...
A' .Ik d, mud. ,..:ill 9m '" l!u<knm ,.. fOHnJ which m.y lo."" fo,m,d 'o. Middl. " mplnclo",,.,
J.I' hough ," 'ltnbu",on '" 'h, 1",oIf[h Dyn>cl TYi. nO' c" " in. .. Unlik' ,II< I" " girdl, -wJ.l h 01' h...mrl brl, l
'Ow k" I., d UL 1, , <1 cou,," in"..J of . Il' m'" cone", . nd co nv" .,,,Uon,. 7.
A. h" " "is..n" fUrlh" , outhw;u d " Th. h" , m.1I j ' mpl' or <h. pel built by SllnJdtb" M. nt ul>otcp , j;" ,," high
up nn , 1"'" S OIt I> of th. V,II,y of the " It h" hri, k Pl j U", . nd ....n., <I" lot,,, be;"! ...ill, , tOH'
' 1<nell" iom. Tho f.c<I of the ""n. >how oI'crn", ,our'" "rh,.d", .nd ,,,.,,11<,, ,'" tho oondin8 is ,,"," proh.hly
AI or Al, whi]'[ ' h, brick, thcm>cl'''' m" , uro JQX X').. "111 . "
Arc.. ."Ii,,, of Middi' Klngdum brickwo ,k h.v, b'''' di>co,,, ..d . t Too. ' om' roun,I"ino. of ,h. " mplo
ot"S,w'rI i. J. u' Ln g b, iel<>:n X 17 . 12<", On . iz. "
11<10.. follow> ,umrn, ')' of tho linnt. d In;o'm"ioo on 'h, brick uchi tOC lUr< i n <ult u' ' .. npl o f ,h. Old 'nd Middi.
Klnsdom., I h. I.... of d'''i!l lo. of .ur .... m.lnly dut to Ih, [,ct llul '" few t'mpl.. nf 'hi' '!' h,,,,, 'u....h,.d,
SL.1111ARY, cn.ns.roe us. ULV MIDDLE KINGDOMS
L,""I;on
Abu G"",b:
" ." ..,,, T
tI,"....rT.
!JlIba",-"
h pi 1T
.-lbyrlr".
I'<pll w, 1I
Vtlr Dyn
hUilJ in",
Xltlr Q:.'n
H",n"pdi"
Tom?!"
pylon. ..
W. "" Ii. .
Cnurt . _
E. , id ...
.l l ,i/, m",J'
11. 1<: . w,li

S;", klLk"c
<b.1"'!

sc,"'t,;, I
fOl mn>ti," "
10.1 A3 A6
10. :1 1" ' 3
Ir""
A3 lr"l ,
h "i,
xt
AI 10.1 "
8rkkSi,<>(cm)
-len" lonJ


36xI8x '!
from 19 X 14. 5 X
to J 'J.l X X 14.S
fmm 1'1 X11 xn
10 Jlx16 x ("l
fm'" 27 X(") x (' J
10 J lx I S.Sx S.'
I,om H, IS x 10.1
to
.m.IS x9
:-;01
8""","-w"1I " f lr" d",. Orick ho".
lI'hi lo.pl"'c,,tl brd ;wu rk
l n ol mur",.
Brick pylult' It w. II.
, h"'" "" .. Mu'l "" >.. """' .. .-l, ' '''. , . , ,,
,",
>t. I''',i, . U'.... . .. iI""" " . 1 IV H
" 1l00" ''''', U.. >:,'1.".. If. I ,
'1 "".on" "
5. N. .. Kinl:'!otn T..... pln .nd Cbapl"ls.
Eit"'tt,,'"Dy_Q'. " m id.. Tltobel.
.. ...., LI "- . " .. ....c ,._ .
"" . _ ' .T Ill. n
... h C. , _ ,,, ,, s.at
"', 11<1 , " JU< 'v.
.. , .,....., ,, ' ,,' T .. ..... I.I. ..... '
". ,. ' I.
. '-."' _ '"
... c _' ....
' u" h * 0,1: w.. undc r1ab n ,n I"" E.;p>... n' h [)yo \)' no II", -<itt of Ih. 0.;, .. T.mp!<.. AlI]od, "",I"dint
U.. = OOJm"; li",, cr patt " f , lit ' olnCn", .., II on ,lie W.., , ;de by TulI""",;. Ill . o. n .. b, ico of . h p' ;' .. ",t
_ .. 39 .11 . I::=., ..!In., ....... ..l1I<, 1>';<1<1 fuuod helo ,ho ... I., ,,,
...... ...,...... 60 .JO.S . 11.km. '" ,,",loll. f ,110 ..,I, bVuOft' . l.'''*'' y. 0'
AI ", III ..Ibyd'" .ro " U",t>.-, "rIt , ,,, u ..." ..d Amu';' l. all "r Il,..n <>f b" d" "..m,. hio" .._
,I.. . pHbc:t " t>.-I<>wd uf 0..,;,.." .. n .. 11,,, ,, huildi"ll iI t ';Od I' mpl i.b fm."'.", 1Il l::O:-
lado ,_. ""I'I"D"td It"."" ...-.u. ,lot fUll or I""" brio, "r "...k d I"" 01 uhl""" n.... hrlcl: n!
iI r", mtri of ,_"",>11.1 ,b", ..-.u. wi,h fdhnr 1Il ...... bono..... th.m "":lh " 'Oon '0 p... !h. awe_
cl . lint'< ...11 ... lIu!!,,,... occu, 01 0"1110. il!lide nf ,h. "okln"' ...11'0 pvt il '''';011 ,be
Pf"<I"lt ot ",. I., o! foIIlnJ."" Thi. ""'hniq... of fill, d ..011 .11.. ,",e" ""..d bo(ot< 0' tlto ..n' k" al
......"""""'. (S<e F.,JJ). '",,_10 iro _I)' lht ...... """ioo "f..mp!< 1>rI""L
......"1"" 1""'1'1< of Am",i, , ..ood a 1uoI( milel; 111 of the I...... of So" I, _ "",IN ...-lIh Ill",
Pl... "Tho.. m,,"uln. nll ro""il,'" h"" "" , "f Ou, cn . "d lay"" ,1>0 ""i' "fa ou''''' ........
""""""d to ill< ..... q....... o. Unl. _'"" u,1I ok..il!> ,..,,,<d. d r...... 'h. ", <pl ,,,..., ,I><
......I1""'l"'o1'" "-"is -' l ., . I ...:", ia ,,," PY"rnid lnnplo... .... r""" 4;:'S :O.S 1=.5
' 0 4S. S 12..0;."", I. ,h. ",,,"
'" "" """"U,.I Inl"""",ion l< ,ecoN. d In 110. I ple> ., Gul'<llJ <>< thnuya. lI>t 0..1,;'"
..... ' 0 h"... -a.,tpOtOtd hnct I<1bpIn 0( 'ho EqIlIt'rtlIb 10 t , boll> (;n.1ODd til<
Tomp" I\>d """" tIm><1,1S Dr IJ... m.",1 In ,h. fonn<t tile"""I w:>II oi llle HoII. '" Rtjuicirtr m.<
pylon, ..... " , jd buill. onl! fl ,, 1! ""' " ", >i d nd "", with 1t""".70 LeI' ul """" d .... ,. ,nlo , Ii.< "'101:...0.... U ..
.. Un ..,d _ fy .ho 'U"'''''' nu. ....0 """"" '" thopyl O\lJ. or 1M Small r pl.. ...1' " Ill. added. ,.fo
"' _ l"", ldod m'" ." " of "" ill 10 ' .,....,. " AI Ib< Small T plo .
bIIt1,..d I nol w:t11. , he " ""10 of .. It.. b ...... ) 7 19 l ot.Scm In In 'h."""..ndo, ofl lto , p1._
N<J doub! ,he (f "'l'l.. o f th ". could hI" ml ")' n,"'. ir\l. ",ll "-!l """" """.iu".1 reI""" !. ,,1__
IIuI. ""I> <ub;onl",. unlo-d ""y .h teluly In 'h. puhlilht4 tqWIrt. 1"hc..""", lot lhi. 10 " p1Iin . d ill ill. , ,,r..,. _
OtT'".-I t _ w ........... 111. wbtr. _ " ..I Plr. _ .. '" I...... boom "",...Iion
' hop' " <I n OI.;'1U" . nd m.,hOll, . " 0 door, of ",eh , "'.p'. '" lil y no,.. ill ' '''''OO' ;nn /Dlll """
f<om<L ...d iO II """,' hlo , h.t h. ......ot<d tn.. mind.. ,..
/,10_....-..._ k tloaI _.K'!oolocl ..... mf.......'Ioa ..... ..,. l bt ..bJ'C'l of 'lCp>r.,.
'" ...... or ,too 1 " nrle'y oI lM1dl ",. nadohl. C'" ., rho .
Amenho' tp n . ..e' ed ' I Ciro .1<fU1/ oh;opol '"d_'" ,he S!>/un>.. I" -..tu<b"" 1100 Th ..-.!II
!he , t"""'", art compotfd ",.,i<ll; Wl tb linn ' a::inI ot """'. die Ion., "-""i. poRliooot l>y I.. """ . ...., u-.
' n no .... y fi ..d 10 ' he ", icho, l:. At> Un' mrrntOIl loon 01 bond"" 10 n.'" 10 >Om. of lb' 'hiel: ....n. bei::I
AI6 0' , h. c:..,.." .. ""'..', that ,lot ...aII i. nwJoup or...nt,oI au. of un"""dod bu den _,aiM<! be, ..-.co:
,."..... ..... of Al l>ooolr<! \>r;< k_"- ( !lee " .8) A' th. juncli"" ot ,I,.....,.. oIJn:lDd ' be .n,,; vol')' .. ide
tilled ..,,10 ur}I. Tho odnnl>p: .".hio 1JI'l"'" h... boa ,.... If enabled. ,hio;k ..011 '0 be hud''''':111
" " " jl ...'n col!' n, ",,,,, y.o " k. ..It ,!>uul botIdinl . l lb. f""".,On lhe 0111.....,1.. . , of ' h. .... II> 'h. bn<l' ......
",,,,tI..d ...i ' b moo!, .nd ' h. .. donfl\Sl"'" . It 16 I l .S , l lkrn ll""u"''''' ' ,h.
... ,, _ s.. ,.... ' .......... ,Ir ,,"............
... ,.... _... _-_.. _..-
,", _-.,.. I.D. $. . Cir:o 'If ..._ Ill. , ...
... _ , " _ It> ' .vl." l ' ,.
a ",",, ' '''0''' ,,. "'... ",. , 0.. ... 'v'
' ... -.. 1&..
.. ........... .I.f. .. . _ Il ..... ... Ly ' .
... _.,...
The tompl. of lh, 10"'" of )<;ub' " ... iJI ' he l:igh"enlh Dyo..., y . hove ,Il<" m>inaof , arlier period.; ,hi<
r,c",,,t,,,,lion " .., occompliohed m:linly by Tu, hmOli, TTl . od Am'nho'ep II. whol< n' me<.,e "'mp<d "a 'h.
of Ihe . nd "",n.' "!'rob. bly ,h... brick " "'el me<would " 'igin.lly h. v. beeo ov, rl. id "",h lin. " ,,". '0 m. k.
the buildin. ' PPC" tu b<: m"" I. .. e,,"wucl.d ,h,n """ i" he' tho .,... Th, brick< .r< of ....
din" " " "" ' . flOm 38 18 I l.5em '0 40 10 . 110m, "
l l<d.>mod
TI" " nlj' , utvr.-i"i brickwork uf Ihe bghl . en lh Dyn" ty lempl. i" ",,:ill whkh onc, n",ked Ihe ex" ,, 1 of Ih,
"m'nOl. It i. built of bricks m.." " i,,! 37 IS I okm. Ill d In , ltem.l . ,une", . nd con'.x ..etiun., Bricks of
id.n,bl ,il< . nd fOlm." u<oci in Ihe PloIcllI.1e end ", u,", "flhe lempl 1I",,,,i"IIII. 1Ihe w,1l " f Ihe EighleenLh
'''}' "' '-' til< ,",urco of m' l"i.1> fur Ih, ],1"
EI-K. b.
Anumb<1 of l re>l briol; ...,ll, ..mound Ih. t.mpl. af HK.ob. of which tho innerolO,t pmb.bly dot" fmm th e Eigh'
<on' " lly n.' l)"." UHl e i, rcwlded ,buu' thi, "",ll.mOlt . u,ha" hO\'ing diocu' <od tho nlnoh auW . nclo. m bul
It i, likely 11"1 it " hibia Ih, ,umm"n ,..t ure ,"U"." uf brickwork. Nu m.ntion i , mad, of ...ood.n tie<
or l. ye", wl",h 0"" " '" uOen in ...,il, of 1m, typ<, bUI Ill, blick , it< i, ".l.d 10 b, 37 18 X lOan. "
Hi. rak" npoli"
D<,pi" '" " "")" nnJ, uf.rct" i, d, l< ill Ih, I,mpl, ' ''' , Ih, bnd, pyloa, and w.Il,:ill ",lans to lh. , <comlruetion
of the " n,pl. ill the Eit/1"OI '1 11 D,nw y. n.. , j,< ur tho b,ick! " J7 x I 9 110m"'I'J' OI" ,hi, datins K,"'h Lorge
dimen, i"". unh..rd of in th e A" h,,, POIio,l. II i. I'loh,bl, th.. the " . 11, ...... , ..cd WI th 01 011' ."" ill IlL, bnck
t, mpl." Nub'.
SU/ll\!ARY: EIGHH E.," r H TEMPLES OUTSIDE
I.",. ' i" n
GiuJ.
Amenho"p II
' h. pel
Gurvb .
Am. m a..
GI l<mpl.
SJm]1Tompl.
B.J.n'
Ab.,<i,'"
h Lhmom lJl
"'"
\1),"" ....Il
I;: om OlSull.n
NuM.
Jle<iamu<i..
n ;;' ab.
lJiaakmrpolf,
/Iondo
' "
Siz.,(orn)
.1:l .5 , 16- 17,), JO
37 .1') x I4, 5


x 13 . 11.5
W-l JO.5 . 11.5


40 x 20x 12

37 , 18 .10

Sloo<<lSing un..-.JI!
Iltid 1....]>1
l. "ll' in b,iok pylon.. Slon,-f".d
hriekwo,k
AI, ebannell '" timb lie<in pyi"",-
Briek temple
a
B,ick ...all, &. pylon..
I::ncJ",u" w>ll.
Inner lem.n", ,,'all.
Orick .... Il, '" pylon. r...d with ""',,.
"l w... ... ., . _ ", 'L<" " .. I'l
>"
.,. . ... h K"". ", >.,.,'d.wo"'" "", , 0-)'
OJ. "u., ,,. .., ,""", ..
""
,", Q ".., . J.I:''' G,,,". F.""//"". Oo"".'i, II, ... . , I'l. lUtE.
"" ' >W. . I< ,
",un 'o. G" "'" . " " a_ ri, I. , 0->0 .. XXIII. un
l;41H....lt flo DJltffJ . '
Brick WI,I, ,,,,'la"" of , h. F4ht.cn' h Dyn..' y <>:0' I I , h, ' cmpl<or M"", o In . ad lIaond 1'1<01,=
... apIoIIy ....... IU ...... "'" I:L.-.e. . f1. ", I of ....... <luprl, ...... or ' he :i"ew Kinpl"", I:I<!
1ft r..l . ,I>< bri<k r.dls of.am< '" llltwn _ bo.,.,.lIIlIt< ill" -""ute ..,n of lho tmlpk. "'"' ,"ib< __
"""'" rem",,,. of On !:.ighl.rn,h Dy".'y bad.un,;, PO'" orwh><h ,.... .... n f"""d on n,b. , lid. r>f 'ho ......_ ..... _
only' mLnr>, u....... lo.d ",,,,i. I .I .leh !'OInl . and ,n. nnly "",,,Iii"'" . oncemin, lh. brick. 1I 1h>1 ,be y . '0"
Rbr"W.'"
F.-I""" mo.- ai k1c_ k ai 1IliIaoc "'"'" ill I'" pi" ai \be .-... """'0 lho (.......tIl"""
0(0 ",d1....al W ,"" lomplc ""ff 1>0<0 d..llftlo,J. ' 0' Th1l.';>1l ploy .u _""" ",,01 ",oNbly . 00....4
".. 10 ""Ith lh. Ei"'.' nU' DynOlly JOt< ""hose ("""dalk>nl li<cl_ 10 ,h (tlh... <l . nglo ,,(lho
.....""'t<'. ' 01
nu.. "OI pl. ..... . ""'_ by 'hlcL"", n of ,nad b,i<1o:. pUll. red "" b<><h r""", and . """",.4 ""' h ... "",,'h.lnF=l
..,..... .... _ I<> hiI:b. b lh. final dcolp. bno; L l')'loo.-.. oddord .. ,hf oOS' ado. /4. 11,1" _
01" ....pod bm:... h... """ ..""clod. .."... ......... hoi. 1",, 011 ....1). .. 01101.... pam of the ,... I
Th, Nn", is ' llIOof 'ho dlfl . ",n, .. . .. 01 b".k, .mplo)td, lbe hn. h In Ih. " " om 01 Ihe b""l ret.. .....
la.rp. IlI, n Ih_ In Ih. _ 1tm po,l. , . , 1>kK< of lho 01' .. f. U(nlo """ al lh= ,''''' p<:J7-----1l 17-3 I I
n 3 . 1._.... 1101 11_:!aIl ...d 4().- 1 11'-9 . I!-km. " U">Iff!o' few of 1M I""'nbod h,i<" nnw in ma...........
O<I<tI1dor>bly ""......
The bomdm! of 1110 pylo""nd ....m ."I. of , hc ,.mpk" A: or .u. .. In t/w; k ....... 01' brickworlo:. 11>0:
the '''0= 1... ' ''''''])' 101. th. horl.on"l JOIn" bcifl! m"" ... d "'HI' mud.
Only''''' .. ,,>11 , "'pcb ., Dei, , IM, "I" . d.lO f,,,,,, , h. Eiph' "'h D)in"ly. oJl ,Il< oIl><, ", ILi i"". mo,mm' nll
bclonSU'l: 1011.1 pc......... The of <h.M' ''''1''10 is 4c<lic. lcd '" Alncnlm'<p I . od Qu<." Ah,n Ncf. tl .ri....d
....u 1tid.!be Sarth "'.... -d. oltho ,.,., _ pf thf IhDuI or Uo.i> lndlo1aol.
u< huo. d AI. bul " '" bri:t _ " no<"""nIc,J. . 0' 111'11< in..rior"" thf ........ I"" 11 wilh paol....
un \l<hich ."ioUI "" "" h.d 'Iou" p"nlOd
\\'lLItin ' he I'lolcm>" I<m",,,, ' ''''<h . oh, !",1nail, T 11 1. ,,,,,fcd hy b,i: l ,,,,hlll,. ' " ",d Ih. in,m.z-
lr. _ ..II with ICaIel OIl llle p!a>' co._lin,,h I. In f..... ' 01 \h. <Jurel tlud pilla.. of ..... o<cuun. r"""""
or tIf1<b _ ''''! JO. Ij 1 &.",. ......m1 ...... ..m. no, pb.1<>
Tho M" .....!)' Tompl. nf TafhOl"'io IV.
Thi< ............ 0Iipu!Iy ..... ""-<I by --Iinf -all ",""-' 01 "nel<. "",.. o( .._ .. iI mlUiB ...
'M 0If<. I"The bo,k k bod .. A: Of A3 bondi"l and ""' .u) I 1 1) ' 10. 01"') ' >UlDpin bn n, " ;IIII pcd ..r..:
Ih, 1''' 00''''' '' of , ho Kjnll- I\ n ... t,.Y<fl '" ' imh<t ,icl '" " ",d in l h. "' ''''o,L." .1 In Iho <Or' or IJI,
the ,..,<ti;:Jj ;oml, . r< ..'" wid....01 unmOft....d.
Tho r...t ' wo Pl-'Io,," or .hUI ...."I. dar. r""" (" . nt>.c<metll ",,<I<. Ho,.ron.h, I"" onpmd II""", .. huHl l' A1
!lquol .. d>o 1hiI-.I pyka nloPlr*>l' k IOf1l" " ol bn<b ....""""'" 40-: x :0 " 1=(>1'1. """'y boom.,; . n . OII'pvi:lJ.
the!WI" of 'ho .. 1h< or tJpr &Pn- Tf' I, """ f." . Iloicb . "" ' M ilw:ripu<'on . ... '" tho
" " ,,,. "'.", in ",10., po'" or It>< bwlJ;"I . no..bly lhe So"'h ,i de or ,h.<nolo'ul. ",'011 , 00 11' the Il",d ""'tl . AI _
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porn'"howon,. th<lni<b or. aOl Ju.mpod ..,4 . .. .....u... bel... 36 111 112"'" In .u.'" 10 lho Fa<' par' ollb.
I""'plc...h... Ho' omhob u,mdo4 th<hOlildinJ, ,1'1< bn.:lo of IhoIUs, ""loa _we.\(l , 12<'11'1. boo, . onIIi:Illo..
1oII1d Iblll <boo< 0..4 tl)- " y, " , To .0mp"I1' ''. fo, 'ho brop4ritia of Iho lfrr>ill lho .......... .il. "" bn 1...11od priI><
10 th<'omln><'iuIt of ,ho ,""",,". _ Ir.Kb...- dl................. I IS I 8<:m
NuurHl 11>0 SdIII T" or IblNl .... _ ... wolb<>i11M: Lp,,,,'I> 0,.....,.. >lI 1IUI ....
""1 ..,. 11atIhop.... no. ..,Iiool ... ..n. of Ioof _ "'" ,... , ..... of 1loo umpIo:. rho""'.."".. loelnl "",,_ d 011_
"'aof bnd.: Jl I 16 " 'Ic>n tod .\(1 1 19 I 11<111. "'" Ill" P'O"P ba.TiJlI tt2mpo of ....IWpat. , ' . 1..0'..-111 h<rrolPl
th<Quem dos''''I'.d!heW " ' ....' 0..... ordu,o or<W;l a _ WID. ' .1Om in __"" .... ,<mplo. " ' nw bn<b
.. , h. hn" ol,lz W3U ... JJ 16 . 9I:I1II in .......h.... 'h_ lIIl lI.. fOOf. "'.."',. .00. 19 . IJan and Iff: r"'l""aoJy
...", pod " '
""'" of th. Dyn.u' )' ,alhWO .... ...U !NIU, by III. .. . ,..... I\lIDlO <JOC\l n "" tho
brick.. ,,,d 'Iood 10 !lie \\.' . .. of II.. . "<t",,,,,, or It" . ...p. UI , TllJ. wall ..... 1.HSn, rhkl:, .<1d ..' ho<ill af bride, 11'1. ...,,"1
J8 . 18" I and <o"",,,,,,<d n<:ll I'" t<mpl. "'"' ""I ..oil)' <onnO<l , d wit" It . " .
111. T<mplo or Anl< nh" ,.p. " 'n al H, PI'-
11Ii< " mpl<. "'"ami d "", ' 0 MrUi"", H. bo. II ''''''u''l<a of hnd ,. 40 " 19 1 11:m In .i,.lil a in AI bond inl
In lb. lhinnor ",.n. I nd III AJ in lb. thi<;'" 1111.... "r b,l<k.." , k. '17 Tho OIl'" 01", 1"",,, . .... 1I i. no, JI'lI' or ,I><
",,! ,nll pl !NI, dd, d III ' ho T.-.n' i<th OylWl y. ,, ' " I ,b. ,...- ..r,... lompl lmmrdi. lfl y bo,Olt lho ,b, oc
....<ru.l il l Ir IulI.,hicb ,.,. looftd .. ; ' h . brick lt ..r 7.7lh . ..... " .... lan.",he . , , .."'110
r.... I:.fto in I ",blr ", Tho b' ....... of dli ..w, oInly 1_ on WI' lid< tbon ,hoe o, h '" 'b., rhoy
...._ lil. lJnIOry _ pod rorm, 1ho I<1UlI d,......" _ brul .\(I 1 I'll l 7 6.-m for 1M ,"'.mll
b'udl1l, """ 'hie"""'" ....po.dr.' Tbml .... bo "" doubl WI tlIo ..w, ... of l)pt d I. tIM: u...
m.. I>oi.-t> bciIIJ d!1rX1.ri<I...- of lhiIIlftIId< of .....,""', _ Tha rooCtq, ud ..n It. ... 11<. iI ,10< '...
-...oaW"";pulI). b_ ........_'"",..;m ..'kiuoed ",""".'"
It.....m. of ',.0 ""III "'''''',,'')' ,....pI<T. b... """" f...... ...... '4odin.. l b btl. """ II...du\tJo;orlh nf til< 1<rrqV of
Am<nIIOl<JI. """ of ....p , .d tho 01h0.r '0 lb. Sw'h. n lbo No>rthTrn>p!< bll ....u. """'ID or AJ boachn.. ""t"
...uy . "'C,ed ..1bpi.., lb. .. ""''''JUIII33 .. 4<rn and .. 16 .. 'km.'" A' thoSotl'b r . ",p!<.... bnndon
..... AI..,d and Ih or rho ...". .. lOcrn.'" Th<o< I.." l<mpl.. ...1t probllbly .... man " .ryd.. p""
"r pn " Iadivldu,b, "'..h,nd ,h. hu!" llWrttJory I.mpl. of A",rn!>olr'p nr, In rhe ...... way as timiI.,. 0I" p"1
....'. hudl l<l,md 11"' (; "'0' T<",.....{ M<din.. H. h...
Rem..", of 'tmpltJl """ ...,iod. u,I;.., llun Soi ,. '" Ptr>l i< limeo 1I01 011nu, 1y ' ,er I. , h. lloil bu' . r....
I,a:", of Ill. No.. ...... .....,., r"""d. A' R<1 b. flf W I pl.... ndoro.. _ , """ '''JOIN 'II ,,.. r '
lt lb Py"'''! . of _It>""" ........ 4 7 .. 10<n0.1<"\"lKuI urb.. .-.II of omalIel bnclu. , ..
f\"1... _ ...n. d ...."*""0 II IkliDpola ...d T. II . J.V " .h .. .... II< inlfql...<d.. Ily"",,, ........pmon n.
.. h "" Iuo 1!JIIfd, "Jlbfy II. fII'.lK lildy 10 10< tiro< l""'f'l< ..-. built for ..-DOI d
_od.. In-'of II.. Ia"" ..... il _ , IN: ...d lIlal . .... I I T.u <l-Vuodl<h if, ltWII .. ,,-ndulalill!
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. o.... " .e"d .. Ill toOCI d ,0_1 ><:ehon. >nd lat on 01... do0,,' borOOftD ..-..y lou,1h "" r.flh_
)I>nt of <I.. bn<b >0 pod 110 rhoP'''''''''''' <If ""d 'n'll " . .... dim""';"",, . ' . 40 , :0 , 14=. ' "
thoSou,h ...d bol ..:do< (If llo d " ..... 'ho wall 10 .... food by .... .. ,'-, ... .10< ""'" I.. . , tho .." 01
lhoIf.It II piotco<l bt <mod Indinf " '0 ,I>< OIi..iooI. "Tho I rd ' of Ihi> 1", ,".1"',,.., riltp oflnid .... 1IIo
f>c<o' Ill<uPP'l' ' h,.. or. of "'difl;ory . ...d lho ,............. Ii... ... of bri,:lI WeI emed.., ' " lh. ..by r" rrtUnJ
!btl wrb of ' l'P<bd_ "" un""'l1 r..,u" iolbe r.., ,h.. ,h. bricl< oflhe 1"..... r.. , .ou....... of 'Iloo _ iollr lI=
r",",", " " ,mally nnployld in . ...,,, of I.,,:bn. d rUle> "r h.iok..m k (It I'" J I bu' no.. (h. t . ,. ".. d 011 1of Ih'lr ......
Illd "" "de!' JlAl .. ord\lYry btl. " ..."' t""- of only .... ",,,", .-pI< of ""_ of tpo.."i>I bri<koill !ba
...." .."'. ill til. uduod p ' . ...I,. of rh. ' ll<nb of " ".,n o. mh. , .. Th'!><1 (q, . r .S1)_
ThoWICrio. uf the ,,,,,001 .. tho 0.;,_ II ""''''''''lid ill _ ......J fhlun. _ .... "r n.. ' OL'U..d rinp of
boio: k....t. ., ... ,hi.th. I*' of 1"" n ul ' II . qul"llffll 10 'tpo d I <If Ito. Cor-pu. \I<i<" " . "'"'" _d III .-
co.-m;I j>b.., fw lho IIO<l, n. d _ ...... l/>rir d1men>io<u hoiD!44 x 1(1 . 40 . 1<m. The ' '' <11 k "gtll or id. ", ..
o!lln .. <to< ,,, .... b,ick boi"" al'!h, I,. (U d ", lUll I'" ......."'DI or .... ....Jl.' ..I>pi.. ,hi< ." 10 1< ....
1wI<J.:s r., porIectl)' , tmI1Ilb"u of 1""..' ""' .. f"""d """"out '<l ll1l ,h. ,Ioi. " III . n b"' Ill. 1<1,,",",1' ''u,," TIl<
lay... of lb. lo' U""d r--n of lb. 0 11 10.. 1I......ld.y 10 llq.... ' 0 N.....h lAdSouLII, ... W , ,t.< Cou,'" <d.
DIJlor ., .. 17IrJ< 0[204<[ 11lis lf d.,,;'l"" ;, Iho rOIl""In ' 110 .dminin,,' io'f boilcl;q... Ill. 1tmIeuo c::e"
in Doi ' ...._ I01 ' '''''b .hopob.
" ...... dupd of 111m...... lJ .I . " d. bn ido ,h. " , l.mr'" of ", . h a' ....... pb" . ...d i$ ...<1-.1 "., ,h... lli4a
", >11 ill Iltkktl " . " 0 Tht boIIdlnl " j thq ..II iI ..\1 o. AJ, bu' Do oin. for tho .... . ..d. Allh....p
chopol il..If Jlooe-bIId' . Lbo p yloo ..... rormod or . ....... of """""'lin&IImooI mlbdy of Izd
wlthin I , lIIn <:ftinr Dr . lon . '"
"iIIUll. ,....pIoII J,tnn,...... rol>ULl, l>y Lm...... II p.""d. d WI 'h III ,"" .. rI......... n.' " 110< of tl:a
. ""k,.,,,. >I . '" u ' l'" IOU. " .,:q:m! 45. !O. JUom. ODd ... bl lUIII< CUOI JlImpH. ..lIh tho rumc: ,nrhee KWI , ..ttl:
lho . p" "'1 Kboloftd of , ..
_ .... or b. id<wurk. u '. ,tdlniquc .. 1Ul:1Ih "." ooly ' n rin lly Erllpti>ft. but ..hieh I. ",.04 III P\u..""i, Ulft" 0IIi)
f." ltrnrlt ..1IlJ ftW1' bcr of >ius f."", T. n ..Y>Md1do I to ",du4l .. 110< dun "., 6'l
Al Ibf aea'br . 1. of Totl 01", 10 ,"" !I.ull bOSI Voila " maim "rI I.... ,.... p1. ....n of Ibf T fI<'"
born disc..... ..d, lh. "'.... "."ltl''' ""d puI"h. ' br b,;,;1t> 41 n . (' km in 01 ' "
Th" mnpJe" l1hoth ' I U... mopuli. bid .. ...01"... .. ",>II .un",f."", ' ho ......1I<' b whOdo _ .........
W,;,. La,. r'flj,,1l- ' I' 10 til<,"ttI.. patll <If Ill.. ..,.jI lt.< ,. 40 . 8- . <m '" ril" "M'I "''''. o,h"
"r",. !\ow KiDrdoco WIthin dI. ' ........... h... br l;:.. """,...,l"ll )S... (,,I. If>. 18. 1> -., n
" rlt of """'.. lty Sc'; II *'" 1100 I'" ' ,emenOl. hod I bu"RUed onclo<lnJ ...u """'pnood. Or It!>=b
0l'l-2 1'2-3 1..'1.,. "" IDoil Io,d in .."'.. ,mpll' boodio!,- , ,..
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r pIt .
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bri<: b
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of ...,w, = "'3\'ll I><->' Su. flC1nll e....w _ . ,..__ 0(,. waII -.... 40. ::0 . I_Ill
.... . """ . .. ",couted ...111 .... in tho IKMin>n J"'0'"
" number of ' h'p<1> . "" ......1" mpl.. nf "l,ner_ oh ' 0 TW<'1l Il<. h Dyn....y d,.. ...nd In >lid .....nd the I'hJkmal<
It n,pl. <ndowr. I ' Dcl' 01Modi". Th."" <hapell ' Ie Ji'u' led ..,' hin ,h ...,rlosu" , bol (0' oM or t h"", "" 101:1> ...
.." I,bl. I ll. IOm,lnin, ' ''' 0 hod pill, ,,, of btit t in Ih, (",ee,,"" I nd ",,,I> of typ< . 10'0'" Ihe lnnc:, dlornb<,. .
>lllh!! b'I<h,'o, 1< be"', oum d ""lth ""hi" pl. ".!. ...
Soli I built, . m, lI 1. ",p1. tu Il ll hm, " m'lo of ,h. I" " ' . men<>l , btlt 011th. 1can be , Old of Ihi. , t ' Oo<Ul' i>thll I'
""'" c" n.u ucte<! of whll , pl..I. "d . nd 11 ..1....,I1Od ..,"I,""'Y.t "
O;>po<>!0 ,h. OIl< of a" ''''''pie !l . nd ' wn . ",,11 """' 'Om,,,,'' cf Ro. me.." 11 " . rho mOlt ""o l h"ly of 1_
,. ' '''pol, "" !m,lly ...lIh ' -'Ul101l buill 01,.. ......t hri<h o' ih. E!Jht..n' h Dyn:uty. """. of oohi,1I ... .. n tmp:d
....tll tho n'm. of l u,hmo>ll. IV onol m. ",,, .d 3S Zll 11.m, luJ1I1" " mt h. ' h' "" ond bOJJldiJIl <>1 R, ....,.,..
Jl . , ....,. ,...,plr ' <> Am"", lIJr brlc: k w.n. nl .. hi.h n" .d ,), bo,h pWo , cd " OUIl<-. . . ..
Anotho-r bric;k<h:apd of Ill....... II " ,,1<11 t o tho ' 11 uf 1110 01...... I'mplo. bIIt no "no:tut:.lllI(or"" lioJI Ii
r=>nI<d ..... for ,,," Ia<:< th>! -.. roofuq. """ rnJPloy!. '" CIo-... '" ,Ills ' Is I T'woalt,nh ell _pol.
..,_.. OMI"'I G. n. III .....n bnol<s of ... ,yiJI. ..... _ .... Tho>w of ,bo 30- 1 16-1 I 9 - 1O<m. -.tIikT
orI-...... lbry .. 40 I :!O I t2clll. .....p< ", lb< ""ka, -..tIcoc I'" au io .. ... AI . <eTUiJ< "'....
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>Iso 0<tw1 lEI l lf< out.......1of ,he t....pIc-.i \lul b tlf<Gro" '/o'l1Ian<l. !be ....' er ",.m .... hooJIl 01b<icl.o lIOU.orinl
4J1 211 1ktn, '"
Th, mo" " m".ol. " """ " uodln,, nl ,h. ' . mpl, ..oro ' notillf .tIl , ' " n,..n .. ,If< Inll" End ll<U!<
Wall. ... ..hi<b ,.., ..iHn.tr., ' biock an" hod u lopinl "",It I. 70m bi",- f o.... " t>um .In"l th< fac. at 11lt. ""b
....bou' l .SOm bey'*'" ,he....n. The fl>llJld."lDID or' "'n., ' hm iD F! l PLisrl louiklio'c.lJId 110
-.. ' 0 ' 60pdl of ZJn. .bib !be bri<l_k .....
One of ,bI' ",.,......11. in ,h. p" '",,,,,, of 'h. ,....Jlle r:ut d_ ' 0 ,If<olde, 'em.... of 1101""1'10'. and in f... _,.
1. ld on< nf the Oyn.. ....1' , ",,,und th;' , .. R." " ,," III a brld pylon <n .. ,..11 ' n >lI(l'O.
....... to 'h. Swil l Tempk. 'h. brick. of ,hll. """,," oct in. bolnZ4] Xl I Ik ", In ,it. .oIlhno[:h ",oo! brick>bu '
me !be srsrnpoof "-"bol<p III iPtII Al 01", ""'" iD ,ho r.....'...b p,..... __of \fcdin<t l hbu '*'
The mOl' n 'ml!" """..'" of 110" or< '" I'" I)ool u found . , T. n... ... ... Jl""P of II.... ,,""'..... ,.. ",""""d
111. " mO" " mple' TIle " tll"l of ,b, " " .., II,,... . on" n.",d by l'N..nnrl I ..nund Ih. Gil.. r.mpl l11d
'0bforo'. t1y , ,",, "" ........ of I.'P' n'. "'1< " ',tod SlIoshonk III \t on'" :uJUOd. " 1.. I. .., ill hi>
..w, "''''''' n.., ,he mcloou,. _ '0 "" <!tied to R 11; II,,,, he ...ioed tbio ''''0Ill)' tho' t'"
woll o<pbI;ed. , ho, of 1llll io_ llo>, ,too tuI layouc _ _ !be lJUp/<zt'" 01 RDneoH, lL 11oio
iou'mnel)' onbkety. soh pniated filii by Van S. ' ....d ,... ........"" of fcoolb t_ ....-nlkc> be"..t11 ,h
..-.11 """uld tr od to In"" " , b l., d,I.. .. lin,.. ,...,Ili<t, of , im.lor fnrm ",",otr<d hen... h lhe w. lI 011\0..,,
,.... , .. I ... no ''''0'' ..loy '10< I"!>ok of , h. lar l ' .nd".",boold nul be ... rib, d '0 Ill. .'1\0 , !to ,"n,tN'
cte.l lb. F""'" pylon""""'" throuih Ill <ido.'"
flIl1l11tC _ ' 0 .....".,,, ... . of I..... o.aI>, li nt , ...._ . , lie '"--... Thef't10 DO
....b... 'o .he oboe 01 tbio waD. waoe.ho bn.u_ oIl ......"'d "" b ,he 01',... Phu.,lILto. Tho
46 1 15.km. nd. CO"'''''Y '0 u.. ..... >1 P'''' '''' in lempl",,,"l,,,,,,.., ""d in 1. ..1"""..... L->.y. n 0' rudI
"""" In Wm, nf ' b, jot"' , . and " !teil!l" "f ].60 , nd 4.lS", or, t" o .. !o iT< 1;,... ..-h,,, ..hit< pi.." , b..
"".ft ....d .. . ",,,,"r.'.,
T1lt Grr.I Girdle . .. ..r ..... !eml'lt " I !lamoro><. mII b<,..-o. 10 """ l llh<'1Q1.bic:k I I ,to boW'. -.tit... II 10 f<llllldt<l
"" .ho ""k.II:Id is I<J I ",,1of 0r$IUlI)' ..... ", aIll1.>d VIYll _ . .. """ I " ....1:0"'. "">.MI
PU' r<I. ""hn< "".. diupp<>nd. The fa<. of ,he ..nh.u I oIi"" bin..... ",,-.lnced .. ""'" SI<ppIIIJ 1110: \lfl<L
\/.."'. bid . " h ' O"rs<. bUlln olh, n th< b' ''h 10 1/1< >l uI'" of ''''' f"". ' UTh, 10".'
", .'bud nuUt .IK """' '''' lIru1l\l ihc: formof , co"'..... ' I.. ,be t!lid" "" oj Il,. wil l. ".b" "", in hi.J 8. On Ito.
<:II"" I.." 011 ..... jo;nts . ... ,.,..,ted " 'h mud. Iou' ill !be ", ..nuI .",k DD """'" ..lu.rson-.r ..21""'l'1,,!,CII . 'h....toy
"",l iota; !be _ 1",[ po<! of 1bI' counes I ""'-< _ ,he ro r... obiI . +If<ITI>OO. .-Itido
11........ CII<II'll:Ili.... bfl<ks .... l:rid <Ill tb.., "'<II ,!>ou' " -'1)' <i"<,b "'''''''. ,.;oi", ohe Inri toy II or _ ....... l'I ""
38 of GiroI" W.II . 1M" I",., 11011<,
,,.. _ ."-1;........ .... '
;L
"" ' a
."" MOl" ,,,, IJ.. .... ,<. ,v. >, nO'"
If....... ;L
J'"
' ... -. l ln.
' 01. -.u. n __lY./'
Th. o" t. r . nd """ . ' .. huJl 1rI on""I. ' ing , ou"". Ih, oonc... ""li on. p,ojoctina On th, f.c, boyon" th"" ""hkh
" " <on...... Wood' n b.om, It. b jd in lh'OII1J1 ,h, n, m of hti' Kwo, k, to >el .. aids 10 m bilily. Thi.l v.,t , ncloour<,
, I>. id.. n" ..nno! 300 x 4OOrn. i> I 7m lhick .nd oomp""d or million. of bri<:ks, the ditnelUions of wlsk:h . " 4 0 I 19 x
lJ, m . nd 41 1x 21_" xI4cm.
W,thin tho " "" nO' is h" Ud illll wh"'h Munl c' "remd '0 .. ' TEdlfie< eo IlriQues ("'.... . ". Thi.l muclo,., whkls
hao n.." be," "'t i, h et n, ily .xpl'ined. i , p,ob.bly of Tw. nt y. First or T" ,n'ySecond lJ)In.. d' t., , ince fouocUtion
..cnli", "mil" 10 those ben..th the , " d o." ro "" n. of the te"'ple ,,"'.r< foond under I" , ornen. 111 U <oo,im of .
larr block of brickwOLk ron" illilLK " umb" of co"' p"tmen" . , nd w" built in Two !e";OO' , th. W. " . rn
part boillg fom" d bJick, wjtll ",J .nd the East er n p, rt of ' 10. 110< bri ck, ",i, hoUl ".d loy.",.l7: Tho
' '''' nor w,u, ha,.. ,It, ,,,,,. , ou,.., "rI,o. o", . nd ""' Ichm laid on , oo"",v. bed, willl, t the ."gI .. fl, .. the form of
bondlIl! u, u.lly .."", i,l.d wlllL 11 10 A r>mp l>Cend, tu Ih, top ofth, foood, f' om tn. dl'e<;tion ofth.
G,.., Tompl. ' " Th;, i" " 1"'pcll'"1 puin!. fUf j( >llOW' th, t , h, . urviving rem, io, >T' but t ho pbtfn'm Up Otl "' lIl,h
",me w"' con!l ructor!, ..-1'0" .ntr, ,,,, I.y.t t l.. tup ur n", ,. mp. o"'c we ,,,Ill.. th. t w. or. do, lIo&wit h OOll'
Ih, ,,,,,11 ot her 1.,lu,,,, ol lh. huilcl inll or< "'1,l, jll,J. .. the . b",ncc of.IlYd""" I><:''' <en the 11l " m:1l
, h'mb<", .nd the . 1m0lt ' ol:rll" k of . fty occup>tjon deb, i, in 'h, room>. '" ne oompartment, In the bnckwOlk w' re
m",' pmh,hly rn..ndod 10 b, till. d up with "'''01 or to 10m' , T" .. I p1>(fo"" l1poll wlliell '0 "'n,T,uot
"f",m, kind, . ,OW 01Ihh""".n\ of th. romp low.rd, t h, G,.>1 T' nlpl" ,om, f01ll 1of,m, lIl"" jpt " .1
ch. pd, whOM: olo>" ed ';t u. uon Oft th" pod,ulrllik, foundation W\l uld b. , ntir. ly ;n with Egr p'i. n
bd1d.
TI,i, i<,,<\, n,c' 'Illy ..""'pic of ,hi> type nf found"l on, , i", ;!>, "Ilul" plotfo,,,,, with I,,.,lfill. d , on, p.,tm, n"
h, ,,ln be,n f,,,,, ,,;,, \\"nh Saq""rl and Mell, ,,," d, , " :dlhou1J1 ;n t h.loll., e..' h, "u, na' U" w:o; not ,,,,,n"!)ti,,d.
OJIO o,h.. h,H c,. ,," ", hoo ' l Tani>;, wo, tlly ofment;on, Ihl> the .nelo'u.. wJil ofth, temp i, of AI1 ... So
..mct u" l Infnl n"'i,, " i, " ..i],I >1<. bUT' std, ruunll . Ttlri,, '?1 >llOWO th" ttt. ...;]1"''-' ..bun, ,\mad., th;, b<ing
jHnh,oly Lhe b " " '"c" "',, ",'h,," of the t'tldO'Jure,
B,iokwNk 01 the re;!n of Am,,,. <>co un . h n at .. ln the I""od.t ioo. " f ,11, le,,, pl<.' " It w. , the ", u, 1
p"otic. in l:lte tim" I" djg oot [uund.Tiom, lille the e".., ted "" ",1 , h. h,t, k .. "I"Lng .... 11. .." I ftll tr
up wil l! nd, ( o= qu, nlly t n. S'o" ..m il"" of wlLi<:h ,ootain,d tlLo foun dat;on l>lld I. found ill
Lbe eXr loralwn of ru;n.d lomp l" period. " ;n TIL;' co,. at .\kno". It eon,i,t> of. w.n thick, , nch lng
,n or.. of 29,4 x 2G.Gm, with tho inlIer f, ,, , upp-omd bl' bULlr,"""" Intc"a],. " .
A' S , uk",Li, tho G.. " T.n"no, cons;ot<d of. w. 11 buill orbriek, m, ,,,uri ns 41.5. !t x I t .m. p.. .. ",d to ,
height of nlD< metr.. ' n ' Om' hL,Il, n" rtly t, m, no> Apollo .t Ihl, . It . P"ri. found d.co,"I.. moe""
cOl....d In >t on., WblOh Il. COl1,I<I: "d ...ore>01 Jnlo th, b, ick...urk orou"d the of Ih, ,ndO<ll". '"
Th, I<mple " G' m.;y. n1j '" wo; ",,,oUJld,d " ,II ,pp,ux; m'le1y 8m in thickn, ,,, bulh of l,ncb n" "urlng
41 x 23.; x (')cnL of Ih. 'Tlck, woro b ill ., h" " m , bu' Iloa, nlOb.M: fe... ' 0""'" .... " set , t ,n ohllque
.. ,[;1 " "' in Al 7 All 01t h, E,,, .. , 11 h.d b"o robuill in PIOl, mui, Ti me, wilh bri, ,,," uf 40,5 20.5 x ('!)cm
forrn>T, ' "' ...Illi" th, otiti0,l " ""lUrern , y to ,h, T""on,y-SI'lh DYIl"'Y, Th, hu" . lsu he, " rep.ired "
.1",., d.tc, the bmk, ill tb i, ' ... H x (Olemill ,;,c. ' " WjthJn lire IOmon", . "hd, "" "" ofbullrli np h,d
, , ; ' '''", , ,.. ... I'l a.
"0, ,",,,,,let, P. " . 1.. , ,,' ." ". ",".. .. "" "'. j" ,." ,...
''' . I,"", ' .. , ... l'I. XXX V " L XXXVL
,n ',"", " '"
t n. J>Jd., 1'1. XXXVII,
" ., ,,,.1.. ,"-
" .'. ,;w., , .
,'.. ",,,,,,,,,, .,. ".7i.
17>. " " .. .. ...
". ,," lL
"0,
laO, ".1,." "", ".L, N."" .." I," .' "
..l . , ., n" w. " , l'.. """ ,,'II. I , , 0-
I ., " " ;'. "".M. , '_ ... , .."n"" , "-'.... T.", II. " 0 ,.,. xxl
I H ' >!d" ".
,."- ' 001., " ,
So, ...
tore'> ronslrurtc4. ')'int in ,J,at. {romS>i" ", l'Iolom.... ti.......be d"" .....,.,. of !he lm::i:.I ,1.0, lbt nd>
It!.Iq II' , ...... of "Ie, , uOlIh< ..."plr 11O<lf. 00I1y lh. qow!H1I,d {"""do_ d,Ko' d. """"
pmml .. "'c11OllJk "r bJl. k ...011. m<2>II nng 21"" b11II, " r l:ull" IN..... oil 11,) .. 1ft , A..",ib..
{OUD/J.ltiun ..,. f.,1Ind.t . ho or S>.11I dol<, ' 110 bn<b In .. bcuI.s " r 4S.s .. 22.S.. l.;em I_,.' "
Afn< <kwh (,,,,,, Olllon >th. liltel ue .. liI< "''''"'''J' "" J'o'll< 11>.
, r"'_ ' , , _
" fI _ , ,u.
_ ... _ ._ , " __ 04 ...
_< 0 ......_ ..,. .. ._......

. ... ....' (I ""'." .
,... 1.", -.,.... .Jl"4 0-
t ... _ .. ,., .......
''07 _,... C.o_H A ".Ul. .. 11 .. .... ,_,,,
"
, ... ' ....... 4 . I. ... n '
1M. -. "-
" '. -. ...
' u. __ . "_lI. .JA II " 1. '"'. "-
.... .... J... .. u J.,_.I.
rtr.fi. II. I lL x.
. . .. 1"""' . ...... . J"A .. " .. ....
1.1'"'''A.. U.' OI. ... X'. "
n._ [_ J .", " 1
, ... ..-. _ ..... I I .
,,, tht No" """, p'''' of ltv . 1 of Sa<t'l.'" ',mp!< hulll by 1'<.1"1,, ...1><10 Itu dito:;oo<..<l ' " <111::.."" ' 0
Iii>, 01 tho " '""" nil. b.olduol"ood lIf""l I ., M ..,d plo'f""" of ..1. hold in ploo;. by thlCk """"Inj
MIl. " ' Enlry 10 tlI. "0>]>1. ...., p ood by """n>of ,amp"" ,h. llIn' >id<". fOTDl.d o( .....'" fiIl1". bo'....." ho" 1I;x'-
.,.111, ",W, hlick. Jo H em In Ap'm. til. GUlf' f><:< " r "", \li0'll ...1I oI .b< lmlplr.,.ul f""".
F<J<t ""mil h. lI<ftI COIl"""",ed In """",.'acl ,1>0 'hIUM of ,ho 10_ ftUml of Ill< . rd"",,,,. "'''The .Iop",.
ort... bull ... io produc.d by .,tpplflJ ,lit b,l<k"""k hack I hilI< ., ..ch .:ou' .., md then ....tln he t."". ""rf..,.
with . thkk Il yer ufpl ..m
1br .. oil of . be ' .......... ..par." r-nell of bll, k",o' k. ' ' h. , ""til ,h. a1'.mo" t ono;an_
Irm . <>IIne< IlI""""1 ",,'y "" tho11II1.' b<e, bani hnpUflOd (orm of lltio 11II..... III "'" nU' of the
W.., ...aU. " ill. p,, ;o' ",bo,. 'kc 110<><1. io . ..,.....Y" '",I\o:h. oflllou&b 0_ t>pea, ..... b1od , d <ri1b lni<kworl.
..hrIoIinI <>unl<-d. T1IlI "'0, wtIIth "'31 prob>bly 10111_ 02>y 10'ho: cncl""",. durin, ' h<, ,,,,,,,,,,:1;00 of
,h. lOJ1lpjo, h.. ventn.I . j:rml>< ..." h oR th<...111< J",nl1 JIIOfI 'rN. ...d ,.j lh in<gUIo,1y. !'=d ,l .. , in'o rio<
brick"""... 1M "t il<r<d""". of lop ..... in .. \h<r I.ml'!<.... n. do> "'" "'"'U' . 1 <i...
V" hlro the ".1Id ,1>< "'man< of til. ,...."'" II..lf ;,,"', of IlIrinn . 11<I pykirl .. III< .1:.
""'" JU,f..,.. <>f .. hO:h n..d.'d .1dl 'biflliIDC<toot nlf. The bondtn. uwd In Ill... """"1""' 1;0....
1I'""" lly .I., ..., Al. tlw bricks born, leI tn mod ""'''''' . -hUilln th. MR. 01'h' '" ""iN\.Ij-'" 01rudJ
bel....... lb. coana. 01bntLL In one of the 1')'_10 11 W , of lhe dI ,ln.. , h 1.1< hol<s ..hiCtI. "'.. lb. pI......
.. I"" I.... bn:n hudl "'. Jlflu:l.."" llIne _If... \Ie .. , , Io1ph.u.,dly dr.'<lbu'd . TIlt Ilk< .. f b,ld,. ulOd I<l
lb. I " pl. An d I" .,''''Ul1l<o . ->lI.te Ii..n in ,h. I. M. ".. Pae< 1&_' '
Ashorr di<.t..- ' 0 ,110 SuoI'ho( lhe tnlIplo of 1'><0:,_ "" li. the",in. of .....>1 bui1dl<lp of "",h doo>,lC III.:!
..1ipous """"c_ ,.. Scm. of ,he.. il"'''' urn ... th<f""", d" ",," of JfJIIlIII<lClC-buul dupols ...nid> o"ll' nolll .,DO<!
In , hI> .f ;lnd 01<<omp<>led of <q"'rhlt bk>;b ol b , i<; k.-",k dl\id! UJ' by t,o,.. waIh "" 0 i."nuI ' .. "'I"n......' ..
tho done. be, th... d,ambe,.. 01_ lhey _ inl."d<dto \Ie till. d up >ahd",'th I moI ... pro,,"l< 0
I<onplform" p"" th<1f<JDO ....Udin& could b<. """, Il' ' n.o _In&.."""'" !>b.llodby lbe: .x""''''' ..
" iliad" ."d r '''cuI> rnd uJo cdloJlu 1000nobliOlH or Ihl. ,ypt. ....d II.. oIiff.,......;n pi-. brlV'fI ,h.m "'F"'"
th:rl oadr ".. orbp d 10 lhe b Y". 1of ,be buUdinJ "lUch il support.d. W Il\al theV"' t<s, "iSh' MIUld rill 10Ibf
_,1flIuI_.,. of bndwort.. Pon of 8Iod<7 _ "0 of t>tIol...-.:1:. """.... of ...I>;,h !'<mIl " 0
poInl ", hm p' t1u",.ltIy th.... "*'" ..... p, frum .boor. J,!o;o, of ,'" in ,"".. rOdodal lOf\$ lI .
AI .u Of " 3. but 111 Ibc: W"" ....u of Block 4. AIDbond"", d _d. nu. to OIl ", .. in ......h '""'"" oJ.
" ...<ho.. III , lit 11Ii<;.... ... of rIM ..... ;" thlflCd d p"" lioII f""" "".CCN, .. ' 0 !be (So< 1'1 5j S<>m< u.. if .....
of bund .1. 12. wtuo:h 'II ball<oll) 1Mun" .. " 1.......1" th>l " '1 ",,,k ,.. rol1.d j , it , ....,1 In ,b. tIlIddlc of _
..-aU (t'l .6). R ployodb '" lhe brlck""' in RI"''''' I ",d 7 ,he If\'''IO' "cal """'P"'M'd..r",..
..IIlbf .. BIo<t4 <, _ (........t of Nfl. Ilr PI ...,t 1 . bo.<t,.. hill ""'" "'" W..t ... 11 .'0 """.1 th. prflOU:"r
of til< 11\"",01 tUlift!. wl\ICh. ,h II""'" f,om F..lt 10\\' . tl. ......Idbe I"'"'' 01 ,hi> point.
a __II< _ ,,,,,,,<I r"" " ""d """'1 ..",pl<. ..n;.;tt hu " 'o dora! to b<of <>ftJ&
Tho lI<1ct _ of ' hi< bo<il<bJ II po<>Tty ' ...,ed. "'.... c>f.he w>II. _I up "O" .,..I. rIy bi<J bricks. 01 '
",m. " 1 hnn<l in, <><c u.. 'n Ih. In,<",01 CtoIO' ,.,>Il. In ,he d>><\ Ofl p",," ' Ii lhe bri.-t. ..... 1"""" '" , hiI '<n>r,nd '"
the Jf N<lU' .. ","", ,,hed abon. ... bo'ed.
I
,
0.. lb, oppo<it. pdf oi th. de>n1 plat.,. of S on" SOGq '0 tbo wi of lh. pyr>mld of T.11. ,h. ,. WInd
O1hc. mrwN of La.. F'<riod ,. ,ip.,1n .tdU'''''h''' 10 . 1It fo of ....."'1 ve.l .n. or bod Thew 11I1';'
ooUr ...,Ioood mull '"",pit which <>ad ., lh;, pollOI." the lower told of lho ",ocnsiooft:ll 'OUl' 10 ' M So...,.,.,.,_
... C<>I1UI:. blud fJ<>m tbo ..",pl. bur, the ....... of PI , V. " 'but. .. QlIil>dI. ttm.,ti. ""0.. buildlns ", ay _n
h"", ...... IJI untm<:e fr<>m a" ..,lit, limo. n.. clwx"' ..,. of die hntl< ..u. .,. Yfl)' llmi" 10 1Iw brtck_k
of ,be Tlun>otll [lyII..ty .t Saqqa.... and. <<IMldrrul, tho foct . hu tJw 'ompk J.lIIM Se.."*",,, and dl.1opIIln. bnod
_ Itodilll to II _ Ie _0"rX"",_b<> Il l! ....y 1>0 11,., 1M...... ftwll oll ... for the "'IUd
-.,,-.... of 1II. 10-, t<mplc.
JIw ...... uIlibor >ItrTlU'. ,_1. or ..........d '"""" of _n.o.!<. lIt INlIl ofbtt:kt __""e38 -9
16-9 . 1:!<Dl, _haft b y. .. ofrudo bn-ea"""")' __-..... - W it ....,... ol t_ ..ttlf. lato ......
.. _ -"'_apan.. to _ tIoo ....' 1 of ' hor c-.._,.t iI_III 1III;c-. ...
...... f--. lout .., of , -to;. .....!I' .. -.uJU<n<-
Tloe m<"-tt WlIIl of !he ,<..,pI< ..... was fCbuil. ill Iho< Thoni<th 0,.-....'1. III ,I>< ..... 11 faliln of olldulltlll&
..... ......... ,,<1_,*,... Mo. , of tho bnd ... meamrf14 <to 1.J-5<m, \luI """",..no ,,./1,""'"d>rntmioas
of n -lll , 1f...- 7. 12an. I" tk... liun> of W ....... _ltlfd. . he hOlll<lll lal ju,ob ItIItd ";,h alMlymon",. ' 0'
R""",n, h..... b n found of on . "",,,,,,, " ",oil ot""nd ,h. I: n' l' l, of doting f. _ """'" p<tiydI h., ,h. T.....l1 ly-
I'il<' Dyn"ly .nJ prio, '0t ho l<;Pl of Ad10".. 1"'s.,otion, yf 11010 ",, 11 h= b, ,,,, ffl c<d uti ,h, 01.. in t!lr North Ii"" " .'
,,( i1" ' . m..,,'>, w<l l lw 'mmodl" .ly No' th yf ,h, <I f 1't ,Io of lh, A,"" n t<mpl..."do.IIJ1<. (Pl.40). In ba' h of til<
I""at l,o" !II< .. , Ujo buill In A3 bonding. nd ., lh, b"", ow of <>hI",,! 1,1"'1"" of b<J ml brio\:, .. , on .dg.
'''lI nB 'S'l' .",n....U1.... . ' 0<
IlII A. .. ,," ,.",p&.,
Th...,,"" "'porr , """'lImm"Y l>t . ...lid.,td h. rol. ,h, """,nd ,Ix '."'pl. ,..cine" (1'1-40).
Thll k "".., ", bol ....... of P>u,onobaI. II..... I ".11 or hi>f,om ,on!, .h hr ,,""'ltd n'"
.........., ..,U(wY) In>,..d ,h. ' emplcof ""'''". ' .. Thor ....u .\hlbi,. ,bo l<dmiquc of ..." poMl.ofl"ick..ort
""" YllJubll"l """'""" In "st",,,, _k.. Mm, i . lllu"..,td in PIa... _19A n why ,nnpIt ...U
..... buill In ' hil ...........1< di......J '" Cbar'Of'l.
The oricmal r_of ,he VOH ...u.' 0' _ p d. 1ft olfCfRlfioll or Mader """ IIIC\d1c........... bY'
...... "" brick_hal aool'" ....y ,be il. 1mOf ' 0 C<I <uiUu UICly of hcadc.... wil h brio... .... edfo ..d
the.. ,oadjYIl the \ !wI """,.. flUIlb< a1I'"-"" .. .... r",.. tn., iI. lbc ofbriok...n "'" -'aritlc
i1 , Io r-rt to 1I l.II illmncn. ...... """"bc' ....,. -.l ........ nr
"' .-1 .-.al-ra. __ "'IOIM....a )I"' At tho Sarth-E.u<_ _ or 'he _-to.-< I<>p
"" t!lJf...", Ij>A1t. ... "",__", , ,,. ....t,. <II boriulnul!), IN. :Ill ecbrr ""'Illky ..,...,-
. 1 .. Ifl 0 1 "''''rEI. r-bncb 1')' iliff 1 \lrio;: l ..-ide. pnlCln'. into lbe ","" <II tbe ..
r r.c "'.'1"" i<!' ..iof. '"'"on ,.. NoJfl <II,,., .....-.. .... fJl , h<Y , .......1,.. ....u.".....-I
..m.-l>t-nlt placcd . , .mc.n....fJltwc"'" " k...'. r""" liIc flCl' (fU ll). I' i .. r..' urt fJl nllllouiI, ill
...... b' .."""""'- I I ktit m rood nll\1pJc1 Ukc 11m. th_ ...,.. , he """"'" arc COfK:3VO _.,Ito I.... of ,,,," ...aII
' ''"1 He . ' ,,,," ...... \lm. ' 0If\.n in ....-I"'" a<mU it. ...d .... _noi<... lrue. ... A' ,h. ""'"' fJl t IM pt'fljra....
""', .... ,he r""" of ' '''''Of bond .mployt<l II t im commonly r"""d wiU. Al 0 bondine (1'1.5) Th<IC I. "" obdot
thH ,he *""'" of ,be ,.....",.,..-aU. u b....' . 1.".. lime and """I;., oin<>o 'l>c etuollC,m"ia fo"",,
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.n ...... ,.
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DiospoliJ Pan 'a fRIH
Th' temple endo,"" ' I lhi> ,i " W>l . lIered la farm. fortres>In Rom. " lim". II>< orisln" w.lI bei"! ofPr.olemllc
d"te. " On the Eo"t Ilde of 'h, lemcno, i. I ,,,,,eW,, orw, II-loid b,ickwork, "..hielL " ' Irie . t, ,,d 1o be Ih, found, liun
"f"'m' II i. "luOle jn ,hoI"'. buill of brick. 37 x 18.S X14elTt. " ',nd h.. intern,1 'Om'
p.>'"n"," wil hno, i"rcrc onncclIIlS Prab.bly il II . nolh" , x" npi, of a !",..I.fllll cellub, f...,ndation. of 'he
"Ole type " ,ho", of S' q'Pr> (.., , b"". p, !e 71).

l..J
DO
o D
DO
11\0 1'I<>l' ITIJic ellclo,u" w,ll of Ih, tempI< 01M,d'mud I' bullt in u"dOlI, ting , our.., . but , n, lrely of "..,>ed brick,
of,lL" DYH"'Y. '" Ana til':' w,U of ,1 '0" me Iypo in Ih. Eon P"" orthe " m' no,. which m,y h... form, d
II", clLd o, ure """"d Ih, tempj, of ,I" S",,,,d !I"ll. '" , ho of "u,,d b,i d,, '"
.l lure i, .,h ucturo in Iho " mpl, or," whicll the ",""to" IIL<.>IJ g]11 be , ,w" hou," ,,. Thi, I,
unlikely , i,,,,, it doe, "o1w nfu,m \0 the ' ype ul' " mpIN torcloorn, foulld " Ih. I<,,,,,,,,,um or M,din" lI. bu. ""d,
100rc Uj!l LJr"""lly. Ihe", or" lOU' duon b<;I"""1L Ihe iulcr nol , h. mb<n A ''' ''P ' PPlo",h" '0 tho building
"'0, 11 ilS 11ll': n'\"". "b uwillg i\ 10 bo . f" "", lotion fo, lOme I1ll1ell1" , . nd nOl ' in it..lf. Thh " .olmoll
, 0,t,,,,ly ,nnther e.,,,,,pl, of fonnd"ionpl" foJrIl (orml of ..". 1filled oomp,rtment! in a block ot" brid:Ulork
" d The r",t \h,l \10<: ollly objects fOllnd ill , ny of t l.. "" ", bOIl were a f.w b tet pOllh "d, , OJSU ppOlt, tlu. vi, w.
Tho brL< k, Tl llool l;h"'Jl I!co huilding wm 37 x 18 x 14.. n in , i" ' "'

Kanrak.
Th. , u"' ''Jng b,l<;k w:>ll . round l b, tempi<of . 1 K.m,k i, of Ptol<m. i, J ot, 1Ie", In tho .. d Ol<
10tho North !;,,,, corner.' " It bu,ll in AJ bood1l1!;. ..ith wrn, ""d m. ny <J _or-IL"d. " fO! 1."IIi" g.
md . xhi blts , ller",t, ,"eliom of CO""", , " d <on",,,. bJiekwOJI.. Wood, " ti" w<r< hULh int o Ih, . ' ''''' lure 01.., ;ou.
1e,0I. ; mOIl of ,h... b<,m, run aelO>! ,h. w:lli . but I few ,re llid h,ie" mo"Ure 36- 8 x Ia.S
12-14'm . nd '" in mud m<>l'" wit h pm" ted JOIn" on t b. f. c< of Illo w:lll. hUI mo", "'''flily In tho int er" . 1
wOlk, A d.l:lJ.1ed exortIi,,",;on of t ho NorthW... ,"gl. ",eli,d the "Ih" curno, . n,1Ih. roe ' th't
00 ".dmottmg " 'OS bot.....n Ih, 000"" of brio.... ' "
Immedi. lely OUlS,d. ,h, Gre. t Temple of Amun, bdoY< Ih, Soolh wing of Ih, pyl," l. , t . " d ",,,11 , h'p<l of
Rom,n hoilt , Im,,"t ,o'i rcly of burnt bllek. ''' Th, .." Ill ofllu> hoildinl: ' " hunJ .d n . nd " . morl. "d
.. ith 11m' , Aho of Rom>" ' ge" . tbtok wall' " ofmodbrkh whi,1l run, bel..." " tho Tempi. of An,u" ", d the
mull "mpl, of Rom....,. Tl ln Ihe E", t por\ of Ih, occl",ure. tlL" ",.11 eon,t r""t ,,1 "f b, l<; h 31 14 - 15 x
g... I I"", 111 "le. in 0 oumhlO, lio" of (1", A ('l a" C
AI ' he temple of MYI Ihoro i, more bri,kwmk of I'lol,,,,. ie "" Rom, n d.>te."'Th. ", ain l'i, dl,-...,jJ of th, t' m.nO.
i> ill ' u',,= "r bllek>, p, oo.bll ill A2 "" A.l h" odln!;. wllh "''''y bri, k. 0" . d" fo, Itv. lling, Thm
i>11<' " f w,ICI' 1,. , " , " , d I' ye" in tho WIll. bot th. flO. I, u tlemcly w", hm d nd il JtI,y be that ,he..
" ., , n ' . UI. ".r.. Dm<,. I" ... ,,_,. 1'1. XXI V.
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no. '''''''" , ' "
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IP<It to l/Io . ... crf .... T.....Itrrf'h . "" of ' N ... opIt. 10 ,ionts. ..... h br;o;" ""'.... r1n 01>1, a

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Ih, F.. 11 ......, .. Tbt ....11 .....di or> I oI"1'inl lOde and 10 buill of b,,,,lo .tlldl raoF InIi,. hom I K. 11=
10. 1q x II.,. , ., " .._ fxuoc .....appIk4 to II.. f..ado IN: py1olo. bu, .. lhe in1Itr 0><10 Lh. b,,,,'
.... ""'''' I)- pia.." ", ...." . I'r>rrk.I I, .0 tbe "f the pylo .. II<..J." (F"i &-'S), Tho 1toaI,,,,,
Fit."5 "", "'"..... py..... "'<dint,lhlttr. ".".
. 116M..
{ntor.. .,. bIddtIo bl' tto< de.:ly 0(,1or b..<1..., lb" Ol tltrillJ m.df if dlffo:tllt '0 obWII ,h. siu of 'h. b........"'. ...
lh ........,.........,. "",I.l b< rak... from' Il< ...,Il-p""""fd co.. of ,lie ..... If "C2'co,ion ., .. <OII.t.o<:..d h.,.
...mplt . m. Ih. inn.. 1" 0 ul ,h, !,,,,tIl . 'lIt had d''' ><1lIiOfl1 ur 39. 18
Lo " ..rI<'" Lh, Eon m4 Soulh lid.. "' I ..... 0( "",0. ...d buml-b"d"., Iho I. " t! btl n, u...d 10 =0,
.....nos. Tbr bu",' b,ock.... J I IS 11> .... ....... """ fl' prnbI.bly 01til< It"'"'"" OF. al""'-P .h<, too
..
TIot I'l......,;,; '0Zf'lr of lJ<!o tl- Iokdioo.. !oolIod<4 ... ...nd 1lot1I _ ,...,od .."lull .ri<k ,.,.111Io1 -.110. II b_
,nbit .omplo fuoIndallon l . ..' A' OIUId tbt ,,,,,pit 10 &ro, ' 'n<"""" .....u bvdl in undul.LiJIt.:<lU.... ol l>rick__
Inc" "r " hltt pwter lll\ til< lUlr. .... (PI.$I B) Thl! ,nIl ;1 pl'''''''''' In 1<IITl. pi 10 ill lull l><Ip.h and hti
CInlf lb"" ... . , lilt "'P. OM _ """ of III. !'onl> wall eaI1al'-d . ncitntly d _ d by lho RaIn..... ,lie (J
..r tho ffPli , ' 0' t><;.., dll'''''' .""If... ' 0 lbt .U _, of m. "'_ "' ..k k. So _-'00 bumo 0< tffC
.. . ." to h,,. b.", lnolucl<d .n ' 1M ""'''Iu,, DrIhe .nil, Th bock. II ' of ..<>60".. oU ..... . urin819 - J; co I':-! a
1Ocn. d I"""", W<lln ,nlldlIIo'b' .
:nw -. _,OJ.-.. U" S-'. _ of ,bf "01'1< , tmpIt.'o .. l>Idl " io10LI:o.-f by. " wl _
tilt 011 1 ,-... This null. <P""'! f. "", l/.... of 1/10 IttnpIc. " uf Iypo <:<I I. I. ,...''''' ..... In lhi<k_...:.
u.t of Ihin. b,l<b l lkrn _;<1<. It folio. Iml)' I"", w .... nd m""II.. ""'" r""" of nlrq
il",,,,,"'nac lklo. 'Tht br1::k ..-albof u.. !ohmrnioi Ot, buill ill (1:1. .. and ....' . """"tfd "" til
,wI.,.
"'-"'.
th< DIlly " i .<>1. 111M '''''pk " f AI...."I II ,'''' Roml. ...d<>5\l ,. ...-aI. buU, In ,h. UJditlanA " ""Y'
,,,,, tta ""d f""d ..i th H"" , It>< ...., The bond' "1 "I th. .... nI. Al l ," ' "" ' '''"1'.'' ' ' ... 1\1.10 10 IKl I , . ,...
oi..ly uot'd unt il ,tty 1'1< ' 110101. ,t><! lh. brl, k. ",.,," ro 30.5-3 U 1S- I XY.! . II. S' m.'00
Tho< p,-..,.nof lbo ,....pI<_ .. ..Iu"- .. _ II '" If __ta La ",..\ant .... of
bnch 31 xI I ICDl. .. sUe. ... I'lobobly It . du.bi" , be .....01. omdulall<nl 0( 'N brick .'n"" ' h",,!'Jl thlo It ....
""", ,,",,nr .,,'C<! in,"" pu' l.
I(flu.
_ ".l , he Tempi. of liuonJ. ,*, a 11"'" ,. ......... of ..hloll . . ...... port io _ ....... . CboitV stltod . 0:
_ III 'hoi .... Iloe Iu_ c-.n lad Ioonl.t:lll"y. """'" II "",,"1N:l cliO)' on: J.d .. Ih nnat. loft! 1114 oon-
a .. ...-:-.. <I lhol .. ill flfl lIN JI' Thio m<lIoo4 of . ....."""... 10 a fio. d. . ....plof ol lbe 0(
llriooks In .... du.." " , Ao lbo 5." "l>- lL'<>I >n&l< of tbr ....n. f_, cuunft of ikm bv.Ill iII1" 'be __
.. a hloh Ind. JO' III ( ,,," to , b. " , empl oy. d In 'ho ...., of l'COUdObo I . 1h ."" . It",. , pop
Tho r.... of lh ..-.11"'OW> . 1L" " " lOy", D( b and . " ..tho" . ..-.. h bricu 0fI bt .. and lb.., 10><1)"" lhe
1, . ,1. ]01
Th. __.."' Ihe ......... ...... iI _ , ill _ _ III _to ,he bri<u _ a-t:I ..'......-lr III 0 --..." ud
......... arc, MUL IfI:<>I<Iint '0 t'kuisy. -It buIod.d AJ, ...,h """'sraII _ .... llid at on"b""'... ...,so... In boII<I Al l .
Tho OII ' e, fa;: . of the ..-..II ...... , " ri" DJlIy to to.... b<-tn -.,rd .i", I ..., of whi..ned nwoS-t>!>"" .JO'
/:{r p hDlUi ll r .
..... trltl 1f II'll1l ..nound. Iht ,.-mpIt oj Kllnum:01 ' hOoilO, bull' '" _ llUhq c"",... ln thti, ftlll form.
Typo AIDc 1>wNI.... .. _ 1M'"" l llIc ", ,,,..,iJIIl"""'- ...m.- - . ",lhl in 111< Lhi<....... of '''''''.11
... -.I .. AJ, 1 low itft1Cnl>tS.JOOO " ,_ .._ _ 10;' "_.,, .01, III....... tbr ""'''-1<01 dw
oou<v f""" ' ho b_. ... 4 Ib..u f"" .. oou,' 'Oftob c_1M, " 1-. .. of ocn' .
1Mdot< " f ,hi. w.:dl is c.rtain, !xl, " In"'" bolon,. In . I <J"l'h. It "'" bam nonbod 10'N Pt<linuic period, . ..
but ..."U...<d 'h>l ll moy ill b et l>t "f d.,o. '" ..tUo:b <_ up ... ... lM Rmt&Jt prl"" of
lilt " mplc, w PPIl" of ,h. ["It " ' '' . I' m'Y ... noled ,h.1 .b. ... 11 to.. " ,,, ,,,,,, 1.imil>. ,I' lfl ' 0 Itt< Roma" .ock>tu,.
110." ..." .
" COt1SIdfnble IIUmbcT of ltrl.::k bIIill lOmpIc:o <>l RoonatI <bit .,_IrI .... _ _ tho I!"" I "'OIa of !be 11' _ .-
00_ ol llYpo. bot oct}' li"l< lnform.tllOll II; n:DlabL;:.boo.*- ....Bdinp. A ;... I...... ..r."""""",- "'..,.... an
halOtlm ".. "''''''''''- d " bol<>-..-.n J
; ' " .... .. Ie . ",.... n..... r........ . / A _ I . u.
100.. '"'"'- ..
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B.... b........
-w.oy ....

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W..,- I',tfI...-.n1.
Ilrid. fouod>'.......
101",' 1)- ",,,,",'1-
..ny' oou.....
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M,nn'" ....11_ bolll ia
In.lo "hi,. 5,,,,," ow, " 5._
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S.." .. 1'''111 01 ho>c.
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'Vi...,' 000&..... :au"
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Lr' counn. R_" do .
V...l. <JOU ...., .. . ....... II'P'
1>1011 b'icks vmlllt' .
Iltkk t empi , 1ht1t>M """""
Tlmbefln ......
B'lck I""pa.. T,m.....d ..'O"
P\Htrr "1"" of """'.-Qf;"
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R<pli r1.
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hrid ., nch m, k;,,! IfS,h, , ....
End o' "'" of 1m, pie.
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UIlICI(WORK IN GRAECo.RO'IU N TU1 PLES
Loeal",n a"...b 5"0'>(.... 1
TwU rl-Q'I',""ul' H.h ' R" (")
:>8 " 19 " r.)
:>8 " 19 "
O U.PTER SIX' ,"'NDOmO...l 8 UILDINGS
I . Arclu... I'niud
.... "l""1 h.. bHn "" lhll ,.,ly btrildio! .. tm,:LkO<1polll, ' ..Iu<h, '" ....... of I" Impor1l"'cc. II ...." Ihy of
h,i . f d... h.,.
The P<' fhcn of ' h. >t rue' "" ,n rll . ",. , ' Ied eomp,I' .. . if). h,l'k w,lI, ..t.d wi' h p.I...
p r><llInl- Tho which "'<>'"'" N ,S" 12 " 6<m,.ro b<Jn<ll A!. wllh itt, oulonal "'" of lulf.brlc L, III lh.
<Om1,,",llUn 01, h. nlel> , the " ylo ul ,he "' , ,. """ it is _,hi, 10do,. ,"" to tile ..,Iy put ul II><
Fin! [)yn.u'y. , It"""paom< ww, u.aI n DeC 01 til. Innn iho..... in llle b<Iow. Tbu b nd or nl<h.
,. nOl kIl""'" .....ho.. In INo<kw<>R:, bul it y only too .we '0 c.",icM W<>I '"<lI ' 0 . _ ' n ..d.... ,he
l<ntUt of ....
-IjX t __TnwofNtdte.
l"arl, l'fIMyof Mo .. .... *""""
II n"", ..."", """oiu 'hal II'" 11 ", , 101' " ...hk h ....,. On. ' Ih""!illl O'" fum.1Abyd..,.I ,,4 . fun" ,,)' PU'I""".'
, "", ,, " I.d wllh lbe "'o'O<I)" n,,,"1< lnm" of U",m elQ-,.b. 1!Ia lo'IOl ded Ih, m und' l thll sinco, in tho p""",
".1"of "." k"uwl.<llle, """ ""l h.pplly be d."ifi<d ...it h .;,1,., lomh. (}f l. mpl' l Only Ih. ",dlp,..or..d mon"..
me"lo of 1M So"und . .. iI\<loded in Ih;, ,tu0y. II ;. f, om ,h... tim IllUe'"'u iIlfnm>Ui"" <1nbe obta;n!,
The I ..,. end ","" of K1u.. now m o..... .. S1wn" . 7.. h;b. <>:Xl.i.l> of ...n S,40m 'ki<k LCd 11m 1u&lI.
budl "" llf<W\IlIIIat pbn.! "'In,.. ,he nu'" I""" of , he: u n ... Ik.e ",m';m of p]1" . nd>... !hoIo 0.. I"" E.."
,;0, b<ma mo", ' '''''I'ln ' tI..n W olbm.. . Wbo= ,I.< r..,. of liIo bndwot\ k.t' "",I.d } tho In...-.. ..... "
........... a1_ ....i"'ly oIhcadc ... .. '- _1fI ..oy'hICk ...n... ,,'" l b. b""""" ut ,be h<W rtnIl:'Illl' 1I'OIIId
prob.bIy loeett .u. ...til bQ<b .. ttlp-lfl ploceo'''.od)lla kOfiI of indlridlaol .......-. A ,_, "' ..Iu' ...... l'Iud-
....... -...4 llIe brict l. "" bot_ ltNr "" of lbe . 'XI, '0 bI<u of ::a... ' ud ,""
" ..Q, tho.._ ... lS.3 10 !k.. in .....ll. Tho w bIoidIaf; _ la llOllfldl by , 'IlI ""tit. pb>lI ""'...,
..foIo:h II p....... d 10 . heip ' of _,mtil"""" pbca..
Of lbo 0,110' , _ buadonlll of ...,.;u, f_01 III. <il. ti'l!< <In tIIl3L lbo _ .-t of Pm...... ). ad p1..et<d
ni:tI.. "" , h. mUll . 011. ' .. id 111. SlIIl...... bUl no lJoo:. 01....11 p. tI<IbnJ.. PO""""" on lhe oocltmu........ ,,"upoed by
I Coph< ""m.....olly.
2 Mi ddl . KllIll<l " m Offici. 1
A' no boe" (ou" d from Ih<Old KingdOlll ' 0 ...hjob.n offlCl.ll 1"ui""< un b..... I' " In l he MidJ1.
110" II.. ". " l'ouP of """'um.... ,. of ,hi, cI... ;, Within FO'P' Il..U."""'pl" are u tr.tndy
0C1... .. ,.... p<1'i,-.l. bu' r lu> dded 11< ....... dol.1ib from lh. , dmln"""li bolldi"" wbidl are fOUlMl wllhin lhe
ron""""", '" Nob*. 111. ""Iy ""'1'1"'" "fr>:ill b"li<lJo1i ...hlctI l h.1.. bore" I hl. 10 !IIId '" ,re of
Iw"'k " ....'"....... "'. bit ,,1 the pylO""d "I _ """"", ill II Ihohllf. '....priwnl " DUmb.. of It'''''"........ of _kod!
_ liolI"d pili' " ... "'.... -.. 0. do< W... _ of tho Ilko:k 10. nulled Wlridot . roof. d ..iii . cdl , lth, oII4i ""'""

L _ k- . I ...<:.I .(IOl1.. ... _ .... .......
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Fr<lmNub.. <""". nU....' Ull'llpl<o of tdIIIlr>iol.. bwldilop, lei W \lloldk (on, ..... of lb. l'<"p:a&.
'hnf __lNi<t """" lIons hod wond... Colo"",. to lUpp"n "'" "",f."d t lo< ...n-... d",ofl ' t-<!. ....
pili II Tho floon llnully """"P'-d 01pIul<t:l but In ... IIl\Ioof. <I. p. n of Room ' 2 l>lmII:
brid< hl.. . -'r< p1oy.d.. 5u<:lI ..I.ul", Bull ond Sh.>l f.L fOl' ,h. I""inI ot ,to< II........ "'" <uraploo f<=
lo" ... h.. beIftJ lO. lO . ,..." "' .... , . Ad,aio in ' b " of ,"" ',,,. ' " lluhe,, Ill",.. 'b" lb. bum, .....
......... or i " ...." ...... ' 0 _ or. d"l"l< ,be mf""l"""'l' ot III !'"bi . '1M lUll......'flUld also honer
die of "am..
At Urom"i on.d Shalto ' M bddu'tr' ' ilfl" .",1y w rti<al ' 11 Of' .. ""'is lf1I. .... 10 p",..<t ' h. _
"lui. fa f, ........ fon ., t ......,,; pol.", " >nI" ftl ", 01)" """"'" """. of ..-hieh ".",com:I "{'I>:'O
for <01....." . _u, 'h. p""' d 0( IIos buddlfll! iaW1kno""I\.
J. N. .. Offi ci.>l
" lt oched \II ,h. of .Il.. . k ...,all pllo, t of Sell n . "",ttl'h n. built In AI . " " >:I<!
AJ bond, n, ... "",y ha>'< I>ct n tonI wilh bnck _I... Tho I'Ioot1 oCW .- lhioI1hIo pabo =
oil ...lIt _'" Iiho.. ""'....tifII -KI " .s(km, , ow. cd .... wllll a , hln ... of pbsf<r . , .
.....'ion:
In lhe Dcl',mllon<ln of II'>< lOmpk . ,. ...,.,.. ""lOb"""",, o' wlw: h !he only al"""u,1I "",.il not." II ,II< .... III
:nI"""" of ..,..,101 bllcks. bua. """"d a nll.>l -..ooden poe, 1Th<""' .......f_ ot'l'><<_.... _led ..;Q.
J.yc, o{{II..,......hlch lwrd mOldd<<I. ' ''10 0 11....<1. fo rm. 111. Il,. pc 0' Ihe 'PCCI.>I h,lck d
..,Iomn. lu", linenl>cd. aM .110 11(00.. boI<h -".. <if<Wn pocnllll ,be )tob'HY Quac, " .-\1 ..
1" 1<' polnI, bn:t porn .....",pIoyed '" b.... dmp,. ' 01>fppOI' ,h. roof. t><ml on ..on""""
liM. rOf ."<>oJ.,, flo>of1 or IflI>J Of 1>rio: k _rc fouocl \II , be \IdilUy Qua.,....' ,and ORe " """ in bouoo
II l.1dwd ' 0 Pc>bc< p...l... oW>< of "",4 ril .....d. m !UIJ JS 38.S. In- ,.
': 1>.. $...-0 "'--..F...... IL " .. ,. '_I. 1<0. , . f. \.., " """".. ..... ( .... 0' .. . ..'.., , L I
' " .-. lit. II un,.
.. " r.'_" L . "". o( .. . _ I II'
' " ...... 01.... . "n,""'"",,. ,",-'- !\.. (' ''.' ,,' "'''''"' II I. lJ.
,. r_ . c.. rw . (...... ..,1L I " .." , .. .-. ,u
" 11_..... .""11-' ( 10m, "l" ,.. _. Il'' " ... ....
' .. ,_ 'l ,. ' -' ,..... , .. ,.... , ,.. .. PI. , .
A .... I<' l l. ....plah Iu. b........... ..d .. ' h....re. ....,Iilll<Iwbfta I"' bIuh:I aboul .b """.-
of .... 1IUiIdon.. S' ,-... ooN. (Of .h. <IoolJUllbl ond lin,m. bu. ,h. _",my or Ih. l on. ' ",<liof\ .... <ompoood gI
..... . ......01 -. 'fr!tIl pi...., In !he ..,.._ , ..... nun. <ompoood uf ...... ,...... oC1>ri<ks, ,10. dim=_.
0( " .. _I 39 119 . am..
\JIIJ OfI..... nil 11<'''' ... ' 01 ..1".....' ;'''' il lV>i!.blbou, ,be pal"".. . , f] Arn.,II'. bul ' of olh..... ..
..M,. "ll Ir< """. '" ..... nftcil1 iD" Olur< I>c Tho:ueaof p,do.... lui...... as ....... " WIS o' i.JlJI.IJt
........ d by I bl","-.211, ....i<b ptoblbly dOC....':I ...., h poinl . d di..., 10 \llio io ,'''' >III" "" "
,ho WOl<' e;.,.,n , '0como<lq of , Wr!<>of pool>...ilb oolu"",. be......... Will , 111... ",,0.. .,.hu.d wi!ll llIu<l.bnd.
m4 th. pJbrs. whlch or. of dI. >&II>< "''''rial, _ "fCllJl h<n<d by lu\inJ ho.... of -"" ..... II.. Itrictwo.i<. '-'
' \09 pdlll1 bQod. ' bc fin. pool " lb. fa.. end of ,It< lull. "". h, d '!l IOC ""'m, buil' i,"o i ' II ilIw"d level, ...1UlI:
... bor .... 1 . ompl.", f,...",.....k of . 'OU<!. .. 1I>a_ in n,,46..
Fit , IIN/,.. '" Bnrl< ,.,,""'. >It'hHItm.
"" oe"", U., 1'...-lJ.H 11 '- , -" "
,'!d. , a!1. , 0-
'-D, I, . ..
u.. I'...lt. " .. " t, .....
; " I'; .". If., ur, '" , ;,'" ,,'" .j" ,,' .", ' a.
, ' <on,,, " , ,. yI"", fn . ,", """",,,,,,n. 01 , " ,
Rom"",,,, '"' ' v"'" v' m. "'ie'. "..,,'ot, ' 0 " " 'n Ihk
".. or " . ,, , ,,,",,,.. GO ,, _
oi,. to " ,,,, C.' !lo.,10". .." . ,oro m"", . n'
","",,",,, '1, , "... ""J 10' own . " """'",,",, .. .. , , ,, ,.
Hio" ",, , u., 1'.. .'1", "'. ,0- ,
Th, Bridg. " 0." tho Rood suppon.d on , WOm,,,i" , pior.. ll ronlth<o.d with p " t of tunhor In
,h. ...n, k. On, of ,h.,o .<:lm. WOJ Sm :rnd 60cm ' qo". In ".'Ion, . Ithough othm .....,. "n. U" . b. inl of 3lk m
' qu. " <,ioo .od 3m IOD I!-
Th, Do"" Alto" . " ",hlO11 plO.,. ll' , ollneo" d .." h Illt :"Iort h. m Tomb., '3rI be ind ud,d in thi tion, Th,,,,
",,,. <1 ruc' ur" 'pp,o.d"d ", ,,ns of romps. th, 1m " I>' mg form, d of two p.,.n, 1wall. ..ith ,:md-mJi n!
;' '' '''''0 th,m, which mull h,,'. !>o pJ',d 0"", with l>r1C kwml:. S:l nd-filling ..'. , , 1' 0 " "d I>, n"tll ' h, p"'In!
of II" "'mtocm",k... Th< Southor" AIt....... dlff'''n' from ' h. OI h"" In >t, ,1I"n"' ,," of ,11, .1ld ' 0'"'
ofhnek pion from 'h. r".d. '0tb. c.ot re. " tho outor ....n of thi, building w.. f.cod " on th< ramp
d" oot to u. h tll< f" . d. ,'"
0.1 Ill< Soulh l<ml'l, of x lt I at ' hi, . i l< a.. a ",I" of , ' or<hoo", fo,m<d of la n! ", ult<d 'u ond . 1ik. Iln<
" ,110 I<. ", ,,,,,u,,, , TIl< " . nd in ' h, ,<0, I>,'wcoo ' h, I, mpI' ,nd , ta ond ", u" ..,, 11 . un a , ilO...hlOh hll b".,
.. b oll' d ;Ih d' b,;, ." AI ,h, on'," ,,"" ' u ,11< . <o " bou, ,, I" "I u" , bllildi"" " 'hid , h" hom OII",ke" f<>r .
p,I. c<. "UI;, in r 1no " 1010 ,IL,n ' " . dm", i' l" ",, J, p" tm, nl ""lfOlliog lh. p""!" 10 .n' from ,h, ' 10' 0' ."
B.hi"d ,h;, , " t"",," h, 11 , .. ,,.0 ,o"i<l "... 39min 1, ,,!lh ,,,d 6,6 I" """, . from whid, IIC'"'' '0 'he , to" ", ,,,,<1.
is oh..i"oJ ," TIlo w, l1. or t l",,< 'wu c",rido". nd of 'h, , dmmillml l" w." " , cu,.led wilh coloured rlo"' ,_
whil>t ill ' 110 , ' OIO,u", ...1> .. M . pl" l<' "' .. u>cd , E"c!, " f lh. 'u"" d . ;, H ,5m I",,! . anJ Ih, ..i dlh .ar.... from ),S to
tim.'" TIl, ,.,11> '" bUill ufb,ich 40 14.5<m. :LIl d lhe !lou" Ih",ughou l th. " 0 fo,m,d of
!qU' " . I'b, " f rnuJhri<: k. 44 44 It>.- m iIl Ill<, " F", th. I"". p.... brick ..ullo uf 11 I wm ulN. "'
... elly th. .." " nlOn "" ,; or th. R,,,,,,."OI. Th, bric)" of th, " "It. Ol<"",,,d 60 n 75001. , ,,J h. ,\ ...<., " i" ," ,, <1
"n ,h, uodm id, to , ,,,,,,,' h <UI,". " Oll lOp or ' Iii. roof. Ihe IiJgo . 1><1wO<ll tho " Ulll h.d .... " m.d, 10 1Ill"
up ,h. ,. :rh hd.k, "
I, Th. I<' OI...", um.
Th. pol", <uf Roao"",,, II .1 l'W ",,,<lull}" t. mpl. " w10mamly ori<kI>tJill, ...i lh l lono " d for , h, do",j ' mb,
linl<!>. columns .nJ ",lut .... o<, A. in til, p,I"", of Rom""" rrr " I La. ". ,h. "", flng ...., fOln" d of b,kk
" ,,110. bUI II,.", j m ', no' ' '' '' 'I'<d, Mo<t of th<wall,"", I>oodtd A2 or AJnd th. b'i, k.... 42 , 20 x I Oc m10
w.
Ako ,1 th. R" no""um .,, . ... ,t.. <1 01. 00U.... around tho " OIpl . ' Th,.. h. "
booon rh, , ubjeol "ra num"", " f e.,li" " " di,,, . lthouV> tl>:: only dr>wing . oy "<ur""y h that giV<: n by 1., psiu,o
Th, ..01<: ....hul" coli<C1.d a num"", " f "ampod I>,ick. frum th. ", "' '''Ow",.om. of which 1>.., tM e.rI" u, h<
W,,' mJeI-Rr ,.ilILou, tho , pi(h. l sr"" R r. :uld d, to flom t be <o-,, !. noy 0' f, om ,h. lint of Roan..!>'" , 01,
(11.32). n ", uldividu, 1 , .. d' ",r l.,d h, low:l<cord;nl to thol, l"" . \lon. (S.. plon. PlA5) ,
"' m/,,m(;m"p."
On ')1< lh. 1'011' 1, a" 1"'" " " " h" u"". ,,,n>i. lIo, uf bl i<k-bull, p, ...,gOl 3.;0 ,,,d 3.7001In w'dt h. with
0100' jllmb. , ad . ill> .1 tl,o d""rw.y,. Th, b, ;,k> ,," ol() , , 1J - 1olcm h\ oi.....nd lhey ,l< mortaJ< d wit h nmiL
s"",I", (;-""1/'- ' .1
SO"" room. I" II"", ou' ldio,-, w,,, of f.l rly sl aod b.d woodto ut 1ht
\h. """I.., II... " ","II, d. Th, d", iil. " f th rlokwol k her. or, ,h, " m, lUI 10 lh. North. rn O1 0" hou,..
>7, "14,,." J't '.
, .. ''. ""vH.... .. "'....'0. " . ' . u s., c,;/>of AM"' '' ..... ll. 101'. ",
".,,1.. W."-' . 1\_" _I, ,,,,, ,,,,, . .. f'l. ' ltL " .
0' , ,.-..,, 01" " . H. " . , ,,, , . J. P-s.,"1'- ,it. IU' " ,", .....t , 40,
"', IM"-, ' 01. "
", (: ,,,'' , ' ' , ... A ,'At , . " . ... j, " " ,>G. ."
'" " "'-,
)], ;""'-. "'..
... ""'-. " I. ,,,.,, J<.' ,v.,v" ,,,.xU.
". " "' , " .. " ., . 11, ..
He " "'-. , >""
no .. .. ( I ''.I. .. ' .. .. H
tv. \led", . , 1J>bu.
.o. ..., "'. \l. Sf.< r._,.. n",..... OJ
Of- .." .... ""- " .. rl- u v ,
n __"
U. ..., " U. J: "- I<, n. " .,
... "' r..." ..
. s- _ .11-.&.. 1<. 11', . ... ...... , .....
1Joc hkI0/ R.-...-. III
The f its. Pol"", )\N:! j"", I lltho" .... ofhl'io.::ru :!O 12= In load
C<Iilo........ , hi: hUtl ..... 'n. "" r""'n<l11i""'.1 ,SOm "IUl" . 0...-, ' lw cctllr ol h. n r n, ,,Ow. ...1". ....,..
on "",,, .. lot In,o ,h. Sou.h ....u .... ,he IOmpic. """ I"'" utbet .." k. d . ""r. c""o", d >iJ< lflOIlIl. CIa
Tho ,.... pIe of ........p' ohhod 0101."""... 1,1<,he Rancsoeom b, n in . hl. "'"" they ...'" '0 h.an ""... roaf'"
....," d. line< IHi rlobl1. of cnUlIJ'M'<! ,.."It. "'.. f""tId.JOvaul' inl ..... empluyod ""er ,h. '''Uan<.
. hc sn-o. ,lie fOof ....,...q'iD.o( ,hre. p DeI " Pf'O"od by ,...., ofcol ' Tloe OJd, i ..
...1\1 oI..i, ,... ,.. 1"'" tho width. " '0_ .. ",,0'" ""'.n ,h. " PPC' pllt ' ..'n hlddCfl by Ih. ,pnnPnl
..1lI '- ...bl<1I '<110<1 on lrdJe In , he _ . Tho 1ruI<. dj...... ... 0( 'hio n"" _ 1_7301,"
11-.".... Group. ..
fb I'" t<p "ClC.,.nd on I/>< 'li<$l JIbt 1<mj>It. tMten,..I_brinl;11I< _ 01 . lb. bYililin. ha ... ...
..... ,.liniDC li>o:r ",,,,nI><4 <1 _ euIwnn&, ...bl<h supp<>11.d ' oaf of Ib,te jn, aII. 1.."',.. and "0Ilt ..
emplny. d rOflh. doorj . m\ll ...d \hJnholdo, F' QIn u""" . d UII,TlI ....-rldu, ><au to ... d intDthe
... l.70IQi:a wId'h ...d 3.llQm hlllI. Hole. III ' ho ,oot ...rc lor, nil)' 6m, for Itlt P"'JI"l'It of
ilIl<> "'e .."' ... The lni<ks of ,t>< . .. 3S 21.6-7cm in m. ... ..M ." ho.. of , h. lid' will>'II<"U" 4O. :w-
I 12_ 14<.... !Wille of ltM: paoup IIrp hne k-l>IUIl a, u.. ,.- whlob .... """,'....-r.d ill .4..1
bool dinj Ibl""......... -nih, u.. ..<k-...n. . n 1.2 01 Al . >01111 IOlII< Al ll>c "'Ill" of,h. ..
" " ... , but><! lI 'h" lIluIl..,o<! la ' h. ("<If"'" .-nil AllIltondwf, OIl l'l.al. S.
Tlo< .._ I I u.o Nontt'II.... 00fIIC' at th. " "os .... .." ' ..1 I""" I ,.;dt _"0<',ID _ th. .. .. as I
colon".,1. 0101\1 ' l>c fount Iff ' h. TbP 01 pa"Cd .." h tq'J..... bricks. . 4Ocnt In ""., r b.o n Wl:L
oohd ... ..-dI p "0<1 III thJs... . . "'" 3.7Om ,,;u ..,d 4..'iOm . <>O! lone ' P'''uteS .. tho .0<>1 fOt rdhGI
6JOm. Ln ' h ' ''' 011110 ""dd'" , is . '01IJ hall ..-n" '''''' "'.. "f co'u",.... winch plob."I) lUP1"" lOd
of 'h,.., nul" All . t1o .." lt i,.. In lhtt hWldlllJ. """' ...,,1)' _ .... iSof' 1 'ype. r... co__
rlIocknai. ..ttII Il'o< oI,mu.lC"""'" Ie>l\'" '" 0\'I>0SinI dl,""' io",, .. OCCU" III ,he SIn ,,'" [)yn>olym.pCloi
.\ro."W, n."n.. ..,WI.of .h...ul1l .... I/omo"Il 111 1'\.1... 53.... 8 . ..... .. ,he . ......... ICOfOd UlI the h 1u II be
The iIo, ..ie>r of ,h. ,,,,,,filii ".0.Jed .-ifh plo. .., ' 0 ' 'hleirnaa of IOcIn, .a.. tho"' :ails of tbe p On lhn
....n. h_ tho' J>l'<U'1 "'0 or Cl bundiJIa fo' ,h. Lu-..r, 12 "'"'.......d Al .bo . bu, bt hlnd lhl1 nU ' 'x' '''''
' h. \lftc.o:o! ..." k iI ..".m<!y I""B"I... .. fhown In 1'1. .. n .... Oo<>ior .. lIu' tho .... of 1>Iid" .. . Of!'.
" nO' """"""" 11 ' hb p<nod. h-l<I d:vl>lift P"fJ'OI<C, bu, lhis .. jmp""ibl. Slnco lb. pl",," ' <0;1, " ould h",.
, he bltCk-..orl (,omole" . no. bncb '" ,be>< wolls .... ""'.. 14-40. 17_ 18XIOcIll. _ 101 ' ho ... to, l'Ior'h ..cd
hoIiIdicf tf10y ... l!---' 18 _ 12- 1k m,
A' tlo. South"'''' _ of It\< 'en>j>!w""""',. 10 U\OIhcr p 1i.U,......10 hall. CCfl t" l ""rti&:o:
OIor"""""" all of ..-!lieh 4 b) .>IIlte d _1>, in ""'.. willi I su tf. '!*'. lI' ... .."" u,.,J ..
bWldinl fo, porin( th. fl_ d f", the ..-illo' 0 ' llei!*J.' of 71cm,
F'rx- 41 IJn<* lJuu<jambJ br SIUIn,
Ro'm<U<>,....
Be,....... the lh"d ...d foo' th of hi. (""....) ..",pie. Joy buil, . "'UlJ. ",,,,,re polac. o( ..'hll' "h"...d
!>ri<n(lfl... tJ Thc.. .",:r. pdl ..... the iro01d /alii .."", lit. f."", or the IIuilIllnc. ....... .. bri<k f"",
90- of the bticlcs ill the11" ":<0" ....,. lI"",pod ..j,1I ,h. n1m' of Ay. Of ofolL. 10"'1'1 . >rid,_
6i",._ " 10-20 _
.... _ . " .J-
U -...,. . .. , ...... . -. . . ... _ _ ...
..... _ ..... u.. -'L' U t. til ., " It. IT.
. ' r_ ...w. IE4"''' .l .
. .. CO ' . A. I,,. _ -. ... r,.......... . .
u . H d ... . ..,.. I' fI.. t1 r.u
the I<>'i, ion o f ' he d" ip> ond , h. e""' t ru" i" " 01 tho See"nd Pol"".,Uti> ,,,,,fins w.. alt m d (0) prod"". Ihr oe .."I..
()vc' the em lral hall I ..,,, 10""" ,"011. " n either side. , oTcrnpo" ry cenlring " f ....,odcn be""", w"" employ.d dun,,
Ihe com l, u, ' io" of lh, l" lie, ..ul l!. lbe hol a whe,e Ih. be",,,, we", >el inl g lh, ICfTlJ' I' wall ue .,ill <i> ibk- "
SUnil., hgl" in . ..'M! of lhe E,, !I G.le h. 1lbee" p.'chell wil h . Io" t:, . howinS Ih. , U,e beom. we,e " mo,ed , f..,
cumpl"iun g f the roof. " Th. 1WIl. lechniq'" w.. u, ell hI Ihe I, mple gr Ikit . 1WIl!1 whore Ih. ml[k.! of lernpo..ry
cenl, in, C:lO b, ",eu . l ' he ,u, of 'he ", ,,I'ed enl" n" hall,"
Th. dOOfW' y, of the Secunll l':1b e<woro f.c, d wit h .lone Of woo , . the 1. 1Ier m. tcrbl po>, ibly bcinS r", ed lu lh,
....u. by wood e" "' Sun" of lh, 5Iun. bnlro wer, f,,"n, d t o the bric kwork by cord. p""",d hole, il L
the , Ion. (Flg.481, lh. ",,;ill roo"", of the horn" h. d bnl. h " "h I!opin! " I[ f"".. ;rnil m h. d pwj,. ti o",
rc<, i" bm.r ,>ult> " fn boih the Fifll >od Second Pa!Jlco.. the floo" wcr. compo><d of ,qu m sl.b, ofm"d-b,ick,
43 .43 x 6cm m oj<e , llid un ..nd . nd ""i .red 0'" wi th .,hiten.d phll''-'' Th. brick>o f Ihe P.I'.e me. lUred
37 x 18 x I l , n,. " . weI< In lh, b.tl" bein! mo" cammo,,-'O>er Ihe w. ll,u,f, ec. wu,
coil uf pw te, . which w'-' p:nnl ,d in "'m< room. , ..ill), t in , h, b.lhruom Ihe w.u. h.d bce " wilh "Uf. ' lu I"u' ''' '
n,e f,um lh. wel.
A,lmini",",i,'. B"ildi,,1:' i" " " T"Trlf' le -1" '4
Belw"," Ihe I, mpl, .",1 lho Inno, Endu"",, Wall we" numbc, uf uf off"i.l , h. ,.o,,," Most ,h.
,lr lK' lu". h,d " ulle d fOuf llhough . fe... "'t'''\l mU" h"" b<cn tou r,d with TiL' . W " OO1n1 ' r< ' ;0111"
lu lho.. or the Rom= ,um, . , ,,Hed ' unneb wide, buill ur bricks 4{) " 20 140m In "
S'ur<roorn I( h.d . '",,","urt p, d wlt h b, l::k 430"' . qu",. '
T" to< W..l nf ,h, I':1he. w, In wh,ch ",. ,,:d I, V<!.< o f c"",t, uol iun w. r< fu unJ , .ill withi o lhe , cipl of
R:1",,,,,, HI. " Squm b'kl.:s. 43 . ....re u"'. for lhe n"",>. . , hil, l Ih"", uf lh, walh m,,,o,"d 40 12crn.
In lhe Io;:h" 1" ,. 1. ufe nn>l rucliun. briok lit.. of 4! X20 . ' 30m "" d 38 x 18 x I lcm oc, ,, r,,,L
fig. 48 Lu"e' !IelJ by ""rd.
Me<l mel Hab
,
" .
In tho Wier t. mpl r" >tooil lUuotu" . ..I,kh ' he <:,o. "to" <>11 ,,1Ihe " Sou, h Admini"''',,,,, BUildlnl " . of
mud brick! 37 X 18 x 110m In , I". , nd eo"""d bl vaulte d ..me h,kk . i"" occu r> In Ih. Royal Slabl.. ,
, xeept in ' Il<eOll rty " <\, wi' ... ' I" ,lim" ILl"'''' are 43 x 21 120m," ,",0">e. of "olumn. o"uld b, d. "e, od in
the 1.0.." huildlng. >nd Ho]<.eh " 0'",. ' 0' h, enr><I","'" til .. ' 10< ,oof mUll 11>1'e bce" ,""Il.d, '" whid 1 cue l'
be til , IUK'" . ,olt know n f,o n, " "ei, n, [ gyp' , wit h . ' p' " of 8.6001 ,1t
V. M. IQ....
The P, I"". of "m<nbnte p III " M, lq,l1 eo,,,, . n >Ie> nf tOO 200m , ",j i. ,,"'1t of b, k k, wi,",I, ' r< mUSI OOm-
monly 33 .\ I x I(k m, in ," <e. >l th ough di,,,.mi,,m of x 14. 5 , '1< ", ro .19 Ig..1 X 12e" , . 1'0 ""o ur."Mud
mort" . .... ""Jto fill ih. lOInb in Ih. >nd the too" nf the ....Iil h. d b<. n <o. " d Wl lh pi ,,"', whioh
d"'''r>ti.. " oen" h,d b n p.int <ll. A fow oglom", """f< found, '''0'' nf ...hich """,. hexogon.1In , h, p, . " hOI
in ' I" .", uf w om. lh, ltumn, w" . of ...""d, nn >10" ' bas"." In the ' m1ll 100m, ' nd p..,,1';<'
, I", w" 'If r olm-r,b" m. llrng, """,d "i,t mud , nd ' '' ppnrt, d by woo d bum. , In 'h, lar.."
ff'IOlt" . n'" '' , I>bot"!"' , m " ." empluy.d. TIll> <un';lI,d uf ,,,, lin! of h;:h' b"ml '0 t he ond.", d< of
Ih. ", .In ..ltm , , ,,d Ih, Ip"""" h"' ...... " ,h. w, I" ....L w, ' h muJ . Bcn, ..h the ilmg be:" nl w. re fib re mit..
e",-,. d wilh d"" m.t<d pr."., 7' (Fi gA'l),
,. ,.... , '..
nIb.., JO .... " ,
,", HOI" ,,,, u" E."W.. " ."
,. .;, >' , I<- H, ,,h.., Vo lt. ... .'. " . LF, . II ,,, d w."'.1 .. 1'1. , I
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uf '. S,o,," .... 0..4 fOf th. J"" r<i!I. and ..DOd f(ll <h< Iiz",I.. bUl lbe """')ornM"'''' a' ually fo"",J in the
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Anumbe, nf doe r"xII ,be 1" lset 1KI> . ' . m!"nf M>enoolop III and Q<>o Tiyi . ",hlclo ue d".. .. in PIa,..

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Vet)' I... buOdi" p of llw .Iast ..... hoe.. di>UJWd r""" lb< Lau 1'<ri<>d. """, y of ' b ludIIDUII .... ...IJlOd
_ IdJu. _ "'"'0' la Iho U<1ta, ..hor""ill' b 11<>1 ""'"' ....,.bI< fOl thot. pI '""'- A 01 Apr'ooI
"- 1:>'.. " <:n'. ' C<! """"pbia. ""j' h """,,-U,..,.J of bnd IIWI IIO <Ioorl,amc:.. fIu,;q d um". Owrnl ' "
. ...h hu IIDd a1 1. r:ltlonl to 1M 0,.. ' "r,.-.iJIo onet IIUS' ..y by , h. lDl
0" 02. Tl.. h.,ck ...u. 01 It>o ""I... ..-erc lI. ndln! kT. o r l::'m al Ike hm< uf t!T<l, . , "i.." . bul lu.. been
"o>' ruy,d I1 n,. lh,n
To lh, Soulh uf lh. S""'d U.k. " " . n,,' .l.nd, hu ..-1 Lid> """ both . " "rohou", II,d ' h, pl. "" in ""hi, h
Ill. ,.."d of Am" " ..cr. "pl. " n oll . t rue' ", "'hid , lOI n hy l'u moutlJ" of lh. TwcIlly.S ill'h Dyn..ly.
" blllll mo"""illi J.l x 17 x Ilkm laid In A1 hond UlI WIth nmd'm<>lu " oItlJouj,h 1I0tt< ;, n nploycd for t ho
",,,,,,in, . nil I.mb.
S, G.......,o-R"m""
A IllUldial at 1::00000 . d-l); Lka d1 _ ylla.., 1>0<". Roo!I>fl tho, II." n.. .,.o. <"",h"'. 1110
.... III bImII "';ok II............ ' 10 poodu< 1;.., budt "' ..d 01. I!I<u r..: Fo.- ....
_ awIo llI.odooI., ...,.... """ mit, Iu.... _i>< (uno "' ..... ""bl '" lM <2<Jlu.. .t. bo;eb
'Ut< n . 17 J '\QII ioI U"". .... _ IlIl!1o ............,... 15 S J.km """ !S !S ......
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PIlrpou. !l di(f..od wnoi" . ..hly in ' lyle from Ih. Mdi""y hoo..., }hi, IJ.:!OI . 101<
' .....<d ol rnud-blkk 29-30. '._1' II ..... III"'. I" d irI .u """dinl ond 10 Tho>o,Ja
bn<l ....n. IWn POOl "" '" loy..-.. POl"".' _,;au,..n ill pl""" loybo_ .. I>' h........ " hi.1 fwthn
lftU'oou_"1 ..... _ in .... woIl! .. (t-,,'Zl 0100 of ' ho ill' _ ........... . <Iliody IiJood " loll ..--d
tbt of .Il< 'o p of rho d"",. lhi>pooollinll b<'tnl fnroned of bomnIb id :oIoat lb. ""Ur......
bloch of ......,.,j ..1 m",o lI..ply mlo ,,'.0 Woo<! .... .lou = pl"l'0d for 'h.doorfrorna. whioll _
F,,. Sl n",b<, j" ....11. /1,,,,,1' 11.201. Dim". F18., J """rill'l l . //,," '" 11. 201. Di_
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In Ill<> It, llon e mon' " 'h" silO. nuUdinl of ' ho n", 1I' u,.,. A.D. h.. bOf1' dlociW. ' ! ." .. Iudo_
...... U:I ....... pubJlc , J"'O'lhIy " "1t0"'''''''-. Ii is b..,]1or mud"'n"," 1DCUIIrtq: 2S 10 . 10m.. Wd ill C
.u and hoA ,""'" < '''''''0<1111 "" ooolltwi ",_ " Ilk. th< 1ImplI ....n. ...
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. , ........ ...., ..d ill 'Il<> .. .db >I "'I"lar In(.rnl.O. Tho ,,&110... . be oopar" N by tho
01'h" . brkk. I lld """'If In ,h. h. , d.. . ""..... IVhiItt Hoc 1"" Jiludin.l I><> m. Or' ,.,. I ' OIId "pI tn<>II 111
mll,h." oour A!o<I. II" 1>0."" f>ce of ,I,. ...:l!I ,,,, ..,''''0 I ow d"'1l" o (h ill ..
, ........... be 0<00'... <110_ IIIFrs SO Timbo",,! of 1100 _ne" of !be ,,"ib I< ''''0')' ,........ "'0}' <>11:..
01 bnc h .. lb. "''''' bcin! r.ploOf'Il by ..-.. ....lb IlI<>l< be..... """"III ,be _ q DIlly.,... lmck-ImP
... _ . " ( t ... SI) W_I<_ (Of dI< ...t lot .....do_11oe _-.lou'_
10< .oor..... flit whidI """P"- btIok ...1,, _ .. ,o b_ be.......diIl_r_ 'Thlllrnbc........ thII b
pa,.ue,. d In ' 10< h""... It nth.. (;r>:o-R<.otn... ' OWII n'n, _h .. K.u......nd Dim.,lJId ,he r._r", tluo
... d",u' " d III ChI ?' " \3.
n.. d io'o lh. w.n by Il,i' k hOlm. t>ullt in", ,h. The "", nol of ' h. lInlk,_r""o d room......
by ,h.ull "lulu of dl 0, . 1 f",m, hulll O(thin hrich. n X25 " 6CIn ,n oil . " ' nd . ooUJl ll<:a .
dlo. UlWs "'<n: prMid<od br tIlrrow ...._ , oIlullod .... , I.... <:<iluJe. >od by ....... in 'he ' ...... 0 <If 'ho nuJu,.-
Th , ,11' Pt<>l.m"", ..,,>tollum " I><od" , b oullt of but wi' h , h. w:oJb "ound tit< b. th. prot.ct.d
b)' e.."'t of bum' Orick. Molt of tho t. AI. l>ut r.w eour.... of CI occur. Th. bot M th . m..lv
"'" fortmd of bum' 27 . 13. 30.15.6001 '" si' . ..oth . w".rprouf hm< p'" ' ' ''''
AnumbeJ of b, ,, . ",oro lohl " '" in the )( Q"""p. riod "" t hl " t ho , "do,u" 01tl,. ""' pl. of M. dl".,
TIle nlSt of II" " COrl"",J "f . SSe", ", I", d" " "cl ' !LeI"",d ,10. ,.., 11, ofbu' l\t h, I,k hull' In C1
",ilh . " "I[OJ ' u,", uf typ, hJ I U"<! Ihe lup " TIlO h,I"" 0"""" II 14.5. 6.5,,". >I, d " " join" h. d
boer, mkJ "' Llh I,m" m"r' ", . whi<: h "' '' ;0)><> " .." lu lilL' lire <h"m'l. (s<, PI .54A,)
Another " ,,,by , u" d" I''" ''':15 ofsimll>, , o"" t ru" lon. ",Ilh ,he "me ,ype of bondi" ! u..d In tb. "" II " d t ho roof.
'."p' tl, ,, th, I" "" of th, ,'.ul! h, d onl>' !",'o b,lck. III pl... of lhro. (Fi" , : . Some lot" c"" dul" ., . ro nf
oIIT",,,! form, of cI. y pipe, In bum! b,i, ... .. shown itt Tho weli from ..'hid , , h.,. , n' n",b
"' ''' f, d "' .. wall,d wilh bum' hrlck>3 I 14,5 6cm,ln .i,..laid in n "" (See 11.54,\.)
rn"dulu nf Rnm, " d. t, ",hlch h,,,, been found .. olbor ,it..la' in cooform 'ory d o" ly 10 ' he <onm""lon
of ,h, ,,, ' . ""pl" .. \ t, dln" fuhu. , nd Indl,'idml d. r1prlon" 1l1 , roforo no' y ,'en hero,
Fig.55 D",<t" i, B., ,l tnl i ' I<'lliobu.
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In ''l. G" o<",Kom." ,o.,n of Ed!" ,' numhO[ of Knm,n both. b, ,,, been dl"" o"" . d. '" ,Oo ""u" m,1, h."" ,,
lltle, ofwh"h m " mil.. ' 0 nt h" h.t" nf , l>. "nl<'go Ln En ' pt. In o, d" to prn" d. ,. ",u nc< to , h. w<t. burn'
11m.... u" U>< d lJI lh, c' o,,, ',,e!lon, m",urcd .." h ",hi le 0' ,mpcrm"bl" pI" ,,,. ' 0' TIw t ypo of mo, t ar " "so
. " ,pl"y,J fur "" ,,1" "' 8 ,1" ",, 11, ,,,oj fu, eU"""'B the n""" Th, b<",J lIlgof tl,. In the b. t l" at Mf" is .
", ,, II,, ,, " f A' " "I Cl. '"' II.. ,"' " 0'"'' ""Olln'., lU Rom", tune<,10, ,, p,..lu",')'. 'n o"e of tl .. " U" JlIl];S.
,I.. h,,,", h,i ch "'."" Jl}-l , S . 8,,-9cm ", ,i;". ",h11" ", ."" ,1,,, " OIl, r,,, , h,, to ,I" , o" ' h ' h, y m" "" "d
1.1 . (,..X m.
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\ \>lIy o.M' "C,b. '"""" 1"'n
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11>.' b11 r""nJ . t " ,e. In Er;ypl. ,.. but the;' ,,,,.,,," ,,1 fu' u' <I .. ,
....lfo'm W.. W. 6.,,11I "C lbe E<:\ fu bo, t.>. "'.... olJme. nu,' be ,.... " .. Il r ' o>1nC lhi! or b" IlJ,ni- lb' "'"
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of , .t1a\<1 \taW. """,,6 be "",.6' lhoto . I\oIl<>w brio'" ,h_";' whim the ",""inJ Ilr ..... dri>e.. . '" U ' 0 ' - :-,
tI,. "",II' " '' '" ,he "pll'" ltIO....'ft FIt i 1).
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rt dl ) 1 ! ..S:>. Bur... t>nc: k ......" __..,110
... ,.rproo(pb" " . Vu lt b' .. ...
!uYc Sro<Md fact<,
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b,lckL s,,,,,. lI>Od.
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IXUl ",<;TIC ARCII ITECTURE
QoO...... I. "... 0:.-.. " ,". , _ ,_It, , .. .. " ..
......- It. . C4 " "" .1. .
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OI APTUI. SEVEf'rj:
Tbio .. ...i' hou' d""b, Ibe .....1li,. rOt ' h' ll udy of <I' ""., lic .....,. In Iht KlnJ;Joltl. b,,, lh, ..
.1".", . " 00' '" """pic.. .. ' bry ,*,,,,,Id \1<. lot 'h. ....... ....... .. 1'.64. I. 'Ix ltmo City. lbe LlfJ' """_
pLilIlcrtd aDd RU,...,ls. tile ...>110 ul l"" '....-..n, " n"""d,d ..."h 'ho 0....' ....b of ,'" """'"
Ik".<'1 IInl<IUy c.... ,;",o " r b y" 01 lIri<b.. 0< t>f..."pl ......1. tI h_of K4h' 1<]
,iI<il I" ,he 10,1' ,"""'. ' her. ...... w"",I. .. . "1"",,,. '0 IUpp"" ' h. _ f",. bu, iaJ "
01,, ' S..I",.). "' , .. cOfl>'rutI.d on d<>rUli """'''' 11Id pWI"'. ,),"e.p' ro. ,be w..'ell . k p'. ..'. " of
lbe "" "rIi.,,,,, ''' .. " 0....... lb......... O(h""... _ '0 .... ...... a' Ib pnlt>d.
J. .., Ki ngd" m H" u'lb.
f,,, Klngdoln tht>. i>;>pIn not pn' dtlIl>f ;,lIo' .....h... ro<l<crnint Ibt , hue"",1 "'I"<"
lh< _ oJ "",ain, """ ud. """" priel'" II""... '" theSou,,, of tbt "I""""" 01 flo< I') IOIDtd '"
..............., III at Ouh..' .....d ' h. py1lml""UWIl " f Sc_' ril l l at t N...h..o or Inn.., " oLl dl,,!, nn
I..nrnon. "'" """, r..,. cao lit " 1>00. ,''' _ItSof I ""'1m- IIodt lhe Io,!, --...,.."" tho< _ ""'-II
IIJII .. ,, .....dl}' .. _fo., for d I<<d "o 111"". hu,. f......ohod """". "' ''" r"""d ' Arch,, _
""omllOly "led ....... ,h, d<>no--w>y>, r"'_d "" ' d.. (' Y,," .1 ) lIlCI ,_COlI'''' in tll,d.-. ",tit
IW:.... "" P I" "",...... ,ho bn<l:o. r Oi ril th" , i>no arch....ouIdp<ot>ably h......... JIll'.... "'"
..nd <tD1tinJ. .....loh a ..ry 111,ly ,n Pc . ""1.
Tho ,liool booosa to fu h ...... in 4YP' ... ,'''''' ni l". Sou,,, Tn"", " .m,./I "", boo
JDO(lUo""d .ll,..d)' . ,n O,p'" T. ... Od,.. II'. lint )'l<ldod ,........ of ... ,tk md dJo.Ib h......... bot
I!lf .... of bn<li. ....... to. h... blo :ola>on n......u" .."'. Thll I,d ofa.....,"". COB" """ m,,, <II, """""'" Po:><>::-
lIl'h"",*, .. nlml'" '' of Th" d Drn"l) or Old Kin&dum .1". h"., httn round at H",,,xonpnli. ' ..,.1 llJUo :
Al lho f....-,sil " lb, h_ we" b" il, ofb.1d<o 2S.; - 11> I 10 S- IJ '-7an III oi; ...... __ <lion<_
..",,1.1 ""liZ"" ,ha,,btJ btIona ,,, ,h. fhi.d ' n!I<, ' hm til. fou,tlIl)y n'IlY, No Inf"f1 n"I'm . boo,.h, .,,,,,,,,...
or ,h. b<nMirJp ., E1 J'ob to. ill Y" , " 'oil>blo
s ......"'......... pI.. of !l01I"" of dK Old Kill..,....,. hz,. bo<n .1"""'... 11. bII, h,,,f1y OIly , .......f\lC.. douds
,_,ill. TIUJ . ' <O>< 0( 1/1< ' 0,,-.. .... .... loy ' 0 t!I< ,",,," of IIJ. ,gmt, of Quo lUtenlb .."" Gif.>:' tbt bn.x-
lot.. o:ould ""'" pnl'I'id<d _M1II{"'tnO'lon. bol, no 1" ,.1 .. ....do. DId ,"" -:01 ". """' .... dc-.oudcd t1a , eo.,
or, ""',. I,,,.. n( b1>< \ II... 00 Ib, rock .,f_.Sorn, r.." C:uI bo . ,,,<.1 abnol ,ht h""... of ,h. Sl, th
ahoch """Ll y tbt V,IU, y r,,,,p1, <>f My m,,,. n.... "" 0 burl> of ..,,<Hrri<l. Al 01 Xl .." h 1lJI,:::k .-.
p1oI'" "" ,Ilt ....n . wf........ lbe ,,,,,noJ m' Ylu.. h..o .."ht h I. tn . 1.... of l/>, ,1,1"", .. of ,", ",all... it 100ft
Iih l)' to bo,o of""""{' I" ........ of ,ho ........ """, ' doand \..1. "'''' ...plnytd
Al Al><Wr _ ....nr1 '''''" ' ,- 10. '''''_01lhot ,"on 1)' , ....pl< of Ner,nrUft. llOtl' ,I>< Iido:'
n " .. bod llw1.-:dh ,n AI d "1 mIlS' be.. rool, d ...;tIJ """""- f u" h,., _th."
s.qq.-. " """ of d<>Intlli: " "".1 ..ound ' h. PY'wll of Q_ "'.1"0'.... b<,_tho",,-nmoJ __
III ...0. MId lIIO)' abo ..... f""""d ,Ite /lawn of ol,. p,lo,U.

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o"n ..r :i od<Oi<W I",,,, bri<k bl lhicl.Il.... wbJ:h wollld ' 0 .n probobili'y' h "".....d 1(1."
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of ,.... ...d ' ho....,.............n.. ...... buil' fuJl ,""h bncls ,llcm In I<ncth. ..... ti" hol.kwo,kofth.1t<nosI:s
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_ I.,", <I 1>1'""" _.10< tbo: _f"""... 1bt jOmM b<tD!1....rnl 11I ' belnlok_ by oruod... pq:o:'
I. ,be _ ' olir>flt 001-. ""'>Illy' 1IIIIf'l< pud,.o ' ''1'1''''''' ' M 1111 0' wood IDd rttdl.,:'
no DIf:h' .., tlot -.Dy _ , Oft' ......."'11M"'k_ ....01, '"It ....'N ..,Ill plw.. .
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''''''''' would 'hOI ,h. h,", ," h.d ,1" 'nolo. ",,,""'ltd b, ..l><>Ilrn ,.I"r>.

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!t o,l'l. !Il Thobe<. )0 n.. llIlu.... "".. "tIled f" ... , fDII' 10 ........ loom.. and Illd ,h.., . mudpl"L<f<d 11> hu,lI ' 0 4 1
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type """'" d ,,' uod omaIl """ h" d".Uiop 11<11, 1M 'o-mpl. of l lab......, II Dtl ' ".!Io"'''' ' In , h n.p
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oily II<> f""udan .<apt ,""", hII.iI, 0lI rubble. In 11I>11 <a>< they haw ..mlln>c IU<, or Il<ln< or ..
of ... u<i... boa for rinly of brick. bu ,b.tIo< <>l R:smeuodc: IJnIn "title il. 1lloI<I rD! .hI ,
T.-o of IloIa on ,he ' OP of 1M " "'-...... .tat roof _ ....d. 'hr lOOk be lbl 4 _
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room,. , uf ......><1 to If' .cr 'b. "',"",uld. 10 '0';" ....11 011 ' ho 'lOp. T" dill'o,o'" rnuns ...r ......din' uHd ..
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n . -. ..... , ... t ...
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-,,<hOi I rHI ..ulll ,""" ..... uw"''O, ' h. and "MI.h lhr ( FJI:. 66 arwl Ma,.. \lOft of 'Ix ..ulll
<>w' 'M """"..., of typo xl 0' d l . wbih. tho..wIot mho, of ,II< d""rs. ---..od " ieh.. . ' " borId<d<I. tre: l or
h. I." (F11-67l Tho .nI1. :II. rnmmonly IouU, IIICI or 0 horHIiDJ. bu' I {. iramOUlt' of AL and .u..... D<f: Un
(... 1'1. ... 5S S6l Cont.:uy '0 tho u..... 1'C>"'1ocIfl .uIia 1'1l', ' iJfI l>nck-Mod. til< _ . ....' . "'" ..""'1" tDud-pLu' <r<d
... 1M.,.to""'....d '"' """'" 45. m .._ "'<ou',d _ found , 110 pbo.leI ...:u uood OIl lh<- mlm... ""foca
......
Fic-66 s,_...... ......... ..
,-
FiK67 .. ...... Jhnt"j .
,-
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...... <Jo.lr"1'cd. bu' Irodenl !Ikl, l d 10 til I"'" A1 ",J CI bonding In til .....
buml ..... e,,, plll)'ed in ' be "." , , ,,,,<full' . nd l otd, ns. the 01lh. hrl<l' " 11< Of\ "
Simi!.. f"' lu,., .... ,. I' " u,od in th< t'Or li' 'l'O"'n of Ann,nl." ' "n, i" inl "r ,ou, h mudb,it:l "i,h
" II. lind. t . 1I of bUln' br"'. Tho . tol" ........ buil t ",.r",uh. "f xt . ,h, JOWl ill .. hLOh ...". r.n.d
WI t h iln" mml , A ,,,toty of bondLnt .y,"""we,. LI "J i" II" h, ,h. bo!". AI. AZ. A3. 113. CI. C4 . " ,1n.
o," ",lIt, lI ,yp, C! ,,'O, tho mo.! comm",, "
lhf hou... <If lho (;..",o-R"""" .o .. a" Edfu'"_ bud' 01mud bri<:'"ia AI. A;' .... A.l hafldlas, ,II< Jlm.nsiOa.
01 ,hu. b,letl bc.. -.two. in ,h. u bI< a.. P'F 10.1. V.ut" ..... F ",,,,lIy u>l fOf !h< ",,,Ii,,! af cell.", ...d """nd-f1oa.
,"""". , h. ll\&JOti,y of lh ,. 01 .1 . d I. cd I .. Ul lOll". <""""""" of >lighlly ' o.....d hrlck> lIIftlI\Innl x
I'; 11 1 8:ra ' 00 Apo!1u,.. u .. loh ia lMe,,'''" ol rh. null.. lotbolll aad llfhl. ''V.ol......... II..,
II-.l ,o"'p,..' .h.....,..lIJI.. ,II< ".po of ..h _uno' ' <lalornd .,Ib >loo. '0' l\u!al '"' 0IlIr u",d
' 0 1I1,IIII,.d ....ot II> lh. Gr.,,=-Il<rmu ' '''''''' aIl y in pl&<.... <ubjo.:t 10"''' ... d""'l'. IQCh .. d..' .... ,"' .."old>
...l bath., In III< 8, .....' ioc >ad COP'>; bo'al bJid 11 .-. """""""" ODd it it ooxuooaolly rowol .. ,ho ",tboo
...., tho __, OJAJlOfIl<. I"" "", <>f tbcocI """... i>tho tnt,.... ill the: ..... of CI .. C'-S .....<11...... _ ....'"
. .. ' .,... ,1,0 ' '''" A_ of ".. ..,11., "'lOCI",",' .. T. tho booa>n fli1h<C',,_RoorwI period >ad
_ ...:1 by adlnof ' I pc <I '" "'I. , """" .,. loami ....,..-.. ly io '100 Gno- R_kildlap.
boo, _ _ <...,.,..,. .. ' "," lI y_'" kw<h. .".,. .......... .-. .. _ 01.- _1<>-'"
""- _ . .. . ,L
9'! _
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,a, . 4. '" 'H ' IV
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1M......... of l<pNIl...... . t.d " ,. f..... ,... r..><g>o R-., -.I Copli:: pofiodl. . 1>3> d-bri<l w""
r_ SG-7I:lan ill d\i.oblo-a, lIo.i A! -.I A:l "'-".,; 1 ' f1rtcko .. lIla< "' oiI<Il lOW f"' r _oflho
.... '" rOf .....n.nl ' ... brio:1_1t.. 'M II. I fe.. "'" .... _ ki, iI:l c_1><4l, Of IIaoI <I f _""I
"" , ho r..... ond It Iho...,.... ' MbIl' !tI. ....""""".... _ '" ..oooIlOCII iI. ttl. Gao<:... boufri ho F:I)'IUD io.<>I
r"""" "' Bophon" lII T1w cdlul ...... roofed .... d I L.. IorttlOd <l r iIrlo. clWI bnd . . tho1""' . ..t<ido of lho
""'.. K ttI. fdlod .... n oon oIII! poldl .,4L Il. VI W 1100 .",pl"l' N be.....'" th. ...... whore II . Df .. l form..
_ . Ufltp'" cDMlt\lCl04 0' Ioun'll bncb m :!6 1l - IJ I 4 5=. " .
SU"W AIl.l': RRICII:WORK LS GRAECQ.RO:'llAN 1I0USES
1.<><1,lon Bnd Suolem I
Ii"u", . with n,ud . nd
"'''''''''ion.
TImborIn ""4 ow, .n"<1owI
Roofu .r polmwp Ol . ...111
R""f. of bncl.> _ , lop . Mud bricL
<:<II"""'IJ<JII.
.....1><' ... 10 .'211. md .n,..""
docn .t. .. Co<1><" "' __
pn>k<laI wi' ..ODd. Sonw ....n. bouI,
ill <>lIICIO< ._,on ....... Io!o r<:ll
bo>I ....IS , oellIfl.
T!mbtri<>Jof "'" ="""
VlUltod cdJI Wlll. of COna>'< ' ypo.
B'''''' brieu 0 "1' ill Cop,," l<Y<h.

Fl"""" d' >rnl" "". h<of bum. brieL.
S9t<i>l ,,' ''nd bll, k. fu, <ultrm"
29 . 14 . 11
30 :<\ 5,<1 1
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}
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" '. roo' ''. I.. F""m." '" '-M .., "'"".""'", . ,. .. ,"", ...<0
' "
CHAPTER EIGHT: FORTRESSES AND DEFENSIVE TOWN WALLS
I. The Archaic Period.
The evidence for the exist ence of fortified settle ments given by representations on archaic palettes and sealings
has already been discussed (page 5) and need not be repeated here. The early "fort " at Hierakonpolis I has certain
features of a defensive character, such as the double outer wall and the for ti fied gateway, but t his building probably
had a rit ual OJ funerary purpose like t he Second Dynast y enclosures at Abydos. The bricks of the Hierakonpolis
"fort" vary from 25 x 12 x 9cm to 30 x 14 x 7cm in size. and they are laid in A2 or A3 bonding.' These small
dimensions are typical of the Archaic Period, and resemble the bric ks of the town wall at Hierakonpolis, which
measure 24. 5 x 14 x 7cm. This wall-was originally S. 15m in thi ckness. built in Class A bonding, bUI at a lat er date
it wasenlarged by t he const ruction of another wall, 2.50m thick, at a distance of J.85m in front of i t. The gap between
the t wo walls was t hen filled with earth 10 form a single waU of 9.5Om. The second wall was built of bricks 28 x 14- 16
x 8. 5- 1Ocm in size, and may have been decorated wit h niches on its outer face,
Kllball.
12
2. Old and Middle Kingdom Forti flcaticns.
Timbers occur in the mai n walls every eight h course, laid tr ansversely, resting on a layer of reed-matt ing which fills
the horizontal joint. The bricks are 32 x 16 x 10em in size.
ibid.. . 59 .
ibid. 59.
K. n -II F.dfm. 111"1 1939), 10 3,6 & it -ilL
i bid. , 10 3 &. I' la ". IJIII.
I' mcty, W.R. &. Kir wan. L. P., fixe. i2"d Sun''')' Wadi
".S f'bui2 &: l6-JJ.
' 04
Q..l l>cll, J. I::. & Gr.... n. F.W. Hi"' i2 k rmpo fll, II. 1\1 20 & PI.L XXI V.
ibid. 20. AI.., G3nt3nil . J. AS"!;' 8 (I1107). PIs-V. VL S.
Fairs..."i$. W.A. , JA RC \I (J 1171 2), IS&' FiJ. \I. 'I.
Jariu, B., MDlK 26 (1 1170).1346 . 10.
Stadel man n. R. MDrK 2 7 (1 \1 7 1). 200 I. L1.
H-, ,uDIK 26 (t970 ). 91 -J. 12.
so mers Cb tk... lEA '7 (1\121). 59.
Several parts of the Old Kingdom town wall of Elephantine have been discovered at that site, built of small mud-
bricks in Class A bonding. The South-East sect ion 4 of the wall is founded on a substruct ure of thin walls, which were
built in order to fill up t he irregular hollows in the grani te bedrock. These foundation walls are bonded A2( 1.5) or A3
(2.0). whilst t he main wall above them is four bricks across and is built in A3 bonding, except for a base layer of bric ks
on edge. The bricks themsel ves measure 26-27 x 11-13 x 6-7cm, and they are laid in mud-mor tar . In the Southern
par t of the site stands anot her section -of the same wall, (bricks 27 x 14 x 7.5cm) over built by a later wall of the New
Kingdom. More remains of the early waU
6
lie to the East of the temple of Khnum, where there are four levels of build-
ing, some of which appear to represent repairs of Middle Kingdom da te. Here also the bonding is Class A, and the bricks
are 24- 27 x 11- 13 x 6.5cmin stze.
At EIKab the lown wall '7was circular, and formed of Iwo parallel thin walls wit h a rubble filli ng bet ween, alt hough
Somers Clarke believed 8 that they were two independent walls, as in t he early " fort" of Hterakcnpchs. They stand 4.88m
apart and are 2.44 and 2. 74m thick respectively. both const ructed of bricks 35 x 13 x 6cm in size. The date of the town
enclos ure is not certain. but it is presumed 10 belong to the Middle Kingdom."
Remains of to wn-walls of this period have been found at Edfu , overlying a cemet ery of t he Old Kingdom. IGThe earliest
wall was built in the First Intermediate Period and was reinforced during the Middle Kingdom. It does not fo llow a
st raight course, but contains a number of right-angle bends . which project out wards in t he manner of bastions. I I Lat er
in the Middle Kingdom a newenclosure was buill on a st raight plan. All t hese walls are constructed in Class A bonding,
probably A3, as is usual in thick masses of brickwork.
Since t he available informa tion on fortifications within Egypt is so slight at this da te, I have included below a brief
description of t he const ruction of the outer walls of t he Nubian fort resses. Some of these feat ures belong to the New
Kingdom. but they are stated her e to avoid dividing the mat erial concerned with a single group of buildings.
I .
a.
3.

,.
Buhen.
105
Number of
2. courses.

"
i

Q
"

6
I II. Ra<la.. y " . , Kush, 12 ( 1964 ), 50.
19. ll unh3m. n, 11. 12 1. & PI.LIIl A.
20. IMd., 2 1-2 Ii< PL XIV A-B.
21. i bid., I, S-6&. P1.4 B.
21. J( 19 16), 178.
Fig. fi S Timbering of wall, Shalfak:
Fig.69 Timber ill Wall, Uronarti.
Timbering occurs in the walls and in the buttresses. usually with a layer of beams along the face of the wall in the
course above a row of transverse logs (Fig.69). Reed-maili ng is also employed, bet ween every sixth course of brickwork.
The outer wall has buttresses along the face, both these and the wall Itself being reinforced with timbers laid along
and across the brickwork. The bricks of this fort measure 32 x 15- 16 x B-9cm.
In the heart of the walls the bricks are laid carelessly, bUI in spite of this apparent irregularity the deviation of
the courses from a true plane is only!. 2cm, this levelling probably being accomplished by sighting on the horizon .
Similar accuracy is seen in the spacing of the layers of wooden beams: these are separated by 12 courses of bricks.
a distance which in each case measures 1.30m, with a maximum error of under 2cm. These beams are I S- 20cm in
diameter, and they always rest on a layer of reed-matting. In the thick walls and buttresses there is a system of air
channels through the brickwor k at various levels, formed of passages two bricks high by one brick wide.
16
A detailed
study of the dimensions of the bricks used in the fortress has been made by Hesse, 17based on the measurement of a
large number of examples, most of which were between 30cm and 34cm in length.
TIle buttressed walls of the fort are buill of mudbricks measuring 32 x 15 x Bern ,13 and wooden beams occur at
intervals in the struct ure. Woolley thought that cert ain parts of the wall contained large compartmen ts, which were
eithe r filled with sand or used for storage,14 but more recent excavations have shown this conclusion to be incorrect
since the main walls consist of solid brickwork.
M;rg;ssa.1 S
Askut. 18
U r OlJar,;. 20
A great quantit y of wood was employed in the main walls, transverse beams being found at every sixth course of
brickwork, whilst longitudinal timbers occur at the" thi rteenth course. The latt er timbers rest upon the logs in the
course immediately below, as shown in Fig.68. The brick size is 33 x 16 x I tem.
The walls 01" the fort stand on granit e rubble, as at Kumma on the opposite side of the Nile, and consist of mud-bricks
31 x 14 x Scm in see. Timber was used extensively in the brickwork, the beams being set bot h along and across the walls,
lmd layers of reeds occur at every fift h course. 22
Shat fak;t9
St'l1I lJa.
21
Kf?rma.
2S
Kllmma.
u
3. New Kingdom F or tifica ti ons.
29. i bid 19 !!-2 00.
30, h r;l z. H., M DIK 26 ( 1970 ). Q4 & 11. n n" p.Q2
3 1. BIJ" kman. A.M J EA 23 (I Q37 ), 146 &:. 1'l XIII .
( air man, H.W l EA H ( 19 3 9). 140.
32. Sl<' j"dur ff, G_. A"ihll, II. 17 s: 1'1.. b. II.
33. T"" U, ll, Nr lx'sll r ll" S4. & PI. ltLl V.
34. i bid., 53.
35. ....l r;... w_M. r np. d l" S8.
36. ibi..!, 9S.
106
23. Dunham, op. cit., I. 11+ 5.
24. So mers ('larke, J E_4 3 (1 9I b) ,1 74.
15. R<"ilner. C. A., Krn",t. r-nr. 1 2-3.
I.l<"l pite Reisner' s o pin io n. th i, build ing
wa, nOI 3 fur l rl'51.
ae. Mk halo ...... ki. K., Trll Ed!nu, 111 ( I Q39),
10+ 6 '" Plans n.IIL
n . Ibid., Plall U.
18. s la drl ma nn. R. , non: 27 ('97 1). 20 1.
Psammeti chus I established a forti fied camp at this site in the North-East Delta. consisting of a roughly square building
standing on a high foundation of brickwork. ) ) Some of the compart ments in the platform were domed over to form
store-cellars, whilst ot hers were merely sand-filled to provide a base for t he st ructures above. H A few chambers were
filled up solid with brickwork. The outer surfaces of the wal.l s had received t wo or three coats of plaster. and the bricks
were laid in mud-mo rtar. Outside the cit adel was a pavement of brick. beneath which some burnt bricks. possibly of
Ramesside age. were discovered. measuring 32 x 15.5 x Bcm.
3S
The sizes of t he bricks in the fori itself arc given on
page lOS. 36
Examples of defensive to wn walls or for t resses are rare at this period. except in th e Nubian (or is described above. The
enclosure walls of the temple of Ramesses UI at Medinet Habu, which are designed in a defensive style. have also been
discussed elsewhere (see above, page 70).
The town wall of Edfu was rebuilt at three successive periods during the New Kingdom, one of these walls, numbered
CS X, being t. 95m thick. 261t seems that all these struct ures were built in A2 or A3 bonding.
27bu
t no technical detail s
are available.
A New Kingdom town-wall has been found at Elephantine. built of bricks 36 x 18 x 9cm in size with mud-mor tar in
the horizon tal joints. In t he Southern part of the site, this wall overlies that of the Old Kingdom, 18 and th e alignment
of t he wall suggests that it is continuous with other remains in t he South-West part of the island , where a number of
st ratified walls have been found.
29
These ruins have not yet been precisely dated, but it seems certain th at one of t he
earl ier levels \1,111 prove to be the continuati on of the New Kingdom wall. Further t races of th is wall stand on the East
of the site.
30co
nsisr1ng of t wo levels of building. both of which are formed of bricks measuring 36 x 18 x 9cm, as in
the Sou thern section.
Defensive town-walls of the New Kingdom occu r in Nubia. around the Egyptian sett lements at Sesebi and Amara
West. 31 These walls have buttresses along t he out er face. and at the latt er site the bricks wer e stamped by Seti I. The
wall of Sesebi was 4.6Om t hick. with buttresses 3. 15m across projec ting 2.6Sm from the face. A different type of
enclosure is found at Aneiba, H where the New Kingdom town was surrounded by a pl ain brick wall with out butt resses.
protect ed by a dry ditch in front. This ditch, the sides of which were lined wit h brickwor k. was overlooke d by t he low
ramparts which ran along the foot of the main wall of the lawn. The latter wall was 5m thick and stood on a foundation
course of bricks on edge, with a sloping socle on the outer face.
4. For tifications o f the Twenty-First to Thi rtieth Dynasties.
The walls are built in Class A bonding on a foun dati on of granite rubble. Beams. IO- 15cm in diamete r, run along and
across t he walls at frequent int ervals, and reed-mat ting is found bet ween every four t h course. The dimensions of the
bricks are 32 x 15 x Scm,24 as at Buhen and Askut.
' The Lower Deffufa' measures 100x 50 cubits (52.20 x 26.7Om) and is built of mud-bricks 35 x 17 x Scm and
35 x 17 x 12cm in size. The faces of the walls show the appearance of Al bonding, but int ernally there is an alt ernation
of four header courses with four st retcher courses. Wooden beams occur at levels 5m apart, set crosswise thr ough t he
brickwork.
Naukratis.
A similar building to t he camp of Deffeneb was discovered in the temple temenos at Naukratis. built in the same
manner over a plat form of domed chambers.37 The lowest ent ranc e to this st ructure is sit uated at a point over Sm
above the ground, which indicates a defensive purpose, and even in its ruined stat e th e building is still 10m high. The
bricks are of a size common in Sette limes, measuring 4 1.5 x 2 1 x (?)cm.
Abu Roash.
A large building was excavated at this site by Macramall ah, who described it as a fort , and dated it to the Middle
Kingdom, 38a1 though bot h the identification and the dating are open to do ubt . The monument consists of an encl osing
wall, 12m in thickness, within which is a denuded block of brickwork . (Fig.70). No timber ties were found in the st ructure
of t he great wall, which is compo sed of mud-bricks 39 x 19.5 x IO.Scm - 44 x 22 x l4cm in size, laid in sand. 39 Along
the face are a series of recessed and projecting sections, some of t he former having butt resses buil t up against the lower
courses, formed by stepping back the courses of bricks.40 Macramallah states t hat the bricks are laid in horizon tal courses.
but th en goes on to say th at t he "beds rise up towards the angles of the panels", 41 and the drawing given in his report 42
shows some of the sections of brickwork to be concave. The const ruction within t he enclosed area, apparently a solid
mass, is also built in concave courses of brickwor k.
43
I I
Cent ral bl ock
/
/
,
,
' "
, .
! '
" L...
,
I
/ , ,
, ,
, ,
- - _ I
- -___ / I
___ ' I
Outer w-;ll -
Fig.70 Plan of "Fort" at Abu Roash
What is the tru e nature of th is building? It cannot be a fort , as Macramallah supposed, since it does not correspond to
any known Egyptian fortifications, and the constructional detai ls are not in accord with t his indenti ficati on. WaDs built
in concave beds are not used in a fort ress, nor. indeed, in any kind of secular building in Pharaonic times. It is more
probable that this str ucture is some kind of religious mon ument, since the cent ral mass could have been the foundation
of some form of small temple or chapel, enclosed by the outer wall.
The reasons given by MacramaUah
44
for datin g the building to the Mi ddle Kingdom are not convincing, and the
presence of a drain formed of Roman amphorae on t he site
4 5w
ould rather indicat e a late age, although the drain and
the monu ment are not necessarily co ntemporary. However, the constructi on of t he solid cent ral block of brickwork in
concave courses is a tech nique S0 far not encount ered prior to the Lare-Penod/" to which, therefor e, the building is
possibly 10 be ascribe d. It could just be of Ptolemaic date, although this is less likely since t he dimensions of th e bricks
would then be exceptionally large. whil st the y agree per fectl y wit h bricks of t he Twent y-Sixt h to Thirt ieth Dynasties.
At the North end of t he Palace of Apries was a Iortifled camp or cit adel. 47 built on domed co mpart ments In a plat form
of brickwork, as in the forts of Deffeneh and Naukratis.
.n . Pcl rte , W.M. F. N ,."kf'!l ';s. 1. 24-6 &0. l'is . XLII -XLI II .
l 8. Mac ram albh. M. R... ASAE l 2 (1 9 32>. 1/i 1- 173 &, PI... I IV.
lQ. ;hid. . 163-5.
40. ibid. . 16 5 &0 PL II.
4 1. i bid., 164 5.
42. ibid. , 166. ri ll I.
4 l . i bid. 164 1 &. 1'1.1ll. 3-.
44. M"-Hamulla h, /.l. R. , " p. cit.. 17 1-l .
4S . ib id. . 167 I< 1'1. Ill . 2.
4 6. o c<: ur in t he fn u ndal io n5 or &mall al Ta ni&and J: :JKab.
4 7. W. M.I- . Pil l" CC' of A p rlu, I . Ide.... l. 1'1. I.
107
El-Hibe/z.
TIle town of El-Hibeh is surrounded by a walll1.60m in t hickness, and at its Northern end is a fort containing
stamped bricks of Pinudjem 1 and Menkheperre. 4 8 The latter high-priest also built for ts ncar Shurafa and at Qus and
Gebclcin,"? but apart from the presence of stamped bricks no details of the se buildings are available. At Gebele in
there were forts on both sides of the gebel, so that on the East hill having walls built in Class A bonding with reed-
matti ng bet ween the courses of bricks.
Medinet Hahu.
TIle enclosure wall of the temple of Ramesses III at Medinet lIabu was rebuilt in t he Twenty-Fi rst Dynast y by
Pinudjem 1, 51 with bricks measu ring 36 x 18 x lOcm and 42 x 20 x 12cm. the latter being re-used. A tower was
constr ucted on the rounded South-West comer , and a new gate was added on the West side.
Further recons t ruct ion took place in the Twent y-Second Dynasty, 52 with re-used bricks fr om the buildings of
Ramesses III and from the nearby palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata. The pur pose of the wall was no longer
concerned with the temple, but was to protect t he to wn which had developed within the enclosure.
SUMMARY: FORTS OF THE LATE PERIOD.
Location
Bethpeiet:
Fort of Sheshonk I : 53
Gerar:
For i of Psammetichus l: 54
De[[('Il ch:
Fort :
Naukratis:
For t in Great Temenos:
Abu Roath:
" Fort"
Bonds Brick Sizes(cm)
43 - 53 long.
37 x 19 x 14 to
40.5 x 20. 5 x (?)
33 x 33 x (?)
35 x 34.5 x (? )
36x36x(?)
37 x.34 x 14
41 x 20 x 12.5
41. 5 x 20 x u.s
41. 5 x 20. 5 x 10.5 - 11
44 x 22 xl 1
44x22x13
4 1 x 20.5 x 12.5
41x 20.5x 11
36x 18 x9
41.5 x 21 x (?)
39 x 19.5 x 10. 5 to
44 x 22 x 14
Notes
Outer wall over 5m t hick.
Similar const ruct ion to fort at
Deffeneh.
Square bricks due to infl uence
from Mesopotamia.
For t stands on a high platform
of cellular brickwork. Some of
the chambers in t his fo undation
were domed over.
Similar to fort of Deffeneh .
Large enclosur e around remains
of a building. Almost certa inly
no t a fort ; possibly some kind of
temple.
48 . KHmal . A. ASAE2( 190 1). 85 .
4 9. Kitchen, K. A. Third lnt" n m'dia f(' l',riod. 269-10.
SO. In formali nn ki n dl y sup plied by Dr. B. V.
5 1. U.. E.M.If. , V, .1-4.
52. ibid. 6.
53. W.M.F. Bc Olpe/et, 1,20 & PI. L1X.
54. Pdri e. W.M. t".. Gt'rar. 1- 8 & PI.X I.
)08
Location
Memphis:
Camp N. of
Palace of Apries:
J::I-lliheh:
Medinet Habl/:
Rebuilding of
Pinudjem 1:
XXIInd. Dyn. rebuilding:
Geoetcm:
Bonds used Brick sizes (em)
41 x 18 x 10.5
36x l8xlO
42x20x l 2
43)( 23 x 10
Notes
Built on cellular plat form of
brickwork .
Stamped bricks of Menkheperre
and Pinudjem I.
Ramcsslde bricks, re-used.
Repairs to enclosure wall with
re-used bricks.
Forts of Menkheperre on either
side of the gebel, built of stamped
bricks.
5. Graeco- Rornan Fortifications.
Medin et Habu.
The old enclosure wall of Medinet Habu was repaired in the Roman period, 55and towers were built at the South-
East and North-West corners. Re-used bricks were employed in the lower courses of these structures, measuring 44 x
20 x I l cm and 36 x 17 x l Ocm, whilst the higher levels were built of Roman-age bricks 32 x 14 x lOcm in size. The
bonding of this brickwork is type CI , at least on the outer faces of the walls, as can be seen in the view of the North-
West tower in Plate 568.
EIKab.
At this site there was a small Roman for t, built on square plan with bastions at each corner. 56 Most of the const-
ruct ion is composed of mud-brick, but in the pavements and the few surviving vaults a few burnt bricks occur. The
pavements are formed of bricks laid in even rows, or, occasionally, in a herringbo ne patt ern.57 In the survivingwalls
the bricks are laid as st retchers, with a layer of edger-headers every fourth course. The sizes of the bricks are given in
t he chart on page tlO.
Edt"_
A defensive wall was constructed on the top of the town-mound in Ptolemaic times, with bricks measuring 31 x 17
x l l cm, laid in Class A bonding. sH The wall was repaired and strengt hened during the Roman period, at which time
rounde d bastions were added along the out er face. Some Cl bonding occurs in this reconstruc tion work, and the
dimensions of the bricks arc 31 x 16 x 10em - 33 x 17 x 1Iem, 60 although some of these may be re-used. In the
second century A.D., a new wall was built to the West of the previous one, with bricks 32 x 16 x l l cm in size.
6 1
Elephantine.
In the South-West part of the site of Elephant ine are the st ratified remains of town-walls of various dates ,62 the
most recent of which pro bably belongs to the Roman period. This dati ng is supported by the fact that this wall is
built of small bricks laid in CI bonding, which only becomes common in brickwork of Roman and Coptic age.
55 . HlIl, ohcr, U. , H. M. H. , V. 36. 5\1.
S6. Badaw y. A. i n Caparl, J. , d.. ... 8 12. 60.
S? ll ad awy, A. ASAl:' 46 ( 194 ? ). 36? 6 1-
58. Mi ch"luw. ki. K., r-n Edt "" . III (193 9), 118 & 1' 1, . IV-V . 6 2.
109
ibid. . 12 6, 14 8 \1 & Plan IV.
IMd. 148, Fii<- H9. & Plan IV.
ibid. 14 3 & PI"" l V.
Hacn y & Ja. tl z. MDIK 2? ( I 'I ? I) . 198-20 0.
Kkarga.
At Ed-Delr in Kharga Oasis is a Roman fortress known as Kastell ed-Deir , consisting of a square enclosure with
defensive t owers at the angles and along the sides. 63The outer walls are approximat ely 4m in thi ckn ess and are
reinforced by timbers set tr ansversely and longit ud inally in the brickwork. 64 Most of the const ructio n is composed
of mud-bricks measuring 3 1 x 16 x Ilcm, but the sides of the entrance gateway on the West side are formed of burnt
bricks. 6SThis ent rance was originally roofed wit h a vault, const ruct ed of burnt bric ks 26 x 12 x 6cm in size. the broad
surfaces of each bric k being scored with several shallow grooves.
66
SUMMARY: GRAECo- ROMAN FORTIFICATIONS
Location
Shuraja:
6 7
HU:
68
Dendera:69
Luxor:
Roman for i around
old temple: 70
Medint't Habu:
Town wall:
Towers:
EI-Kab:
Roman fort :
diu:
Ptol. & Roman wall :
late Roman wall:
Kharga:
Roman fort :
Bonds
A?
CI
AJ CI
Brick Size(cm)
44 x 20 x I I[ re-used]
36 x 17 x IO(re-used)
32 x l 4x lO
34x1 7 x 8
32x l6 x7
22x tl x5
32 x 14 x (?Xbuml)
31x l 7x l l
34x I7x 11- 2
3 1 x 16x IO ta
33xI 7x li
32 xl 6 x ll
3 1x l 6 x l l
26x l2x6
Notes
Roman for t wit h double outer
wall and towers at comers and
on E. side . Brick walls founde d
on sto nework.
Temple-enclosure mad e into
Roman fort. by addition of t owers
at angles.
Temple-enclosure repaired in Coptic
and early Arab times. to serve as
town-wall. Tower bu ilt beside East
gat e, and anoth er at S.W. corner.
Semicircula r lowers along walls.
square towersat angles. Triangular
bu rnt bric ks for columns.
Roman repairs to temple wall of
Dyn. XX.
Square t owers at S. E. & N.W. comers.
built in Class C bonding.
Square fort with comer t owers. Burnt
br ick only in 1100rs & vault s.
Semicircular bastions added t o wall
in Roman t imes.
Square fort uf mud-brick const ruction.
with t owe rs at corne rs and along walls.
Timber reinforcement in brickwor k.
Smaller size of bricks are bu rnt , from
vault ing over gate.
63. Naum. nn. R.. MDIK 8 (1 939 ). 2).
64. Df' Boc k. W., .ll rch. ('",ir.. 2.
65 . ibid. 2.4.
66. i bid. 2.
67. I'el ri... W.M . F. , lIl.'liopolis, K /l.!r A nrmQr & Shurtl!lI, 4 1 &. I''' XLV II.
68. Pel rie. DloJpolu P/l.rl'/L 54-S &. I' I. XXIV.
69. Ct'l3.\Sin .l. 1::.. DI.'"dQrQ. I. Pis. VI &. I X.
70. Lacau. 1'. ASA C 34 (1 934) . 1720.
110
CHAPTER NINE: BRICK WALLS.
Fig. 71 lI!all under lateral pressure.
Se(.'I ;O/1 of Retaining Wall
at North Saqqara.
112
above, 11. 62.
W.E>.. JEA S) ( 1967), .. JHA 55 (]969}.I'I.XI.
Fig. 73
It is of int eres t to apply these rules t o an Ancient Egyptian const ructio n. Figure 73 mows a sectio n of the great
ret aining wall which surrounds the temple of lsis-mc ther-of-Apis at Nor th Saqqa ra.
2
with the buttress on its ou ter
face. This wall is preserved to a height of 4m. but the original height must have been about ern. as shown in the
Tension at heel avoided
by effect of W x d. J
p- - -->I
A great dea l of Ancient Egypt ian building involved the construct ion of brick walls to hold back different levels
of sand OJ gravel. since these materials were frequently employed as filling, or (or levelling. Walls built for this
purpose func tion in t he same manner as a dam or dyke. and the loose filling behaves as jf il were a fluid. Th e
pressure up on t he retaining wall is clearly proport ional to the heigh t of the rubbl e which rests against it, and this
lateral thrust tends to make the wall overturn or slide, bUI is resisted by the weight of t he brickwork. The Egypti ans
seem to have realized at an early J 31e tha t a considerable saving in material could be made. without loss of
st ability, by crea t ing a walt of t rapezoidal rat her than rect angular section, and a good example of this technique
is afforde d by t he great retaining wall around t he solar t emple of Neuserre at Abu Gur ab. I Less massive walls of
trapezoi dal form are common among the brick mastabas of the Archaic Period and Old Kingdom.
For a wall of this t ype t o be stable. certai n con ditio ns have to be fulfilled, which can be expla ined by reference
to t he diagram below (Fig.71). The weight of the brickwork. acting do wnwards from the centre of gravity. must
be suffi cient to ensure t hat Wx a is greater t han P x h, otherwise the wall will collapse. An add itional requirement
isthat the re should be no tension develope d in the struct ure of the wall, since brickwor k has poo r te nsile strength.
Fig. 72 Stress in a Retaining watl
In a wall exposed to side thrust. t he tende ncy is for tensile st ress to occur at t he heel of t he wall. and compressive
st ress at the toe. The formation of such tension at the heel is avoided by t he effect of the load W. which not only
produces a compressive stress ove r t he en tire wall base. but also creates a bending moment of W x d. where d is the
distance between a vertical line th rough the cent re of gravity of th e wall sect ion and t he centre of the base (Fig.72).
This bending moment is oppos ite to tha t produced at the heel by the pressure of the filling. and therefore tends
to cancel out the te nsion at tha t point.
I , Retaining Walls.
L
a.
drawing. Taking the density of the brickwork to be 1150 kg/m, 3 and working with a 1m section of the wall. the
following calculat ion can be made:
Stability of the wall alone:
WI : 0.75x6 x 1250 : 5625 kg
W2= 1.05 x 6 x 1250 = 7875 kg
Tot al W '" 13500 kg
Moment at toe of wall '" WI x 1. 6 + \\' 2 x 0.95
= 5625 x 1.6 + 7875 x 0.95
: 9000 + 748 1(.25)
; 16.481(.25) kg/m
Therefore the wall is stable so long as the pressure upon it is less than 16,481 kg/m.
Stability of edded buttress:
Taking the buttress > 1 x 3 x 1250 = 3750 kg
Moment at toe = 3750 x 1.42
= 5325 kg/m
TIle buttress can withstand a pressure up to 5,325 kg/m
The use of buttressing on a retaining wall cl early gives greatly improved strengt h in return for a small extra
outlay of materials. and the process is common in Egyptian brickwork.
In some cases retaining walls were constructed by the use of loose fllllng contained between two parallel
walls of brick. a good example of this type being found in the terrace temple of Amosis I at Abydos. 3The
weight of the internal filling acts in such a way as to aid the stabilit y of the whole st ruct ure. by preventing the
collapse of the brick casing.
Another form of wall is that built on a sinusoidal plan. as exemplified around the South pyramid of Mazghuneh.
4
although this technique is not restricted to the Middle Kingdom as has been stated. s Adetailed study'' of the advant-
ages of this form 01building over a convent ional retaining wall of the same thickness has revealed that an improvement
of 100% in resistance to side-thrust is obtained. An important point concerning walls of this type is the fact that they
are relatively thin; the most substantial examples around the pyramids of Mazghuneb1 and South Saqqara 8 are only
1.05m and 0.65m across, whilst the wavy walls used in domestic buildings very often have a thickness equal to the
width of a single brick.
9
This would seem to indicate that the Egyptians exployed walls of this form when they wished
10 combine rapid construction with a fair degree of stability. ln the case of the extremely t hin walls the wavy construe-
lion would give rigidity to the brickwork. just as modern sheet i ron is corrugated to improve its strength. The bonding
of such thin walls is Al or Xl , whilst great retaining walls are usually bonded A2 or A3 like thick walls of othe r types.
More varialion in bonding occurs in the casing-walls of mastabas and in the lining of tomb-pit s. as shown in the charts
on page 14 15, 2 1, 245 and 33-7.
2. Great Walls,
Construction ;11 Lf!I' f' 1Courses of Brickwork.
Brick walls of fairly massive dimensions are common in Egyptian architect ure in both secular and religious buildings
and throughout Pharaonic times they show great urufcrrnny in construction. TIley are most freque ntly built in A3
bonding. so their internal struct ure consists entirely of headers. In cases where the thickness of the wall is not equal
to an even number of brick-lengths the bonding is A2, but this change has no real effect on the mass of bricks in the
heart of the wall. Probably these bonds were employed so frequentl y because of their simplicity; the fact tha t all the
bricks of the internal work were laid as headers would considerably speed up the process of construction. Good
examples of this type of bonding in thick walls are found in the enclosures of the royal mortuary temples at The bes,
and in the early dynastic " fort" of Hierakonpolts.! ? although in the latter case it is necessary to ignore the palace-facade
panelling.
,.
,
s.

,.
l ' uu d ly, C.T. F- R. &t We igall, A-E. I'. , Abydar., Ill. JJ &t I'I.Ull .
Pet rie, W.M. t . &. Mach y, L.., Th e L abyrint h. Gu;..,h &. .ua=llhuneh, !' t. XX XIX. 6.
Uq,u el , ( ;" Veil;( I'Y'amidez rJu Moy en Emp i re. 55 & 1'1. XV. 9.
V"' Cc>u IIU, J. & Heve, A. Mll'giua, 1, 9 7-10 1. 10
!'e lr ie. W. M.I-. &t Macka y. E. , op. d t . 41.
113
JeQuier, G.,ap. d t . 5S-6.
Sole p.95.
ove-n. J. F_ &t Green. Y.W. , H /c,ak o"poJiz,
11, 10 . Ga n t ang, J. _4S..tE 8 ( l 'i 01),
114
Construction in Undulating Courses of Brickwork.
I
f ]
I
Ln 'rlling by use o{ bricks 0/1 edge. Fig. 74
It is common to see bric ks laid on the ir edges, as headers, in various pans of Egyp tian walls; t hese are not merely
careless irregularities, but are the result of a deliberate technique of adjusting the levels of the courses. Thi s process is
not restricte d to thick walls, but can be found everywhere in Egyptian bric kwork. Sometimes the bricks are tilted over
so as to raise one secti on of a course more than anothe r.( Fig.74}. Further adjustment of the levels was made by varying
II. See pp. 10 4- 6-
1I . A. L 'A ,., dt .hH Ir, EO'prir,u, 16 7,
13, J.n.s. Cit.. ' of A khrFlarrn, III . 92.
14. Dunham. 0 ., S<trond F0rt.l. n. I S7 & PI. LXXXIII .... B.
15. ('houy. ....... L 'A,., clr..z frsl{(yprirlU, ) ) 9: (' hevr i.,r. J.. 16 (1 964 ), 11 7; .... u i., . W,M.F.
Egyptian Arc hir r ctu rr, 10- 2.
16. Bargu.,l. P. Lr T ttmpl.. D ' AmmrRr/i Karnak. J2 .
17. Ex dudinj: mor lu ar y I.,mples.
1& Th"y O((UI in abbr eviat ed ro-m iFi hous"s o( rh e (j rol 10 fif t h cen t ur ies A. D. in Ihe Fa Yllm,
19. Set' es pecially ChevrIer. op. ci t. I b ,
20. Dr ioton , e.. ASAl:'44 (1 94 "), r 14.
Several theories have been advanced ' Sin an at tempt to exp lain t he purpose of walls built in alternate concave and
convex panels of brick work in place of horizontal courses. The majority of explanations have tried to discover a
st ructural advantage in t his mod e of construction, related to the shrinkage or subsidence of t he brickwork . but Barguet
has suggested 16 tha t the technique may have had a mythological origin. In support of the latter view it can be sta ted
that walls of t his type are found only around cult us-temples, 17 and are not used in secular archi tecture.P According
to Barguet, the undulations of t he enclosure-wall are a representation of the waters of the Nun , in the midst of which
emerged the primaeval mound. upon which the first temple was built. Consequently, the temple surrounded by the
wavy wall is, in effect, a model of the site of Creation, Many scholars dislike the explanation of architect ura l forms
by means of theories based on Egyptian religion. and prefer to see everything in terms of st ruct ural necessity , l \l but
is not the whole purpose and meaning of an Egypt ian temple based on mythol ogy? The concept of t he templ e standi ng
in the midst of the waters of the Nun is supported by textual evidence:
the thickness of the mor tar in t he horizontal joint s, but careful mortaring is only found on the exterior surfaces of t he
walls. There is rarely any mortar in the inner st ructure and t he vertical joints are often quite wide, perha ps to aid drying
of the bric kwork, like the wide, gravel-filled jo ints employed in bonds A12 AI 5. Layers of reed-matting occur in walls
built in level courses, but wooden ties arc not so common as in the undulating type of wall (see below). The Nubian
fort resses, however, are an except ion to this rule, since t hei r main walls have very extensive and regular timbering. I I
TIle occurrence and distribut ion of reed lavers and wooden beams is discussed more fully in Chapter 13.
Choisy has suggested 1:1 a complicated process for t he construct ion of a thick wall in level courses of brickwor k, in
order to solve t he problem of raising the materials t o t he necessary height without the use of scaffolding. The whole
explanation is supe rfluous, since the workmen would have gained access t o the top of the wall by means of short ramps
of sand or earth, according to the t radit ional Egyptian method of building,
The const ruction of brick pylons is very similar to t hat of great walls in terms of bondi ng, use of reed-matt ing, and
the mort aring of the joint s (PIA7A), A sloping face was produced by stepping each layer of bricks back slight ly. and
then smoo thing the surface with plaster, if the pylon was not to be cased with stone. The same technique was employed
to fonn a batt er on t he faces of thick walls. except in rare instances in which the bricks were laid at right -angles to the
slope of the face. Air passages are occasionally found in walls and pylons. examples being recorded from EI-Amarna J)
and Mirgissa. 14
He made tt, (Kamak) he created it, he baked it by the f lame u{ his rye into land beside the water. 20
b
jH
Chevri e r, B. , A SAE S2 ( 19 5 2). PI.V IIl .
Ch ois y, A. , op. cit. l S.
AI.o Ch a..i nat , 1':. , Ed/ ou, 14. PI. DCLXX.
b
,
[
I
Cracks still occur (See PJ.48A) If so, why did the
Egypt ians not build all their walls this way?
Objections
Wavy walls are foun d on desert sites at Saqqa ra, Dime,
& Deir el-Medina, and an example at Philae is founded
on bedrock.
Not true (see Pls.48-9). Also the second obj ection to
(1) applies.
These walls are found on level sites at Abydos. EI-Kab
and Philae.
J
r
115
Pet TIe, W. M. f., l::/fyptill 1l Arc/, itect " re, 12 .
Choisy, A. , ()p_ ci t.. 34 -7.
Choi,y , A. , op. ci t.. Ph..l , 12 ; ll, l.
Fig. 76 Simplified [orm of wall with Horizontal Sections.
/
1. The wavy form prevents cracks due to shrinkage
since the contr action all occurs at t he ends of the
separate panels.
22
2. TIle technique prevents the formation of spli ts
caused by the uneven rise and fall of the ground
in the inundation. 23
3. Construction in panels prevent s scaling of the
face. 24
4. The wall connot slip when built on a sloping
site.
2S
Theory
In addit ion to the above, the existence of an undulatin g wall at Philae 26 with foundat ion cours es of sto ne should
be noted, since this clearly shows that the technique had nothing to do with any specific problems relat ed to brick
const ruct ion.
A number of different styles of undula ting walls can be distinguished, varying in the complexit y of their design.
The most complete fonn which is best exemplified at Karnak, exhi bit s undulation of the brickwork not only along
the face of the wall, hut also through its t hickness, in such a manner tha t the concave panels are convex in secti on,
and vice-versa: 27 (Fig.75). A simplification of this t ype is produced when the convex sections of the wall ale replaced
by panels of brickwork buill in ordinary hor izontal courses, as shown in Fig.76 and Plates 48A, 50A. This simplifi-
cat ion, which occurs frequently, was made purel y for t he sake of facilitating the process of const ruction, and has no
chronological significance.
';- \

TIle water and tile earth were ill it fr om the fi rst. Sand came to establish a territory, to create ground.
When it emerged, the land came into ex istence. 21
Conside ring the alternative theory, I set out below an examinat ion of the argumen ts whi ch have been advanced
in favour of there being a struc tural purpose in the undulat ion of t hese walls.
Fig. 75 Complete fo nn of Undulating Wall.
2 1. Ibid.. 11 4-S. 24 .
22 . Choisy , A.. op, clr.. 37-9. 2S.
23 . Ihld.. 33-4. 26 .
I ,
b
The enclosure wall of the temple of Edfu displays mor e severe abbrevi ation, 28 in which the alternation of concave
and level beds is confined to the upper par t of the wall, and t he lower courses are laid horizontall y, although the
3. Brick W31ls of Moderate Size.
Thi s category incl udes t he commo n gene ral-purpose walls such as may beobserved in all spheres of Egyptian
architecture. Through out t he Dynastic period t he usual for m of bonding is Class A. but different systems occur
later, as ex plained in Chapter 14. It is impossible to give a comprehensive account of the uses and st ructure of these
walls; the main points only will be nored here, and the details will be found in the architectural survey which forms
Part Two of this st udy. General ly speaking, the walls of ordinary houses are not as subs tant ial as those found in the
various forms of adm inist rat ive or official buildings , in which wall thicknesses of between I and 2m are common.
division of the brickwor k into sect ions is st ill obse rved. The latt er feature is found in all walls of the undulating type
and it has been suggested that the concave sections were buil t firs t and allowed t o dry before the convex or level
pane ls were added. 19 Thi s explanati on is unli kely t o be true , ot herwise one woul d expect to find the same techniq ue
applied to brick const ruc tions ot her t han t emple enclosure-walls. In fact. it is the und ulat ion of the courses which
imposes the formation of t he separate panels: a glance at Figs. 75 and 76 will show t hat it prevents any interbonding
of one panel with the next, in either the complete or the simplified form of the wall. In certain cases, however. some
sort of bon ding was achieved by t he omissi on of the t ransverse curvature of the cou rses. bUI even so the appea rance
of a complete break bet ween t he sect ions was retained in order t o conform t o the standard pat tern.
Sometimes the projecting angles of the concave beds of brickwor k are revett ed with blocks of stone. Evidence of
this practice can be seen at Luxor. Dendera, El-Kab and Edfu, 30 and it may well have ex isted at many ot her sit es
originally. The purpose of the stonewor k was to protect the corners f rom damage, just as ti mber baul ks were used
at the comers of hou ses for t he same reason. 3 1 This kind of rei nforcement was copied in the New Kingdom t ombs
at Thebes by sett ing burnt bricks int o th e corners of the walls, although t hese bri cks were modified to ful fill a deco r-
ative rathe r than a struct ura l purp ose. 32
Well-buil t examples of undulati ng walls have air-passages from the face t o the hea rt of the mass, connected with
lon gitudinal passages in th e interi or , so as to form a complete system of ventil at ors which promo ted rapid drying of
the brickwork. It should be noted, however, that these air-channels are not restric ted to walls of thi s t ype. They are
usually t he hei ght of two bricks and the width of one, and they occur at regular intervals in the wall, as can be seen
in Plates 49A and B.
Wit h regard to bo nding, thes e thick walis Virtually always consis t of a central mass of hea ders, whilst th e
outer faces exhibit alternate courses of headers and st retchers with ca refully point ed joints . This is A2 or A3
bond ing, alt hough it is inevitable that irregularit ies occur in such large st ruct ures. Very few walls with undulating
courses di ffe r from this bond ; the Roman temenos wall at Armant
JJ
is bo nded Al B, and some parts of the
temple-enclosure at Elephantine
34
are AI. Brickbats are commonly used as closers at the ends of t he separat e
panels of brickwork and arou nd t he air-channels (PI.49B).
It is int eresting t o note that t he Egypt ians themselves considered all walls of thi s kind to be composed en ti rely
of headers internally, as shown by some references in the Harris Papyrus t o the const ruction of t emple enclosures
by Ramesses III. It is reco rded that the king ha d a wall of twenty dJdJwr bu ilt around the temple of Hermopolis,as
I!I{! t wt being, quite literal ly. the Egyp tian word for headers. The word has. however. been t ranslat ed as " co urses" 36
of a wall, a totall y misleadi ng rendering. since it gives the impression of courses of bricks laid one over another.
whereas the (/JdJwr are clear ly stated to be " in the fou ndation. upon the ground.'37 Obviously then, the measure-
ment referes to the thickness of the wall. and means that the foundat ion course was t wenty brick-lengths across.
that is some B.40m. 38This is a perfectly reasonable thickness for a temple enclosure-wall. The important po int is
t hat t he Egypt ians meas ured great brick walls in terms of headers. since these made up the bulk of the st ruct ure.
The use of t imber ties and reed-mat t ing, which is found in walls of the undulating t ype as well as in other brick
con structions, is discussed in Chapter 13.
It is difficult to estima te the leng th of time which would have been requ ired to build an enclos ure wall of 10m or
more in thickness, alt hough it cannot have been very great, considering that Nect anebo I bu Ut such walls at Karnak,
Luxor, Philae and possibly also at Hermopolls and numerou s site s in the Delt a. At Karnak, some parts of the ancient
enclosure have been rest ored in modern time s according t o the or iginal design. in undulating courses. 39 The recons-
tructio n of t he wall from the Tenth Pylon 10 t he South-weer angle of the enclosure, a dist ance equal to approximat ely
one-t ent h of the extent of t he entire wall, occ upied only a part of a single season's work. The.anci ent builde rs. wit h
a larger labou r force working for longer hou rs. could easily have completed the enclosure of Karn ak in eighteen
mon ths. and may have only required one year. exclud ing t he t ime needed for the manu factu re of the bricks.
11 6
35. I'opyrus I. St!. S. d . S7. 11 and S9. 2.
l (l. Wb. V. 532.
37. Papyrus Harr is I. 58. $.
38. Thi s i, baw d nn - ra cm r" " g. o r monument, l
a l Ih i' .
3Y. H. ASA 4'1 ( 1949 ). ) 4 &. 1'1.IV.
29. Ptlrie. EgYP, /oli A rellftecnl f'f!. 12.
30. SI!(! above. "'1". 74. 78. 8 1.
3 1. See be lo w. .... 13:2 .
32. bdow. p. t40.
.33. M"nd. R. & O.H. Ttmp/t's of An"",, ', t 3.
34. Homo th . W., ZAS 4fJ ( 190'1). rs. Abb. l 5.
However, walls of this size also occur in large mans ions, such as those of Amama , and in the late houses of Karanis
and Dime. Some thick walls are foun d in the state-planned wor kers' villages, but these are the main divisions bet ween
different areas of the town, and are common to many houses. Apart from these special eases, most domestic brick
walls are only 1.5 to 2.0 brick-lengths across, that is about 45-65cm. Thin walls are also found in many administrative
and official buildings, hut often they are of more solid const ruction, especially the exterior walls, whi ch regularly
att ain a thi ckness approach ing t wo met res. The palaces of Medinet Habu and the Ramesseum
40
have walls this size,
but in t he late r palace of Apries at Memphis," ! where more emphasis was placed on security , the walls are commonly
over 4m t hick.
Cert ain town walls in Egypt were of quite modest dimensions and cannot have been intended to form strong
defences. This is tr ue of the Old- and New-Kingdom walls of Elcphandne,"? which were bet ween I and 2m acr oss,
and of t he New Kingdom wall of Edfu,43which had a thickness of 1.95m. II is interest ing to not e that t he only town
wall of a clear de fensive nat ure at th is site belongs to the Graeco- Roman period. 44
All general purpose brick walls are constructed in horizontal cours es, the system of alternate convex and concave
sections being reserved for temple enclosures. One class of bu ildings forms an exception to thi s rule, namely cer tai n
houses of the first to fifth cen turies A.D., mostl y in to wn-sites of the Fayum:
H
alt hough a few examples are repor ted
at Elephan tine. 46 1n t hese houses the exterior walls arc frequently built in concave courses of brickwor k. but there
is no part icular alt ernat ion of separa te panels, and no convex sect ions occur. The reason for t he use of thi s t echnique
in t hese buildings is in all probability due to mere imita tion of a form which was considered to be traditionally Egyptian,
the original purpo se having been for gotten by this extr emely late dat e. The fact that concave beds are empl oyed here
in secular buildi ngs does not prove that th ere was a st ructural reason for this mo de of const ruction, since the arguments
set out above on this matt er (page 115) arc still valid, and furthermor e, these hous es are th e only examples of secular
buildings with walls of this type.
Another feature of the Graeco-Roman ho uses of the Fayum is t he great quantit y of timber reinforcement in
the brickwork, 47in contrast to the limit ed use of wood for this purpose in earlier domest ic buildings. Details
of the usc of wood, reeds and plaster are given in Chapt er 13.
Poor-quality construct ion is common in med ium-t hickness walls, in all kind s of buildings. In many cases, the
heart of t he wall is compo sed of haphazardly laid bricks, wit h the irregular gaps fi lled wi th mud or raj l , whilst
the outer faces display a neat alternation of header and stretcher courses. Good examples of this careless ma nner
of building occur in th e Solar Temple of Userkaf at Abu Gurab,48 and in the North-Western storehou se at the
Ramesseum (see P1. 53A). Originally, of course, any defici encies of the brickwork were hi dden by a coat of
whiten ed plaster, which was very seldom omitted from Egyptian brick constructi ons.
4. Palace-Facade Panelling.
The most widespread use of panelled walls occurs in buildings of t he Archaic Period. especially the brick
mastabas of the Fi rst Dynast y. but revivals of the same architect ural device are found in lat er times, from t he
Old Kingdom to the late Period. There are a num ber of different style s of panelling, of which the more complex
forms are the earlier, whilst [he later examples show considerable simpli fication. The layout of th e large niche in
buildings of various dates conform to the plans shown in the list below, where five different t ypes are distinguished:
Form of Main Niche Monuments
Naqada Tomb;Saqqara Tombs 2405, 3035, 3506; Tarkhan Mastaba 1060 ;
Giza Mestaba T; Hierakonpoli s Palace.
Soqqora Tombs 3357, 2185, 3471, 3503, 3504 ; Giza Mastaba V; Tarkhan
Mast abas 2038 , 2050.
40. U., F.M.H. , Ill. so. 79 .
41. W. M.I'., Palace of 1'1.!.
42. Jat iv . H.. MD[K 16 (1970), 91 -4.
4 3. Michalow. k i. K. . Tell F:d!ou. JIl ( 19 J 9). 10 4-6 & Pla ns n-ut.
44. ib id. Plans IV V.
4S. T1<lak. A.E .K. , Karimi.. 1924-8, 13, 46. & Pis. XV]] . XXX IV. XXXVI.
46. G. MDIK 26(1970), 129-JO.
47. See above. page, 99-1 00.
48. Ricke. H. , Das ae s Knn igs I. pla n 6.
117
Form of main niche Monuments
Si1qqaTa Tombs 3038, 3 ] I I . 3505. 3507. 3036 (shallow niches) ;A bu ROQsh
VII; Heiwan 1374.H2.
Abydos: Shunet ez-Zebib and Middle Fort ; Giza: Cour tyards of t he
Funerary Temple and Valley Temple of Mycerinus.
South Saqqara: Court of Funerary Temple of Shepseskaf. (North wall only,
other walls are type D.)
There is very little difference between types A and B. the plans being identical except for t he alte rat ion in the width
of the cent ral recess. Both these forms are used in the early part of the First Dynasty. and type A recurs in t he revival
of palace-facade in t he Thi rd Dynasty. The layout shown under C is found.in buildings of the middle and lat e First
Dynast y. and is a simplification of the earlier types, omitting the small niches in t he sides of the outer recess. Furt her
simplificatio n takes place in 0 and E, in which the style of t he main recess is reduced to a large compound niche.
Certain examples of palace facade are not included in t he list since they are formed ent irely of simple niches,
.....'ithout the deeper recesses described above. This simple panelling is found as early as the First Dynasty on the West
side of Tomb 3505 at Saqqara,49 and in small tombs in provincial cemeteries, such as 1514 at Naga ed-Der. 50 later
examples occur in t he Funerary Palaces of Abydos. a number of Fou rth Dynasty mastabas at Meydu m, Third Dynasty
mastabas at Reqaqnah and EI Kab, Old Kingdom tombs at Dendera and the mor t uary temples of Mycerinus and
Shepseskaf. Simple panelling also appea rs at a much later period in the great brick-built tombs of t he Twent y-Sixth
Dynast y at Thebes. 51
The history of this type of architecture is, therefore, a process of gradual simplification, the most complex panelling
occ urring in t he First Dynasty, with a t ransito ry revival in the Thi rd.
Despite the fineappearance of th e palace facade of the First Dynasty mastabas, the arrangement of the brickwork
of t he niches is frequently quite irregular, the defec ts being hidden by t he plaster coat on the surface . A typical
example of the brickwork of a large niche is given in Plate XV of Tarkhan /I by W.M.F.Pet rie. Emery's diagrams of
recessed panelling in the Saqqara mastabas , 52 however, are full of inconsistencies, caused by an attempt to draw an
ordered bond rather than admit the presence of irregulari ties.
Special bricks of very small size were used in some of the panelled masta bas of the archaic period in order to ease
the process of niche construction. These are fully described in Chapter 15. The ext erior coat of plaster, on which
the fine appearance of the facade largely depended, was decorated in early times, but the later examples were left
plain.
In th e discussion of the met rology in Appendix I an att emp t is made to discover the unit of measuremen t used in
the constru ction of t he palace-facade, since one would expect such a regular system to be laid out in standard
proporti ons.
I have deliberately avoided any discussion of t he or igin of palace facade archi tecture in Egypt, since this topic
has been dealt with elsewhere, 5) and does not belong in a st ruct ural study of this kind.
49. G"IH Tomhs of rlt.. Flnr D)' nany, Il l. 8 &. 1'1.2.
50. Reisn u , G.A. , Nag,. ed. De" I. 45 & 1'1. 77.
51. Donldo ni, S., 8SFE 6 1 (J une. 1971). 18-2$ & PIIR- Als o Lecjan t , J ., Orie"rlllla. 4 1 ( 1972). Pis. XXX XL
52. Emu)', W.B., G"lJr T"mbz "t rh.. First Dy",uty. II, I J 12.
5J . H.. MD1K 1 (1930), 3192. Wolf. '10' ZAS 6 ' (1931). 129--13 1. Pel ri e, W.M.L, 11, 1 9.
118
CHAPTER TEN: FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS
The simplest type of brick floor consists of a single layer of ordinary bricks laid in even rows upon the ground
surface, as headers. wit h all the joints in line.(Fi g.77). Such floors occur at all pe riods in Ancient Egypt, in all
classes of buildings. Less frequently, the bricks are laid on t heir edges, but the arran gement is still the same. As
a genera l rule the brickwork is covered with a layer of mu d plast er. over which there is usually a thinner wash of
white gypsum.
Fig. 77 HooTof headers:
Another kind of floor is tha i formed of thin. square bricks. moulded specially for the purpose. These paving-
slabs are almost exclu sively found in adminis t rative or offi cial buildings, although they can OCCUf in the mansions
of the rich, such as the house of the v lzrr Nakht at El-Amama. Good examples of floors of this type: have been
recor ded in the following buildings:
Location
Palace of Seti II , Hermopolis.
Stores of Seti I, Abydos.
Police barracks, Amarna.
House of Nakht, Amaroa .
Stores at Ramesseum.
Palaces & Admin. Buildings, Medinet Habu.
XXll nd. Dyn. houses, Medinet Habu.
Admin. buildings & str eets, Buhen. Shalfak
& Mirgissa.
Temple of Amenh otep, son of Hapu,
Western Thebes. I
Brick Size (em)
40 x40
44x 44x I6
35 x 38.5
.w x40
43x 43x6
40x 40x 7
30 x 30 (Shalfak)
40 x 34 x 9
S",e above , p
84
85
84
94
86
87
98
84
The large size of these bricks and their t hinness shows t hat th ey must have been laid with considerable care, to
avoid breakage. They were laid on a bed of sand and covered over wit h plaster. The paving t iles in t he fort resses at
Buhen, Mirgissa and Shalfak differ from t he other exa mples given above in that t hey are formed of burnt brick in
place of sun-dried mud, the reason for this being that they were employed to pave st reets and unroofed rooms and
were, therefore, exposed to the weat her and to considerable wear.
Burnt bricks of ordinary proportions were frequen tly used in Doors of the Roman period, but not exclusively so,
since t wo instances of lite use of th is material at Medinet Habu date from the Twen t y-First to Twenty-Second
Dynasties.
2
The Roman burnt brick floo rs are usu ally formed in the tr aditi onal simple manner (Fig.77) but occasionally
a more complex " herringbone" pattern is found.) (Fig.78) Even at this late peri od, many floors were still const ructed
of mud-bricks in exact ly t he same way as in earlier times, alt hough the advantages of bumt brick in resistance to
wate r led to its use in all places subject to excessive damp, such as the public baths in Graeco- Roman lowns.
4
There are really only three type s of brick fl oor to be distinguished: (1) a simple layer of headers, (2) square paving
tiles, and (3) bricks laid in a " herringbone" patt ern. but the first two alte rnatives can occur in either mud- or burnt-
brick. The table below sets ou t the chronological distinction bet ween t he t ypes on th e basis of present evidence:
1.
z,
3.
Arrangement .
Mud brick:
Evenly-laid headers.
5
Square tiles.
Robic hon . Co & Varillc. A. fiZSd e Iltl.POIl. 38 & PI.I X. 4.
Hol:w: her. U. E.,H.H V. S. 8. S.
Badawy . A.. . ASA C 4 6 (1 94 7). 367.
119
Dale.
All periods.
Dyn. XVIII, XIX, XXII.
Sec ahovc, 1'1'. 9 12.
These hea ders may be lai d flal or o n t heir
Iho: rortner helnt more commo n.
In the majorit y of Egyp tian architecture, very little att ention was given to the preparat ion of good foundatices,
nei ther in ma sonry nor in brickwork. Small brick walls were mos t frequently built directly on the grou nd surface.
which received no preparation other than levelling. Walls of more massive dimensions, including the great encl oseres
of the temples. were provided wit h only slightly better foundati ons. consisting of a bed of sand in a shall ow trenci:...
In some cases, an appar ent foundation was cre ated by raising the level of th e floo r withi n the bu ilding. and
burying the lowest courses of t he walls. This tech nique was used in the mortuary temple of Mycerinus at Giza.
t he levelling of the 1100r wi t h rubble has buri ed the walls to a depth otbetwcen one and seven courses .
6
L'sually
fou ndation layer of bricks in walls of Pharaonic age consists of headers on edge, or , less frequently, of ordinary
hea ders.
Occasionally, the solidit y was improved by the use of stone for the lower courses of the walls, as occurs in
of the houses in th e workers' village at Deir el-Medina. 7 bUI as this stonework is above ground it cannot be daN"=-
as a t rue foundati on. This is also true of t he sto ne courses which fa nned t he base of the temple-enclosure wall at
Philae.
8
Granite rubble was used as a foundation for th e walls of t he Nub ian fort resses," wherever the brickwo rk
did not rest directly on the bedrock; this would prevent any attempt t o mine the walls. In late times burnt bri ck
could be used for foundations; it occurs in the lower cou rses of a Roman wall in the temple (If Mut at Karnak. to
and in th e founda tio ns of Coptic houses at Medinet Habu. I I
Mud brick was regularly employed 10 construct found ations for the columns of st one buil dings, t he base of
col umn resting on an individua l pier of brickwork. These piers arc USUAlly square, as in the palaces of Ramesses m
and Ay at Medinet Habu, 12 but circular examples have been discovered at Malgata, North-West of Karnak.
13
Their
size is natu rally adjusted to suit the diamet er of the column bases which t hey suppor t, the hrick foundation being
rathe r wide r than t he base.
More elaborate examples of brick foundations beneat h stone buildings are found in the cellular plat forms v.itid;.
wer e built 10 suppor t small peripte ral temples. These platfonns are composed of a mass of bric kwork containing
gravel- filled compart ments. so as to create an elevated podium, which was, in a number of cases. approached by oeaIi
of a ramp. A number of foundat ion-platfo rms of this kind have been excavated in Egypt . but their true natu re ius
always been recognised, and they have been mistaken for storehouses! " or left unexplained , although Petrie corrects
ident ified one example at Hu as long ago as 190 1,l s During recent excavatio ns at Saqqara, tt'in which several
of this type were discovered, th eir purpose bas been further clarified, since fragments of insc ribed limest one were -
in the filling of the compartments in the brickwork, proba bly from the stone chapel which the st ructure supported,
Final proof of the natu re of these. brick platforms is found at Karnak and EI-Kab, where the remains of a small
chapel still stan d upon a foundatio n of cellular brickwor k. 11 Only eight exa mples of t his type of foundation are
to me, 1S at the following sites.
Arrangement.
Bum! brick:
Evenly-laid head ers.
Bricks in "herrin gbone" pattern.
Squa re tiles.
Fig. 78 floor of bricks wid in "herringbone" pattern:
6. Retsrl<!r,Myetrinu1 91 . t3.
7. Uru yrre. 8. , 19 J 4-S,28. 14.
8. Choisy. If!st:gyptitms, I' ls. 1 11, 1. IS.
9. Dunh am, [}.. S<, co,ld Car"rocr Forn, J, S. I t4: II, I. HI.
I O. see p. HO. 17.
11. Hols ch"r , U.. E.M.H. .V,45. I II.
12. Ibid. . vel, n, 8 1; III .
Dare.
Dyn. XXI. XXII and Graeco-Romaa.
Roman.
Middle Kingdom.
I
I I
L; I
U
"-1
I-
l-
ChC'vrier. H. , ASAE 4 6 (I'Mn, I S7 &. PI. XLVII .
Bescn de La RoquC'" F., .' ll:01',"IO,,,J, 192 7, 7' s: PU .
rel rie. W.M.F. , Diosp o!u/'a""" SS 6 & I'1.XXIV.
Mar lin. GoT., JEA S9 (19 73 ). s-t s . ClI peciall y p. 1 1 s. Fi i/-L
Var lUe, A.. Kumal<, t, n . Car arl , J.. Foul/Ii.'! <if! F/- Kab 00__
Ano t he r po osible e xa mple " the S1fuct ure at Tdl t>! M.ukbc.u.
chlm.... "'.. by Nl vill <! in Till: Sro"..City of Pit /ill",.
120
121
see above, p. 71
72
79
79
7S

Brick ret aining
Trois
Saqqa ra (3 examples)
Hu (Diospolts)
Medamud
Karnak, Monru temple-area. J?
fJ. Kab
19. Varlllc. op. rtf.. 33.
20- Mart in, C' .. T.. I F-A 59 (19' 3 ), 11.
2 1. Hd ' lS....' . I). P 1.4RCE:6 (1 961). 6-' &. Ml-IJ. I X. 1.
22. flruyer e_a , 19 3 5-4 0, flL.c..l , 4 4.52
23. Cl1assinllt, E. f.dIOl l 23. 4- S.
14. l liilst her. U., F..M. H. IV. 3 1.
25. Chr i, Il>l' hc, 1... Kdmak.NonJ, 11 1, 12-3 & PIs. XXXI XXXVI.
The temples of earlier periods do not have this deep subst ruct ure, and brickwork was not normally employed in
t heir foundations, Asmall amount of brick was used beneat h t he temple of Ramesses 1I1 at Medinet Habu for the
purpose of lining t he wall t renches to prevent the collapse of their sides prior to t he laying. of t he stone blocks of
the foundation. 24( Fig.79)
Fig. 79 Foundations ill t ile TCI11/" e of
Mcdinl'! Habit.
The brickwork of these struct ures is in each ease well-laid, and ther e is no communication between the compart ments
wit hin it. AI Tani s, Mcdamud, Karnak and EI-Kab there were ramps 10 t he top of t he platfor m to give access to t he
chapel. Al Saqqara, the buildings stand on a sloping site, and it has been sta led
20
t hat this necessitate d the preparation
of elaborate foundations. but t his does not explain the presence of similar st ructures on sites where the ground is level.
The real intention of the brick platform was to elevate the buildin g which stood upon it , as Egypt ian peripteral temples
were usually raised above t he ground and approached by ramps.
Cellular plat for ms of brick, of a slight ly dif ferent kind from those discussed above, were used as foun dations for
military camps at Deffeneh, Naukrans and Memphis. Here again the foundation was used to elevate t he building, so
t hat t he living quarters, raised several metre s above the ground, would be more defensible. The lower pari of t he
st ructure consisted of a block of brickwork, with internal compartments, some of which were gravel-filled, whilst
ot hers in cont rast to the foundations of pertpte ral chapels, which were always filled up solid. were domed over and
used as store-cellars. A st ructural descri ption of t hese military camps has already been given in Chapter 8 (pp.106-7).
It should be noted t hat all the examples of cellular platforms so far known belong t o Late-Period or Graeco-Roman times.
Extensive use was made of brick in Ihe foundati ons of temples from Sajte times onwards 10 build a retaining-wall
around the sand bed upon which the temple stood. The preparation of the site was carried out as follows: first , a
great rectangular pit was excavated and its sides were lined with a t hick wall of mud-brick; t he enclosed space was
then filled up wit h sand. over which were placed several courses of sto ne blocks, 10 form a platform for t he temple.
Several foundations of this kind have been found by excavation, especially ill the Delta, where the dest ruction of
the temples has left their subst ruct ures exposed. A pa rt icularly good example has recently been discovered at
Mendes, 21 with a buttressed brick lini ng-wall around the foundation sand, but the technique was not rest rict ed to
the Delta, since it occ urs at the temple of Deir el-Medina at Thebes.
22
Ot her examples have been found at Gemeryemt,
Ncbcsheh and Tukh el-Oaramus (pp.72 and 77). The following text, from the temple of Edfu, would seem to
Indicate t hat this method of founding a temple was t he standard rule in Late times:
Native soil
An exceptionally solid mass of brick work was found to underlie t he pavement of the North gate of the precincts
of Amun at Karnak, going down to a dept h of eleven courses below the floor.2SMost of the se bricks were laid
" He excavated its foundat ion as far as t he water, it being filled up with sand according to t he rule, being cons t ructed
of sandstone as an excellent work for eternity.,, 23
parallel to the axis of the gateway. as headers or on their edges, but irregularities were common and some courses
consisted only of a layer of broken bricks. 26
In conclusion, it may be stated once more that the majority of Ancient Egyptian buildings had inadequate found-
ations. It is important to note that those foundations which are solidly const ructed, such as occur beneath the temples
and fortified camps of the Late Period. were not the result of a desire to create a firm base for the building, but were
really mot ivated by mythological or military considerations.
26. Ibid. . PIs.XXXII- XXXIV.
122
Fig.80 vautts f rom arch ill Tomb oft n t at GUll.
The earliest examples of the usc: of brick vaults in Egypt occ ur in the subsidi ary graves of tomb 3500 at Saqqara,
(page 10) in which t he subst ruct ures are roo fed by vaulting of type d I. Furt her exa mples of this kind of vault are known
from t he Archaic Period in tombs at Beil Khallaf Ipage 23) and Rcqaqnah (page 23) and many d l vault s occur in t he funerary
archi tect ure of th e Old Kingdom. This type of vaulting must be one of the longest-lived arch itectural forms ever devised,
since it was in common use from the First Dynasty down 10 the Coptic period. True arches seem to have come into use
later than t he inclined vault; the earliest well-att ested examples are foun d in tombs of the Third Dynasty at Beit Kha lla,
Reqaqnah and Saqqara, and the bonding in all these cases is t ype c1 (pages 23-4) . There is a faint possibility thet an arch may,
have been employed in tomb T.23 at Naqada, but th e only evidence for this rests on a brief note in Pet rie' s field records,
and it would be rash to infer that the arch was knuwn in Predynastlc umes. I
The use of both arches and vault s increased greatly aft er the close of the Archaic Period, becoming widespread in
the tombs of the Old Kingdom. Arches in the form of 3n arc of a circle occur for th e first lime at Giza, 2 where they
are used to form a support for the springing of t wu parallel vault s (Fi g.SO). Such arch es are of t ype cl, but they are
composed of specially shaped bricks which produce parallel ribs along the soffi I of th e arch, in imitation of earlier
building materials. In t he to mb of Sabef
3
the re was an unusual vault over the chapel. formed of inlerlocking bricks
assembled in dl bonding, as shown in Fig.8L AUthe different forms of bricks used in these to mbs are described in
Chapter 15.
ARCHES, VAULTS, DOMES AND CORBELS CHAPTER ELEVEN:
Arches and Vaul ts:
--
I. Kemp, B-J. , Je ll S9 (1 9731, 4 1-1 &. ns.a.
2. II. , GiZa, V, 156 9 ; I X, 142-3. Badawy , A. , III Abu BukT. A.M. , Ex ,"""atiQlu at Giza, 194 9- 50, 129 3 1.
J. C. , Tilt MI"" , at C'Z<l. 114-9 &. 1'1, . 17-9.
[23
Fig.8l vaun of special bricks in the Tomb ol Sabel at Giza.
I
I
I
Later in the Old Kingdom there was a tendency to const ruct t hick arches and vaults in both t he subst ructure and
superst ructure of large mastabas, examples being recorde d at Saqqara, Dara, Dcndera and elsewhe re. These vaults are
somet imes built in ext or cd I bonding, although t he simple c l and d 1 remain the most COmIOOll. Details of the chron-
ology of t he different bonds are reserved for Chapt er 14.
Large relieving arches are found in the royal pyramids of the Middle Kingdom, and in some of t he large private
tombs of the same period. 4 In many cemete ries, brick vaults were use-d independently to roof the burial chambers.
as at Qatt ah and Edfu. SSmall graves very frequently have an arched covering for the substr uct ure. oat only in the
Middle Kingdom, but at all periods from t he Old Kingdom to Roman times. These burial vaults are usually built in
el , d I or x l bonding, and show lit tle variation from one site to another , al though some of the lat er examples are
const ructed of bumt brick,
Despit e t he popularity of rock-cut tombs in t he New Kingdom brick vaults were st ill in common use, especially in
t he Cemet er ies of Deir el-Medina and Dira abu'l Naga. 6 It is in the New Kingdom, also. when we lind more evidence
of vaulting in other fields of architec ture. such as administr ative buil dings, palaces and small chapels, although it does
not become common in domestic buildings until the Ramesside period. The small number of examples of vault ing from
non-funerary archi tect ure prior to the New Kingdom does not necessarily mean that none existed, since it is probabl y
due to the poor state of preservation of these early monuments. That the vault was in use in these buildings is shown by
the vaulted reefing of the Causeway at the Mastabat el-Fara' un, 7 and the vaulted chapel at the South Pyramid of
Mazghuneh.f Vault s were also employed, to a limited extent , in domestic buildi ngs of the Middle Kingdom .11 Kahun.
9
From the later New Kingdom onwards the use of brick arches and vaults greatly increased in all types of buildi ngs.
The tombs of t he Late-Period at Abydos have large vaulted chambers. sometimes ...vi th multip le vaults set one over the
ot her. loCreat arches occur in the Saite to mbs at Thebes. built in cd l or cx2 bonding, and several courses in thickness
(PI.47B). Vaulted roo fing becomes common in domestic architect ure in the late Dynastic period, and is even more
widespread in Graeco-Roman and Coptic times, as exemplified by the houses at Karanis, Dime, Medinct Jlabu and
Edfu.
ll
Pr act ically all the arches and vault s in Egyptian buildings are semicircular or cate nary vault s. Pointed arches are rare
before the Byzantine period, the only kno wn examples from dynastic times being found at Esna and Edfu (pp. 37 and
48). Instances of t he cons truc tion of arches of a very Oat curve are more common ; t hey are employed in Old Kingdom
mastabas at Giza, a to mb of the New Kingdom .1 1Thebes, t 2and at the temple of' Det r el-Medina, al though this last
example is really a vault (PU2A).
4. ocnen. J.I::. . F...."a'arioru at S<Jqqara, 19056. 26 7 & },I.XX I.
s. ahov<" pp, 40 & 4 t.
6. see a bove . Pl'. 4 6-4 :' &. PI. 46H.
7_ Jequier, G_. t t MastlJlNl r 20 &. PI.X , 2.
8. Peu i", W. M-. . & MaCkay, E.., Tho! L llb )'ri"rll , Gf!I''Uh & Ma: Kh" " t l l , 48.
9. Perrte, W.M.F. Kallll'J. G" mh 23.
10. GU"<Iang. J I:..' 2 1 & 1' 1. XXX V.
I I. S<'t' above. p". 99- tO l .
12. Nor lh:t mplo fl, :UII.'lItiO'lsln lilt Tllt/lQJI Nuropo(u. 14S &. PI.X IV.
124
Thin bricks were normally empl oyed for vaults of t ypes d l and x l , and by t he New Kingdom they were made with
one side slightly longer than the other. so as t o achieve the necessary wedge-form. 13 The bond d2 also required thin
bricks. but these had a greate r breadth than usual, becoming almos t square in shape, whil st broad. curved bric ks were
used for the vault e I . However, curved or wedge-shaped bri cks occur far less frequentl y than the ordina ry rectangular
form, and con sequently mos t Egyptian arches exh ibit wide gaps between the br icks on the ou tside of the curve, these
spaces being filled up wit h stones or potsherds..
It is not true to say that the Egypti ans did not use any kind of temporary centring in th e construct ion of arches
and vaul ts. Only th e d l and d2 forms of vault could bebuilt withou t cent ring, since the incli nation of th e bricks
from the vertical caused a large proportio n of the weight of each brick to rest upon the previous course. rather than
act downwards. Consequently the bricks would be held in place by the cohesion of the mud mortar long enough
for each course to becomplet ed. In order to build a vault of this t ype. it would be necessary to provide somethi ng
for the incl ined rings of brickwork to rest upon at the end of t he vault. It seems most likely that a rough wall would
have bee n built for t his purpose, which could have been easily removed on completion of the vaulting. 14 (Fig.82).
In the case of a vault intended to roof an internal room or a cellar the problem does not arise. since the courses of
bricks woul d rest on the walls of the room, as shown in Plates 55A B. Many vault ed passages ma ke use of a different
system, in which an arch is used t o suppor t the inclined vault . I S The arch is frequently built in cl bon ding, whi ch
would requ ire centri ng, bu t it enables the whole of the long d 1 vault to be constructed wit hout temporary support
(Fig.83) . Good examples of thi s met hod of building are found in t he entrance t unnel of the Osireion at Abydos, 16
and in the t omb of Adu at Dendera, 17 but many others could be quoted.
Fig..82 tnciined Vault built against supporting wall.
11\
II
Fig.B3 Inclined Vault built againu arch
The fact tha t the incl ined type of vault could be built with out recourse to temporary centring led to its use in
the arra ngements bdl and cd l , in which t he upper rings of headers were supported du ring const ruc tion by the leaning
cou rses below (P1.J 9) . There are certain cases where lt seems likely t hat even the d l type of vault had tempo rary
cent ring, due t o the large span to be covered. or t o the adopt ion of a fairly low curve for the vault . For this reason,
it would have been impossib le to build the roof of t he Mammisi at Deir el-Medina with ou t suppor t for the bricks, 18
and th e same applies to the vaul ting in the mort uary temple of Amenhot ep, son of Hapu, where the span was 7. 70 Ill. 19
It is certa in th at a cent ring of wooden beams was empl oyed in the entr ance hall of the temp le of Belt el-walt , 20and in
the palace of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu, 2I because th e marks of the beams still sho w where they were let into the
walls, hut the form of the vaulting used in these buildings is not certain. However, the 6 m span of the vault at Beit
el-Wali, to gethe r with its profile, (t he outline can still be seen on t he rear wall] suggest that it was of t he inclined form,
this being the t ype of vault most commonly used over wide spans in Dynastic t imes. The largest span known occurs
in t he Royal Stables at Medinet Habu 22 (8.60m) and another vault of only slightly less size was used in t he temple
of Amenhotep. son of Hapu, ment ioned above.
In all the types of arches and vaults in which leaning courses were not employed cent ring was an absol ute necessity.
For small arches, such as are common over doorways. this suppor t could quite easily have been made of wood . but
for large arched t unnels and gateways it was more economical to use earth cent ring. Evidence of thi s process is found
at El-Kab, where an arched gate way in t he enclosure wan is still blocked by t he earth cent ring placed t here at t he lime
of its const ruction. 23 Probably this technique was extremely common. especially in domestic and funerary architectur e.
Pet rie believed it t o have been used in houses at Wahun,24 and it may also have served for the const ruct ion of t he great
arched tunnel in Mastaba M at Dara.
2s
13. Bru yer e, B.. 1934- 5. 25, fi lt-1. 18.
(T he curV3lu"" or rbese brleM l'I n<'Ver 3 5 great shown). 19.
14. Sec A. , L ' Arr.fr Bari, cI, e: le$ E.,yptiens, 4 2. 20.
IS. Ibi d., 2 1.
16. F'ra nkf nr l. H., Cr Il Ol ol l" l o! Sr rl1. 13-4. 22.
11. l' e lTi." \V. M. l"., D r",Jr ".II , &-9 an d fru nl i!lpicce. 23.
Fur d., laih o f ind in"d va ul15 .,e FRl hy, H. , Gouma: A Talr of 24.
T wo Vir/agel, 161) &. I'ls. 7 t S. 25.
125
Sell Pta ee S2A.
Ro bichon, C. & Vlnl l", A., Amen h otep [ibde Hapoll. 36 & PI. XI.
Ric ke, 1-1., Well te, E.F. & HUj:he", G. R. Brit el. lI'aU, I. 2, PI.I S.
HOlscher. U., s.u n; til , PI. 26 ; IV, 29.
ihid., IV, I S.
Som ers Clar ke, JI:'A 1 ( 192 I ), 69 .
Pd . ie, W. M. F. , Gu'o b 1/'1<1 HI/WI/' ll, 23.
Weill . R. , et al , 119.
Most Egypt ian vaults were sprung from ordinary brickwork, and it is onl y in Roman times that burnt bricks were
used as a springing for mud- brick vaults, 16 on account of their greater ha rdness. When the vault rest ed on a stone wall ,
or on stone arch it raves, there was usually a ledge cut to receive it , as in the storehouses of the funerary temple of
Merenptah. 27
Domes
Domes are not common in Egyptia n architecture un t il Copt ic times, but examples do occur from the Old Kingdom
onwards. At Giza, the maslabas of Sene b and Nefcri 16 had chambers wit h domed rooting, formed of courses of
stretchers t ilted inwards by placing chips of stone under the out er edge of the bricks. Similar domes occu r in the t omb
of Me t r a at Dendera
19
and in a tomb of th e Fifth Dynast y at Abydos. 30 There is considerable distortion in the form
of these domes when they are used over square rooms. as at Giza, since pendentrves were not built . Domes have also
been found over th e shafts of Twelfth Dynasty tombs at Rtqqeh. 3 1 bu t thei r construction has no t been recorded in
detail. A more inte rest ing dome occ urs in a tomb of the New Kingdom at Thebes. because it is the only known example
from dynastic architec ture to make use of pendent lves at the comers of the chambe r. The co nstruct ional details of
this dome have already been described. (ppA7 S). Difficulties were encountered in the use of the pende nnves and
the innovation was no t repe ated in other buildings.
The few examples of dome s which arc known from the Late Period all occur in the for tifi ed camp which Psamr netfchus I
built at Deffeneh, and they were apparently constructed in courses of st retchers. 32 The dome s were used 10 cove r some of
the compart ments in the founda tio n of the buildi ng, and it is possible tha t other domes may have exist ed for this purpose
in th e similar mili ta ry camps at Naukratis
3 3a
nd Memphis.
34
Better constructio n is found in the domes of Roman age. which are some times forme d of burnt bric k, as in
certain recently discovered bu ildings at Alexa ndria . 35 More simple domes occ ur in the Roman tombs which
were built over the sile of the mortuary temple of Ay, at Medinet Habu.
36
The develop ment of the use of domed
roo fing in Coptic times can be seen in t he buildings of t hat age at Bawlt 31 and Kharga.
38
where pcndentivea were regularly
employed. These late examples would have required cent ring during const ruction, but probably t he small domes
used in the Dynast ic period coul d have bee n buill wit hout centring. Ignorance of the pendent ive seems to have
been t he main reason why so litt le use was mad e of domes in early times, because it led t o great di fficulti es in
adapting a circula r roof t o suit a square room . pr oblems which did not arise in connect ion with the more popular
barrel-vault.
Corbels
The process of cor belling. in which a chamber is roofed by gradu ally overlapping t he bricks of the walls unt il
they meet, is encountered in various uses in Egyptian architect ure. The most frequent use occurs in tombs, in which
the corbel is employe.d to roof the burial chambe r. Such tombs are found in cemeteries of t he Secon d Dynasty and
of the Old Kingdom, but the earlier examples are distinguished by having a stairway ent rance to t he substructu re,
whereas t he later t ype are withou t ent rance. 39 Both t ypes exis ted at Naga ed-Der, and more Old Kingdom examples
have been found at Tura and Reqaqnah. In some cases the corbels of th e Fifth Dynast y arc circular, in order t o
imit ate t he form of burial unde r an inverted pot, but t he Archaic cor bels, a t least at Naga ed-Der. have groined
come rs. (Details of t hese tombs are given on pascs 12- 13, 26 and 293 1.
Corbelling occurs less frequently in other uses. Al Belt Khallaf the descending passage in mastaba K.S was covered
by a co rbel-vault, 40 alt hough no deta ils of its const ruction are recorded. Granaries were often closed in t owards the
top by corbelling the brickwork. in a manner which continues more or less unchanged throughout Egyptian history.
The earliest example of thi s usage occurs in granaries at tached to Tomb 3038 at Saqqara, 4
l
and t he same technique
is foun d in granaries in the Oraeco- Roman town at Edfu.
42
During the New Kingdom. cor bels were employed in t he
26. Mond. K. &. My",$, D. H. The 8 ucll ../HII. 1. 29.
21. Petrie, W. M. F. Six r e",pkllJr T l I f ~ . I , 12.
18. J UII"e It. ce: V. aorr; &. fil-3 011 p.2S.
Abu Bal<! , A. IoI.. XN YlJrioou lJr GI: a., 194 9-50, 139.
19. ""rri". W. I>I.F. [)r,Id",.,h, 156
30. ' -rankrort. H. l EA 16 (1 930), 2 16.
3 1. t:ngelbach . R Riqq..il llnd "'..", p' :1s V, 7.
32. Pet rie. W.M. r Till/is, II, NCMJh..il oJ Det r""ell. 53 .
33. }'el .i ... W. M. "" N,,,,b<>.tis. 1. 24 6 & I'I5-XLl I XLlII.
34. p..l ri ... W. M. r .. 171.. P<l1<>. ce of April'S. L
35. k ubia k. W. B. &. Makowi.....k:o. 1::., ASAj,: 6 1 ( 1913). 117.
36. I1Olscher. U. liM.II. . V. 42 &: PUSF.
31. Ma. """ru, J. F OIlIU.. J cu r... u;. 8,,,,..l r. 4 5.
38. Fakhr). A.. f:l.8<l1CII, Jf In KI"'rt:1J O ~ ptJ.Uim.
39. Rei!lner, G.A.. Notllw-n..... Ill . e- re,
4(). Gam:rng, J., M IJII <U1w lI"d Bn KlwI/Qr, 1$.
41. Em" r y, W. "-, G,...Q' TOlJlb8 of , I,e Finr DYIlIu ry. 1. 8S.
42. Mich3 In,-",1<.i, "" <'T Qt , T..lf /::d! ulI . II ( 1938), 94-5.
126
brick pyramidal tombs of Thebes -u and Aneiba,44since the pyramids themselves were hollow and the bri ckwork had
to be made to meet at the apex.. Exactl y the same process was used at a later dat e in the small pyramid which stands
beside the tomb of Montuemhar at Thebes.
4s
Despit e the widespread use of corbelling, the technique of const ruction varies litt le with date or location. Corbels
are virtually always formed of headers, because this way the bricks can be overlapped a fair distance without risk of
them falling. Exceptions to this rule occur in the tombs at Naga cd-Der, where some of the corbels have alterna te
layers of headers and stretchers on the internal surfaces,4 6 but the mass of brickwork behind the face is still composed
mainly of headers. The majority of corbels have a great amount of brickwork used as a cantilever to prevent collapse
of the overhanging bricks, (Fig.84) bul in circular granaries this is not necessary, since the face that the bricks are laid
in a circle prevents any collapse. Usually a great quant it y of mud is plastered over the brickwork of corbelled st ruc-
tures to give increased rigidity.
Fig..84 A Typical Corbel
to! d plaster
/ ' uc-
.. . . . . .
I ,
I I I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I
I
I I
I
43. Ilm yen. e , DeI, pl- "\lpd;nPh. 19 22- 3. ' 'I. XX.
U . SI..i"J", rr. G A.n( b<!,. n. Pl..4 2-
4 S. SII'e ."" p, S2-
46. S<'<! ~ bo "I'.21 3.
127
128
1
1
see abuve. p. 29. W..ill. It & !'ill d. M l .ltlru. X. Xx, xx. xt.
Se"ahnv o, I'I ' . I t>. 19 ;1nd 2 2.
Stclndnrfr, G. "r lit , A nibtl, II. PIs. 2 5, 38 s: 41 .
5<:" abuve. p, 4 7.
Gi or l(ini. ),l. $. . Soleb, II. 112. 18 5. 2 30. 24 3.
SOLID BRICK CONSTRUCTION IN ) IASTABAS AND PYRA\lIDS
Fig.85 Layout of Brickwork: ill a Brick Pyramid.
CHAPTER TWELVE:
In some cases t he face of th e st ructure exhibits alt ernate courses of headers and st retchers, but this arr angement
persists only to a dept h of one or t wo bricks, after which heade rs alone occur. ' In the royal pyramids of the Middle
Kingdom. t he bricks are usually laid in sand with no att emp t at mortaring. The brickwor k immediately above the
buri al chamber, however, could sometimes be laid wit h mud morta r, as occurs in the pyramid of Hawara. 2 Where
relieving arches were incorporated in to the pyramids, at Hawar a
J
and South Saqqara, " the bricks of the arch wer e
bonded with morta r.
Certain pyrami ds have cross-walls of st one running through t heir st ructure. dividing t he brickwork into separate
masses. but the bon ding patt ern is largely unaltered. The bricks of the Middle Kingdom royal pyramids are always
very large, averaging abou t 42cm in length.
Solid brick mast abas. especially those of great stze, are often built of headers in the same manner as the pyramids,
but the bricks are laid in mud or taj l mort ar in place of sand. There are excep tions, of course , 10 this method of
construction, and many small mastabas are built in AI , A2 or A3 bondtng. ! However. examp les of this technique
are found in the great mastabas of the Thi rd Dynasty at Belt KhaJ1 af,6 and in the enormous Sixth Dynast y tombs
at Da[a.
7
In lomb K. I at Belt Khallaf t he brickwork was laid in sections from the outer faces towards t he cent re.
The diagonal joint formed at the angles of struct ures built enti rely of headers laid in this way also occurs in the
thick casing-walls of the common rubble-filled mastabas of the Archaic Period, including some of the palace-facade
to mbs of the First Dynasty.8
The small brick pyramids which stand above the tombs of th e New Kingdom at Deir cl-Mcdina are not always
built of headers, bUI ot her bonds occur. This is probably due to the fact thai the pyramids were hollow. since they
cont ained a vaulte d chapel, and consequently thei r exterio r walls are fairly th in. In similar tombs at Aneiba9 the
brickwor k of the pyramids was bonded AI. However, const ruction in courses of headers docs occur in small pyramids
at Dira abu'l Nap 10 and at Soleb in Nubia I I (Fig.87).
This method of building was probably employed for its simplicity, which would have been an advantage in the
rapid const ruction of the great masses of brickwork necessary for pyramids or large mastabas, The technique is
related to th e Egyptian habit a r ming courses of headers for the internal structure of very thick walls. abo for the
sake of simplificat ion of the building process.
I. L.n. T. U. 27. '.
1. I'e l rio, F K alw ll, GUffl b and l1/l WQm. PI. IV. l\.
3,. i bid.. 16 & PI. IV. 9.
4. J e4 uier , G. [Xli X Pyr amld eJ du Moye ll 34 '" Pl. VII (a). 10.
s. See n n 1'1'. an I! 6. Sen abov e, p. 12. 11.
Fig. 86 Bonding at com er of the Pyramid of Hawara:
Mastebas and pyramids of solid brickwork were const ructed in simil ar fashion. t he bricks being laid as headers
from each face to the centre, t her eby forming a joint along the line of th e diagonals th rough the st ructure. (Fig.8S).
The bricks were stepped backwards at each course in order 10 produce the desired slope on the outer (ace, and
consequently they break joint with the courses above and below, but no r with in each individual layer of the brickwork.
Fig. 87 Plan of the Brickwork ill a Pyramid at Soleb.
IL--_
129
130
Wood.
A number of supp lementary mat erials. such as wood and stone, occur regularly in Egyptian brick buildings. The
purpose of this section is to give some account of the uses of these materials, wit hout goi ng into detail s. except to
describe how their use affects the brickwork.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERI ALS IN BRICK CONSTRUCTION CHAPTER THIRTEEN'
Probably th e most important use of wood in Egyptian brick architectu re was the construction of roofing, which
was usually formed of planks supported on beams. Roofs of th is kind first occ ur on a small scale in tombs of late
Predynasti c dat e, ' but much lar ger examples were used in the great First-Dynasty tombs of Abydos and Saqqara.
In some of the Saqqara tombs, where the area to be roofed was very large, the ordinary raft ers were supported from
below by massive beams of rectangular section,2whilst at Abydos the roofing W3S some times upheld by wood en
pos ts. J The wooden roof could by protected by covering it with brickwor k, as in tomb 3505 at Saqqa ra," and in
many of the small graves of the First Dynasty. 5 Thi s tec hnique also occ urs al a later da te in the Funerary Temple
of Myccnnus at Giza. 6 A sligh tly different ty pe of roof was used in tomb 3036 OI l Seqqara, in which the bricks rested
di rectly upon closely-set logs. below which was a ceiling of wooden planks. 7 This is a similar met hod to thaL used
in grave 1647 at Naga ed-Der.f and in houses of a very lat e period at Tbeadclphta." Small rooms and passages in
buildings of all ages were commonly roo fed with split palm-logs, a form of roofing cop ied in stone at the Step
Pyramid.
The development of t he rock-cut burial chamb er at the end of the First Dynasty led to the abandonment of
wooden roo fing in funer ary archi tecture, except for small-scale uses such as the rcoflng of offering niches. In all other
kinds of brick buildings. however , wood continued to be employed for t his pu rpose down to very late times, despi te
the increasing use of vaul ts. Wooden planks were not usually employed above the raft ers in domestic archi tect ure.
Instead, layers of st icks and reeds were used, consolidated with a coati ng of mud . In rich houses at El-Amama, the
rafte rs were not left as rough logs, but were covered with the decorated plaster which was applied to all th e int erior
of t he roof. l oWhen the size of the room was very great, there was a main beam across the centre, supported on
wooden columns, with smaller raft ers running from this beam to each end of the room. I t A differ ent kind of roofing.
used in the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata. has already been described un page 87.
From the Twentieth Dynasty, brick vault s become fairly common in domestic buildings, and th ey tend to replace
wood for t he roofl ng of narrow passages or small rooms, especially cellars. However, wood was still a major constr ue-
tiona ! mat erial right down 10 Graeco-Rornan time s. and t he remains of roofs made of palm logs have been found in
houses of the Thir d and Fourth Centu ries A.D. in the Fayum. 1'2 The restr iction of vaulting to the cellars and ground-
floor rooms may have been due to the use of eart h cent ring, since it would nor have been practicable to fill the rooms
on the thi rd or four th storey with earth. in orde r to provide centring for a vault ed roof.
Wooden col umns were an essenti al accessory to the use of timber for reefing, and they occur frequently wherever
large areas had to be roofed. Such columns were used in the mortuary temples of Mycerfnus13and Nefcrirkare, 14as a less
cos tly substitu te for stone. but Ihe majorit y of examples occur in secular buildings. In the rich mansions of Amarna,
the columns were well-formed and they stood on stone bases. ISwhilsl in poo r houses a column could be formed of
a rough post. 16 Several of the official buildings at Amarna had brick piers t t to suppor t the roof Inste ad of wooden colurras,
presumably to save valuable timber.
l. Qu ibe ll. J.E. & Gr "ell. F. W Hk....4onpolu, 11, 20.
2. Eme ry, W.H. ,A,dUJicf:/rYPt, 1114, 1116, Fig. 107.
3. Petrte, W.M.F., Roy<J1 Tomb$, T. 8-16 & PIs.LXV, LXVIl.
4. Eme ry, W. B.. The Tom b of ffc ma kll, 4- S.
5. See I htwe. p. 10.
6. R"i ,n"r, G.A. , Mycerlm.3. 9 1" & fi jt.20.
7. W_B., Gre..r Tomb" of tI, e Ft", Dyn'lIry. I. 74.
8. Reisn er .G.A. . N<ljfrJ e<J.De,. 1. 19&.fll!-l O.
9. Grenfe ll. B.P., & Hu nt, A.s" FQyum To wns & ri, E;' J'u(!)";. 51.
t o. "rankfQrl. Ii. &. I'en <.llebury, r.o.s., O r)' of II. 5 77.
t I. Ibid.. 28- 30 &. (;1'-4.
t 2. Bul k, A. E.1l. uQl.. XrJrrmu. I 92..j,.8, 26 &. 1'1.. XIX. XU, fi ll-&l .
13. Reisn er. G.A. . My cerllfu J, 92.
14. Borchardt . 1.-. Vas des K(I" ig"
15. Pee t, T,r. & Woo lle y, 1.-. Cit y of Akll e" "ull. I. S-6. 10. 41 . PI,V.
16. ma; 57-8.
t 7. ""ndlehury. J.O.s.. et Ill . CU)' of A k ll ..IIaU ,1, III. 86. 9 1. 1011- 9. 131-2 &. I'I. Lt.
Floors of wood are not common in Egyptian buildings, since far cheaper materials were available for this purpose,
but they occur in tombs of the Archaic Period at Abydus and Saqqara. These floors are formed of planks laid upon
joists, and in a number of cases they are surrounded by a shallow skirti ng board . Details of the arrangement of the
woodwork have been given by the excavators. 18 Two mast ahas at Tarkhan had wooden floors in the main offering
niche of the superstructure, consisting of several thick planks, in part overbuilt by the brickwork of the niche. 19 Wooden
floors were not used in domest ic architecture, except for the floors of upper storey s, but this is really a matter of
roofing.
Doorframes of timber are very commo n at all peri ods, mainly in domestic buildings, although they do occur elsewhere.
The doorjambs were attached to the surrounding brickwork by wooden pegs,200r by their being jointed to blocks of
wood set into the walls. The latter met hod was popular in houses of a very late period in the Fayum, in which beams
were built int o the brickwork for the full height of the doorway (pp. 90, 99). The threshold of the door usually
consisted of a rough beam or plank, set across the step, and partly inset into the brickwork on either side. In the late
houses mentioned above, the thresholds are sometimes more elaborate, being mortised to the sides of the doorfrarnes'"
The purpose of a wooden doorstep was to prot ect the mud brick from wear, since the brick was softer than the timber.
For the same reason, strips of wood were often laid across the leading edges of stairs, as in the stairway to the top of
the temple wall at EIKab.22 The stairs at Amarna were built over sloping beams, as shown in Fig.58, but in a house of
the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty at Medinet Habu each step was supported by a short beam laid transversely beneath it. 23
In later times the stairways were usually built over vaults.
Windows frequently had wooden frames, the best-preserved examples of which occur in the late houses of
Karanis.24 Long beams were employed above and below the window, running into the brickwork at each side, and
the opening was divided into a series of slits by vertical bars of wood. (Fig.88) An unusual form of window was used
Fig.88 Window ill House at Karanis:
to light the cellars of the building numbered 11.201 at Dime, consist ing of a single beam with two small apertures cut
through it, set at ceiling level. 25 Wooden lintels were obviously used above windows from very early times, since they
arc clearly depicted on the house model from El-Amra, 26which is of late Predynastic date .
Probably the most peculiar use of wood in Egyptian buildings is its employment in the structure of brick walls as
a means of reinforcement. Generally speaking, this technique is most common ill well-built walls of considerable thick-
ness, but it can occur in house walls. In the best examples the timbers are laid at regular intervals, and they can run
both along and across the wall, but in more careless building it is common to find irregular distribution or isolated
beams at widely spaced points in the brickwork. The most elaborate timbering in Pharaonic architecture is found in
the walls or temples and fortresses, as shown by the individual examples described in Chapt ers 5 and 8. In domestic
buildings the technique is quite rare th roughout this period, and only a few instances are recorded from the great
number of houses at Amaroa.
27
Timbering of house-walls does not become common until very late times, the vast
majority of cases being found in the houses of the second to fourth centur ies A.D. at Karanls, Dime and other Graeco-
Roman towns of the Fayum.
211
It is rather strange that this practice should be so common at these sites, and yet
infrequent in towns of similar age at Edfu and Elephantine, but possibly this may have been due to differences in
the availability of the wood. 2'1 Timber reinforcement occurs to a limited extent in brick mastabas of the Old Kingdom,
1S. Pet ri e, W. M. I'. , R oyal To mbs, I. .8-16 & PIs..LXII , LX] V- LXVil .
Emer y, W.B. , Grear Tmn bs nf ttte First Dyl ws ty, n, 11, Pls. Xll -XIi I.
IbhL . vol , m, 40, PkSR-- 60.
19. Pel ri c, W.M.F., 11. 4. Pe trio & Wainwri ght, C. , Tar kt'alJ I &: Memphis V.
13, PLXV, 2.
20. I....ct "" Woolley, "p. cit. , S&-9.
21. Bo ok, A. F. R" Sok"" p<Zi"" Ne ros, 11-6 & 1'1. VI.
22. Some," era-se, I RA, ' ( 192 1), -n. 2 3. Holsc her, U. , E.M.H., V, 16.
24. n'oa k, A..R., ct al" Karanis; 1924- S. 4 9,57 & Pls. XXXl (61 ). XXX II (6 3) , XXXIV (67).
25 . Boa"-. A.E.R. , Soknnpaim' Ncsnr, Plan XV I.
N. B. De l ails o f con.<l ru ct i" n " f <.l o ors wi ll he fo u nd in 0.,
Die <lcr ..TKy ptiscl ,cn Ti ir.
26. OoR. & Mace, 1\.('., HI-Amrail &: A bydos, Pl.X, 1-2.
27. Bo rchardt , l.. , MDOG 46 ( Nov. 191 1), 24 5. 211. Sec abo ve, p p. 'jB- l 00.
29. The hO\lse models from Xo is Memphis sh ow th at timbering was notIimit ed 10 t he Fayu m ;
<cc ASAE 3 I (19 3 1), 1'1. m an d Quibell, J.E. , Excavations at Suqoara: 19 05 -6, PI.XXX, 4.
131
such as that of Rah otep at Meydum, which contained a large numbe r of irregularly spaced logs..>\J The thin sticks
found bet ween the courses of bricks in mastabas of t he First Dynasty 31are not to be considered as reinfo rcement.
since t hey are used in the same manner as layers of reed-malt ing.
The st rengthe ning of t he come rs of brick walls with timber occu r in administrat ive buildings of th e Kingdom
in the Nubian fortresses, 32and in the lat e houses of Karanis and Dime.
33
This techni que can be compared with the
stone reinforceme nt which sometimes occu rs at the angles of temple endosurewalls.J
4
It is easy t o see the reason-for
these come r timbers ; in the narrow st reets of Egyptian towns the angles of the hou ses would be liable t o damage
from the passage of laden baggage-animals, and th e soft mud-b rick could be displaced. The elaboration of comer
protect ion in late houses was pr obably due to t he fact that these buildings were several storeys high, and any damage
to the brickwork at a low level could cause the collapse of a whole comer of the house.
lt is far more difficult to explain the purpose of the t imbers which occ ur throughout the struct ure of bri ck walls.
The Egyptians evident ly considered that t he st rength of the bri ckwork was improved by the inclusion of these beams .
but they canno t fail t o have ob served that their presence was no t essential. Th ere are many example s of massive bri ck
walls without any timber reinforcement, such as the great enclosure-wall of the Temple of Medinet lI abu, which have
survived the ages just as well as those walls in which woode n beams are present . This is not to say tha t the use of
timber had no strengthening effect at all; the inclusion of any mat eria l with a high tensile strengt h woul d improve
the stability of a brick wall. but the degree of improveme nt gained would be so slight that it does not seem to justify
the enormous outlay of timber. It is int eresting to not e that great beams of cedar were inserted in to the masonry of
the Step Pyramid of Djoser,3Sagain wit h litt le str uct ural value, but their use in thls buil ding shows tha t the belief in
the advantages of t imbering began at an early date. The use of wooden baulks of great size in the but t resses of the
bri dge at Amama
36
shows t hat the technique was certa inly intended 10 give improved st rength. In the walls of fort-
resses it is possible t hat another pu rpose may have been to prevent the walls being mined by an enemy.
There is a distinct difference between the timbered walls of t he dynastic period and those of the very late houses
of the Graeco-Roman towns in th e Fayum. In the early examples. the timbers are rough logs, frequently bra nched
and twisted, with the bark st ill in place. By contrast, the late houses are t imber ed wit h neat ly cut and pla ned beams
of square or rectangular sect ion, which are more frequently laid longi tudinally along the faces of the walls than
pr eviou sly. These beams also differ ed from the earlier type in tha t they were apparently not hidden by any plaster .
In order to discover the reason for t he change in techn ique, it is necessary to examine it at a stdl Iat er stage, in the
Copt ic buil dings at Bawit . The long limbers which occur in the walls of these st ructu res are set flush with the face
and are decorated wit h carve d designs. 37 Shor ter decorated beams at wooden panels are found at the angles of the
doorjambs, ae in similar style t o the timber used around the doors of houses at Dime ( page 100). Some of this Cop tic
timbering occurs in walls of st one, which shows that t he wood was no longer considered to have any st ruc tu ral
purpose connected with brick const ruc tion.
Consequen tly, the whole history of the use of wooden reinforcement in brickwork may be summarised as follows:
The t echn ique was initia ted in t he Archaic Period, and was considered to give improved stabilit y to mud- brick
constructions , especially those of considerable thickness. For this reason it was regularly used in the great walls of
templ es and fort resses, but was less common in domestic architecture. By late Roman t imes. however, the use of
wood in houses increa sed greatly, bu t the purpose of this timber ing was no longer entirely struct ural, since it had
become part ly decorative in inte nt. The process of transit ion fro m a structural devi ce to a decorative mot if was
compl eted in Coptic architect ure, in which carved designs were used on the wooden beams to heigh ten the decorat ive
effec t.
Wooden planks were occ asionally used for lining brick walls, but examples are not common, no doubt because
of the expense of t he materi al. The greatest use of woo den lining occ urs in the First Dynast y Royal Tombs of Abydos.
some of which had entire bu rial chambers const ruc ted of wood within the subst ructu re. 39 1n some cases t he wooden
st ruct ures stood clear of t he walls, but in ot her t ombs, such as that of Ka-a, t he planks were app lied over the face of
the brickwork and fixe d in place by being jointed to th e bea ms of the roof and lloor.
4o
Wood<ased pilasters occur
in Tomb 3504 at Saqqara, the planks being fastened to beams set into the brickwor k ( page 17). The same syste m of
holding the wood in pos ition was used in the funerary temple of Neferirkare,4 1 and it was prob ably empl oye d
30. !'et rie , 16-
3 1. Emery. W.n. , /lor-A/'ll, is &. S. Id"/lL, crear Tom br 01 Fi ,." Dytlfllty. I. IS.
p.,t rie, Vi. M. F &. Wainwright . G., T.urklra,rl &: Mt'mp lrfs V. 14 &. PI,X VI.
32. See ahove p. 84. 33. Se.. ahove. PI' 90.91. 34. S<'e atm\e. 1'1'. 74. i li. 81.
3S. Lauer, J. Ph.. La Pyramidc;' Deltres, L ',4, ,,,,liIru n,,,.'. IE. !'J.ClI . 2.
36. p.,ndlehury, J.O. s. e r aL. City of Akllt'nll t "rr. Ill. S6 &. PLXXXIX.
37. ChaUin"t. E.. 8110u/1, I. Ca.5C. I , PI!. XV. XVI, XXI -XXIV, l VIIT. lXIX. LXX.
38. Ibid.. I'lI. XXXVJ, XXXV II, LXVI.
39. f'<, ttle. W. F Royal TOl>/N. r, 9- 10. I S, -&. 1'1.. LXU.LXVIl . Ibid., II , 7, 10.
4 1),. ibid., 1. IS" PLLXVI L
4 1. BorChardt , 1... Dar K"nigr 37 8, Ahh,4 2.
132
th roughout the Dynastic Period. although examples are not fort hco ming. Adifferent method was used in a very
late administ rat ive building at Dime, which had one room entirely panelled with wood. Thi s panelling consi sted
of t hick bl ock s of wood laid agains t the wall, mortised t o similar beams set int o t he brickwork (page 90).
Stone
Stone casing on bri ckwork first appears in the tomb of Khasekhemui at Abydos, .nand becomes common in all later
periods, especia lly in religious and fun erary archit ect ure. In mastabas or pyramids, the casing is thick and is composed
of heavy blocks, but the stone lining on temple pylons or walls is mu ch thinner , some times being less t han 20cm. Stone
casing of this kind is not attached to th e brickwork in any way, but stands in positi on by weight alone , and the arrange-
ment of t he bricks is unaffected. The normal pu rpose of th e casing was t o give th e app earance of being constru cted of
more enduring mat erials than was in fact the case. Less frequen tly, t he st one had a specifi c funct ion, such as the
protec tion of the mud- brick walls of bat hrooms from damp. 43
The use of stone in foundations has al ready been described in Chapter 10. Various kinds of stone were used for
floors in brick buildings. most commonly in tombs and temples, but the use of t he stone floor does no t affect the
brickwork.
44
Columns of st one are common in bri ck-built t emples, official buildings and rich houses. such as t hat of But charnun
at Medinet Habu .
4
$ In certain cases the se columns st ood upon brick foundations, as described on page 120. St one archi-
traves were used in offici al buildings to support brick vaults. examples being fou nd in the palace of Ramesses III at
Medinet Habu
4 6
and in the storehouses of t he mor tuary t emple of Merenpt ah. -I 7
Doorways of sto ne were frequently used in important buildings. and. by re-use, they could find t heir way int o poor
houses. The jambs of the door stood in place by weight, as did the lintel, except in some un usual examp les at Merlinet
Habu, where t he lintel was hel d in position by cords (page 87). St one sills were regularly employed in all kinds of
st ruct ur es. even when th e rest of the doorframe consist ed of woo d. Stone windows, ill the form of grilles. were used ill
the palace of Ramesses Ti l at Medinet Ilabu, 41land other examples have been discovered in houses at Amarna.
4 9
The angles of temple enclos ure-walls were sometimes prot ect ed by stone blocks, examples being recorded from
Edfu, El-Kab, Luxor, Dendera and Abyd os. {p p. 6 1, 74, 78 and 8 1). Such reinforcement was not really necessary
in tem ple walls, but was copied from t he use of ti mbers in the comers of houses. Very few houses have st onewor k at
the comers of t he walls, but one or t wo examples are known at Karants. so
Mor tar and Plast er
The following ty pes of mortar occ ur in Ancient Egyptian brickwo rk: 51 (I ) Mud mor tar : the most common type,
formed of ordinary Nile alluvium, and used at all periods in all kinds of buildings. ( 2) Taj7mortar : composed of
deser t gra'..el, with a high proporti on of sand. Most common in small buil di ngs on the desert edge, especi ally t ombs.
(3) Ume mort ar: a hard. white mortar, used only in Ptolemaic and Roman t imes. usuall y in connect ion wi th burnt
brick. Suitable for use in damp places, since it is impermeable t o water.
The mort aring of Egyptian brickwork is usually rough, and is practically always rest rict ed t o t he horizont al joints.
Except ions to thi s rule occu r only on th e outer faces of well-built st ruct ures, where both the hori zontal and vert ical
joi nt s are someti mes carefully poi nted. Very lill ie mortar was used in t he heart of thi ck walls. the majority of the
bricks being laid t ogether dry. In cer tain buildings. such as the brick pyramids of the Middle Kingdom , a layer of sand
was placed between the courses ins tead of any mortar. The vert ical joints in thic k st ruct ures can be very wide, as in
the pylon of the t omb of Mon t uemhat at Thebes. (PI.I7A). A special form of j oint occurs in [he bonds Al l t o A16,
consisting of a wide space betwe en t he bricks filled up wi th gravel. or, less frequently, with plast er. The purpose of
such a division is no t d ear: the inclusion of a mass of gravel may have helped t o dry the br ickwork, but no such effe ct
could be gained from a wide jo int full of plast er.
Ume morta r is found in Ptolemaic and Roman bu rnt -brick struc t ures , especiall y bat hs and conduits. where it was
necessary 10 make the j oi nt s waterproof. This mortar was not normally expl oycd wi t h mud-bri ck, but it occurs in
arches uf that material beneat h sta irways in the Coptic t own at Armant. 52
-1 2. ' ''' ITi". W. M.F. , up. cit.. II. l:J.-4 & PL l. VII, 4 6.
4 3. Hiitsdter, U.. EM.H.. IV, 30.
-1 4. ston e nOUTS occur ii , To mh T Rl AhydO$ ""d Tuml> Saq q.1 fa.
4S. ll iil o;ch er. U. , E M. If. . V.4- 5.
4 6. ibid., 11I. 3 11- 9.
47 . Pel ri e. W.fot. P_. Six r 'mpl<:sat 12 3.
48. lI ubeh",.. u. E,:\Uf. . IV, 34.
4 9. W...,U" y. L. . Je A 8 (1922), PLI X.
so. Iluak .-'l..F-R. 'roL, KlUtZ,,;1, i9H..S. 26 &< Pl. XLl I. Il4.
5 I. L\le,", A. & J. R.. ..l"cie." Hyp ria" Motf.' rlab, 74-6.
52. M,," d. R. &. /IoIye... 0. 11. . T.mpkr uf Amla,,', 38 I'.< PI. XXXIX.
133
Mud plaster: 53
This is formed of alluvium, mixed with varying quanti ti es of sand and chopped straw to prevent the for mation of
cracks on drying. The colour of the plaster depends upon the amount of sand and the compos it ion of th e mu d, but
the usual kind is a dark grey-bro wn. Yellow plaster was employed in the reign of Shepseskaf in buildings at Giza 54
and Saqqara, 55 and in the Fift h and Sixth Dynasties black plaster was common. 56 Practically all Egyptian mud-brick
struct ures were coat ed with a l ayer of mud-plaster, which was usual ly whiten ed by a second coat of gypsum. Apart
fro m t he common uses of plast er on floors, walls and vault s, it was also empl oyed for a numbe r of special purposes,
such as the pre cast slabs of mud used to form the recessed panelling in t omb 3070 at Saqqara.! 7 In late buildings at
Tuna el_Gebel
58
and Theadelphi a, 59whit ened plaster was moulded to imitate th e appe arance of well-laid blocks of
limesto ne. A similar technique occurs in t he Old Kingdom t omb of Desi at Saqqara, in which a coat of ordinary grey
mud-plaster has been grooved t o simulate well-bonded brickwork (PI.46A). Painted decorat ion on plaster was usually
applied over a coa t of gypsum, but examples of paint ing directly on mud-plaster do occ ur, especially at Amarna.
60
Wooden roofing was generally covered with a layer of mud t o rende r it weatherproof, but the extensive use of mud
in the roofi ng of large rooms in the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata is exceptio nal , and it led to an unnecessarily
heavy roof.
Taft plaster:
Taft plaster consists of desert gravel, sand and chopped st raw, with just sufficient clay in the mixt ur e to bind t he
materials together. The use of this plaster is rather limited; it most frequ ently occurs in the superstructures and shaft s
of small tombs in desert cemeterie s, in conjunction with tall-bricks.
Gy psmn plaster: 6 1
Whi te gypsum plaste r was gener ally used as a finishi ng coat over mud- plast er, in all kinds of buildings. In most
cases t his plaster was left plain white, but it also formed an ideal sur face for the additi on of painted decoration,
examples of which are common in tombs, pal aces and rich houses at wi dely diffe ring periods. Painted plaster is most
frequently found on walls, but it also occurs on ceilings and floors, as in the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata
(pp.87-8) . In late t ombs at Tuna el-Gebel, painte d plaster was used t o imitate the appearance of granite, porphyry
and marbl e. 62
Lime plaster: 63
This typ e of plaster does not come into use until the Grecco-Roman period, when it was empl oyed in burnt brick
const ruc tions as a wat er-resistant coating. For this reason it is found in the Sanat orium at Dendera
64
and in Roman
baths and water con duits at Kom el-Ahma r. Edfu, Medinet Habu, and elsewhere.651n one bath at Edfu
66
the plaster
on the floor and walls had been coloured pink, pro babl y by the addit ion of powd ered brick.
Reed Matting:
Layers of reeds are common in Egyptian brick structures of all periods, set at various levels in the brickwork. In
walls, the reeds are usually laid t ransversely, but the re are examples in which the y run both along and across the axis
of the wall. Reed-matting in br ickwork first appears at an early date in the First Dyna st y mas tab as at Saqqara,"? and
S3. Lu cas & Harris, up. dt:, 76.
54. Rdsner, G.A, Mycerrmlll, 90.
S5. Jequler, G. , t Masra bar Faram.m, 16 .
56. Relsner,op. cit, 90 .
57. Emer y, W.B., JEA 54 ( 196 8). It-3.
5S. Gabra. s., L e MOllume"t limb-Ollre de 39 &0 P\.V III.
59. Lefebvre , G., ASAE 10 ( 1910), 169 & 1'1. IV B.
60. Lucas & Harris, o p. cit, 35 4.
6 1. Lu cas & Harris, op, d t, 76-9. 4712.
62. Ga bn, S. & Dr iot on , E., Pe/llwres J Presques et Scenes l'einus. PL2 1.
63. Lucas & Harris, op, ci t , 76.469.
64. See al>ove, p, 91.
65. See a bove, pp, 91-2 .
66. K. et at , Te ll 1 ( 1937). 65, 68.
67. Eme ry, W.8. . Great Tombs of tile First Dvnasry, n. 8. II r, 8, 4 1. 76.
134
the reafter it was employed in all kinds of buil dings, except those bu ilt of burnt brick.. The distribut ion of the reed
layers in a single bu ilding is often quite regular, but differences occur between individual st ruc tures, asshown in the
following list:
The purpose of the reeds must be st ructural, and it has been suggested
68
that they were intended to dry the interior
of the brickwork by conducting moisture t o the outer face. Th is is a possibility, but t here are a number of objections
to the the ory . ln t he firs t place, the reeds are someti mes laid longit udinally, and t herefore would not dr aw water out wards;
secondly, t he outer face of th e bri ckwor k is invariably covered with a layer of plaster, through which the reeds do not
penetra te. Consequently, the matt ing is sealed in by the plast er and there is no free escape for the moisture, The construc-
tion of air-channels in (hick walls t o ensure drying of the brickwork suggests t hat t he reed-layers are not co nnecte d with
the problem of damp but have a separate purpose . It is possible tha i t hey were intended to assist the bond ing of the
brickwork by forming a ' key' for the mortar, and also by covering any irregularit ies which develope d in the course of
const ructi on. This hypothesis is supported by the fact t hat some of the earliest examples of thi s technique, is mas tabas
at Tarkhan and Saqqara, have rows of t hin sticks in place of reeds. 69 These st icks would ha ve been of no value for drying
the bri ckwor k. but t hey could have improved the bonding between the courses. Anot her valuable piece of evidence comes
from a vault ed cellar at Amam a. 70 in which two long reeds have been placed between t he rings of bricks in the vault
(page 95 ). The function of these reeds is obviously t he same as that of t he grooves which usually occ ur on bricks in this
type of vault. thai is to pr ovide a key for the mortar . The reed-layers in walls probably had a similar purpose, and they
would have pr ovided points at which the levelling of the courses could be checked or adjusted, as seems t o have been
done at Mtrgtssa."'
Reeds were also employe d in roofing. in conjunction wit h wooden beams and planks . Early examples of thi s use are
found in the substruct ures of First Dynast y t ombs. P and later it becomes common in all kinds of bu ildings. An unusual
use of reed-matting was discovered in tombs 3357. 3503, 3504 and 3505 at Saqqara, where the ma ts had been col oured
and att ached t o the walls as decor ati on. 73
Location
Saqqa ra Tomb 3504
3036
3035
3506
Theban Tomb 15S
34
Abydos: SeuTemple
Medinet Habu: Rarnesses Temple
Saqqar a: XXXth . Dyn. walls East of Tet i Pyrami d
Karnak: Great Encl osur e wall
Kuban: Fort ress
Mrrgissa: For tress
Uronart i: For t ress
No. of courses betwee n reed-layers
6
6
9
5
4
4- 6
4- 5
2
2
2
8
12
6
68. f't!t r i... W. M. 1'" Egyp rian II.
69. l' mery, W.Ii.. lIorA I ,a, I S &' Flt- 5 ..., tr ie, W. M. F. &0 Wain...ri l ht. GO' Tll r klum I ,,"d ltk mplris 14 & PI.XVI.
10. Fnn Uo rt , H. &. J'cn dl eb ur y, I. D. S. . City of ... 11, 52-3 " Fi/l. 6.
71. n unham, n ., St!C'Q'uJ C" t tzrgct FortI, n . 156_
n. Em..,)'. W.Il. , GrrJ.I Tombs of I hr First n,'" uly. I, 16; 11, 9, II , 13].
73. ibid. . n. I I , lll; III . 10 &: 11. 2 5 b. HQ,. A lra, 17.
135
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: BONDING
The bonds AI . Al and A3 are by far the commonest forms of bonding in Egyptian brickwor k of the Dynastic
Period. and thei r usc is continued, although to a lesser extent , in Graeco-Roman and Coptic buildings. TIle thickness
of a wall very ofte n infl uences the arrangement of the bricks; bonds A2 and A3 are very similar, except for the fact
that A2 is used where the thickness of the wall cor responds to an odd number of bricks. and A3 where the number
is even. Bond Al is found in Egyptian buildings of all periods, mainly in thin walls, alt hough it can occu r infrequently
in thic k masses of brickwork, such as mastaba casings or great enclosure walls. However, the usual procedure in thick
walls was to discard At bonding in favour of A2 or AJ. which are the standard arrangemen ts in these st ructur es.
Practically all the great walls of dynastic age are constructed in these bonds, and although in the immensely thi ck
enclosures of fort s and temples it is inevitable that some irregularities occur , nevertheless the arrangement is very
consistent. ' Bonds A2 and A3 are by no means restricted to massive walls, for they occur frequently in walls of
moderat e dimensions in all kinds of architect ure. the thin nest examples being common in houses and tombs. The
arrangement of the bricks in A2 bonding is such that no wall can be built in this way with a thickness less than 1.5.
and with A3 bonding the minimum thickness is 2.0.
1
More variation in bonding occurs in the construction of pit-graves and mastabas of the Archaic Period. The simplest
pits have lining-walls of stretchers, only 0.5 thick, and the refore out of necessity bonded XI. This is the only possible
arrangement of the bricks in walls which are a single brick-width across, and consequently it occurs at all periods in
such walls. The only thick structures in which Xl bonding appears are the sinusoidal walls around the pyrami ds of
Mazghuneh and South Saqqara. X2 bonding is found in the lining of the Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, and in the
retaining wall around the site of the Solar Temple of Neusen e at Abu Gurab, but otherwise it is uncommon except in
buttresses and door-blockings. Frequent use is made of AI bond in early graves, but the alternation of thr ee courses of
st retchers with one of headers (AS) also occurs. especially in Upper Egypt , at El-Arnra 3 and Naga edDer.
4
At the latt er
site, this arrangement is retained in walls which are 1.5 or 2.0 thick by the use of bonds AS and A7, both of which are
rare elsewhere. These bonds gradually fall out of use towa rds the end of the Archaic Period. to be replaced by A2 or AJ,
but the process of transition seems to have been slower in the Thinite area than at other sites.
Anumber of brick-bonds are recor ded from the First Dynasty mastabas of Saqqara. but it is not cer tain whether they
all really exist, since the descriptions given by Emery do not always agree with his drawings, ! nor with the remains of
the monuments on the sile. For this reason I have preferred not to assign Corpus numbers 10 some of these bonds." until
the uncert ainty is resolved by their discovery in other buildings. The bond C5, however, was numbered in the Corpus
before the descrepanctes became apparent, and it should be not ed tha t this also may not exi st. I suspect that this bond
is the result of misint erpretati on of the courses of edger-headers which occur frequently in Egypt ian brickwork for
levelling purposes; these have been drawn as though they were set regularly at every fifth or sixth course , to produce
an ordered bond, whereas in reality these edger courses are irregularly distributed and do not run through the whole
structure. In all probability the walls which are supposed to have been huilt in this bond were really construc ted in some
form of Class A bonding, with levelling courses of bricks on edge here and there. Some A7 bonding does occur in
mastaba s 3SQ.J and 3506 at Saqqara, bul AI is more' common. Other First Dynasty tombs are built enti rely of
heade rs, in the system described in Chapter 12. In the mastabas of the Second and Third Dynast ies, at Saqqa ra
and elsewhere, bonds AI. A2 and A3 replace nearly all the earlier varied forms, but a fair amount of A6 is found
in the thick casing-walls.
As all Dynasnc brickwork is domi nated by the use of bonds AI. A2 and A3, we will here examine only the occur-
rences of the less common bonding systems. Most exceptional is the use of CI bondi ng in the walls of the tomb of
Semerkhet at Abydos, 7and CEI in a mastaba of the Fi rst Dynasty at Abu Roash. f slnce the employme nt of bricks
on thei r edges in this way is ext remely unusual pri or to the Graeco-Roman Period. The only other exampl es of Class C
bonds in Dynastic brickwo rk (excluding small st ructures such as door-blockings} occur in the storehouses at the Ramesseum.
and in a tomb-vault of the reign of Nectanebo II in the Baqaria at Armant (pp. 55 and 86).
I. Chri. l ophe, L . Ktlffltl kNord, Ill. Pb.XVII-X IX. h cquel, J. , BIFA O 69 (I 11 7 1) , I'I. x x xlII.
IIm. cher, U" E.M.H., n. PJs. 16-7.
2. The .e t hicknesses at e in term. of brick. lenlfths, lUexplained on pag", 7.
3. Md ver, DoR. &. Mace, A.c., EJ.A mrall DIu} A llydo.. 35.
4, Rebner, G.A.. NilI ll I'IJ.Der. L ::17.
S. Emer y, W. e. , Grrllr Tombr 01 tile Firn Dymu ty. II, 130, f1p. 10\ - 2. PLXLVI ;
Ibid., 11I, 4 1 &. r iA l , 76 &. P"'86, 11 24 .
6. In th e chart on p. 21 the se bund. ate gi"e n In l e t m ~ of header. and arretehe ...
7. Petrie, W.:'I-l. F. R oyal Tombs of tlu' First DY'l ast y, J, PI. LXVI, 3-4.
8. Monlel, P., Kem( 7 ( 11138). 311 &. PI"X. 1 and x r. I.
136
In the Middle Kingdom Temple of Hennopolis there is a certain amount of A9 bonding in the wall of the forecocrt.?
and th e Late-Period houses at the same site had walls 1.5 and 2.5 t hick constructed in A4 bonding.J '[ Fhe use of bricks
set at an oblique angle, as in bonds Al 7 and A18, is infrequent in Dynast ic buildi ngs, but becomes more common in
Ptolemaic and Roman architecture, examples being recorded from Medinet Habu 11 and Annant . 12
Bonds AI2 t o Al 5 were or iginally published in Temples ofAnnant , by D.H. Myers, and are said t o have been found
in the tombs at that site. 13 Unfor tunately, these tombs were never pu hlished, since t he second volume of the ceme teries
did not appea r, so it is no t possible to say precisely where th ese bonds were used. I have no t fou nd any exampl es of bonds
A13, AI4 or AI 5 at any othe r sites, but this is probably due t o t he scanty records of brick bonds in publicat ions, and the
fact th at I was only able to examine a limit ed number of sites myself. Bond A12, however, exists in buildings of the
Thir tieth Dynast y at Saqqara"
A10 bonding is foun d in the pyramid-temples of Mycerinu s at Giza, IS and in Late-Period buildings at Saqqara,
and may have been in fairly common use throughout Dynasti c times. A characteri stic arra ngement of t he bricks at
the corners is associ ated with AlO bonding, although it does occur in other systems, particularly at the angles of
the separate pane ls in un dul ating enclosure-walls (Plates
In Graeco-Roman bu ildings . greate r use was ma de of Class C bonds than previ ously, and the number of differen t
arr angements in thi s group is increased. Th is t rend contin ues int o Coptic archi tectu re, in which Class C bonding
becomes very common , and results in a decrease in the use of bonds A1, A2 and A3, although these still remain
in regular use. Bonds of types Band D appea r in brickwork of late Roman age, as do the complex systems ACI and
ADI. 16 Some of t hese more complex bonds had a deco rat ive purpose, a technique t ot ally absent from Egyptian
brick building prior t o this period, all the earlier work bei ng hidden under a t hick coat of plaster. The increasing
taste for decorat ion in brickwork is also seen in t he inserti on of patterns of red bu rnt -brick into the walls of Coptic
houses. The spread of t he new forms of bonding is mos t ma rked in walls of mode rate thickness, and the great ternple-
enclosures of the Graeco-Roman Period lire still constructed in Class A bonding. 11
In the const ruction of arches and vault s a number of different bonds occur, some of which last throughout Egyptian
hist ory, whilst others are shor t-lived. Types cl and d 1. which first appe ar in the Archaic Period, belo ng t o th e former
group , being in very common use at all pe riods!" Small arches of x I or c I form are foun d in the subst ructures of pit-
graves of all ages afte r t he Thi rd Dynast y. From th e Old Kingdom to th e Late Peri od, thick arches of several rings of
brickwork were usu ally built in th e composite bonds cdl, cxl or cxz. alt hough some examples were entirely construc ted
in c l bo nding. The bonds bel and bd l also occur, but far less frequently. Very rare are the arr angements fl and fd l ;
the only exa mples of t he former are in the tomb of Jw-i b-Rr Hor at Dashu r.P' and the lat ter is recorded from a t omb
of the Fift h Dynast y at Mat mar.
19
In Gracco-Roman buildings, the systems al , d2, f2 and e l come into use, but only e l Iasts int o t he Byzantine Period
The composite bonds bd 1, be1, cd1 and ex 1 are no longer used to form very thick arches, but occur regularly in arches
and vaults of t wo or three courses in domestic architecture. Stro ng arches, such as those in the enclosure-wall of the
Temple of Dendera, are const ruc ted enti rely in cl bonding.
A brie f summ ary of the chr onological distinct ions between t he different types of arches and vault s is includ ed in t he
list below, where similar informat ion for the bonds of walls and other st ructu res is given (page 138) .
There is a difficulty concer ning the bond a2, published by Myers in Temp les of Amlant.
20
Thi s arch is no t recorded
to have been used in th e Coptic Town at that sit e.
2 1
and therefore it must be derived from the tombs whi ch were intended
for publication in Cemeteries ofAmlQll! , II, a volume which never appeared. Consequently, it is not possible t o assign a
dat e to t he use of the bond 012, since I have no t found any ot her exa mple of this ty pe of arch.
9. G. iIID/" 1 ( 193 7) . P1. 4a .
10. Roeder, G. , H ermupulis, 1929-39,9 & PU 2.
11. Ho lsc her, U., R.M.H. , V, l'ls.24-S.
12. Mo m' . R. & Myers . O. H. Temples of A rmant; 13.
13, ibid. , 39 and l'r efac e, PI. XXXIV.
14. s ee not e 19 3 " n 1'.72.
IS. [{d ,ner, G. A.., Myee,il/ wI, 89-90.
16. Mon". R. & Myers, O. H., J. 50-2 ; III , PLCXII.
17. An to t his r ule is t he R"ma n t he Tem pl e of Amun & t hat
of Am un-he arer-of-penycrs, Karna k.
18. Oc J. , F aull/ e.ra Dac!wur, Mars-Juin, 1 11 94,89. FiI:". 20 S.
19. Bru nl nn, G., MI1/ma" Pl. XIX.
20. Mun d. R. & Myers, O. H Temples of Armal/f, Pl. XXXVI.
21. ma: 36--48.
137
J1. Ricke, H.. Da5 User ka{, I. Plan 6.
138
Bond
Xl
X2
Al A2 A3
A4
ASA7 AS
A6
A9
AIO
All
Al 2
A13-AI 5
AI 6
A17- A18
BI
82 B3 84 Irregular
Oass C
CI
C2 C3 C4
CS
C6 C7 C8
0 102
ACI ADI
CEI
atd2e lf2
cd lcx lcx2
bel bd l
bxl
x l
Brick Bonds and Chro nology Dating on presen t evidence
Fairl y common at all pe riods in t hin walls. Only bond possible in wall
thi ckness of 0.5.
Not common, but examples occur at widely separated periods. Frequent
in door-bloc king.
Extremely common at all periods. bu t reduced slight ly in late Roman
and Coptic buildings by increasing use of Class C bonds.
Late-Period, not common.
Archaic Period : common in Upper Egypt. especially at Naga ed-Der.
Some AS persists in Old Kingdom. but is rare late r.
Archaic Period. especial ly Dynasti es II-III. f airly common in rnastabas .
Old and Middle Kingdoms: not common. More frequent in Gr aeco-Roman
mud-brick construction.
Examples in Old Kingdom and Late Period. Probably in use at all times,
but not very common.
Only recorded in the enclosure wall of Saqqara Tomb 3357. of the First
Dynasty.
Thirtieth Dynasty. Also earl ier at Armant(page 137).
Only recorded at Ann ant , date uncert ain (page 137) .
New Kingdom. rare .
Late Period and Graecc- Roman: not uncommon. Bricks occasionally
were set obliquely in earlier work, but only as rough irregu larities.n
Roman. Occurs infrequently at earlier periods . but only in door-blackings
and similar struct ures.
Roman. Type 83 also occurs in Copt ic buildings.
Common in Graeco-Roman and Cop tic peri ods. One example in the
Nine teenth Dynasty.
Extr emely rare in Dynas t ic brickwork. (One example from the Archaic
Period and one from Dyn ast y XXX)_Becomes increasingly common
in Graeco- Roman buildings and by Coptic times it occurs mor e frequentl y
then Class Abonding.
Late Roman and Coptic. Fairly common.
First Dynasty. in mas tabas at Saqqara. (This bond may not exist. see page 136).
Lat e Roman and Coptic: C6 fairly commo n, so.
Late Roman: not common.
Late Roman: not common.
First Dynast y. (Only one example).
Arches and Vaults
Only recorded from Greece- Roman buildings. except for et , which
conti nues int o t he domestic architecture of the Byzant ine Period.
Only one examp le of type f2 is known.
Regularly used in thick arches from Ol d Kingdom t o the Late Period.
Also in small arches at all periods. Type cd l is common in Oraeco-Roman
houses.
Used occasionally in thick arches in the New Kingdom. Few instances in
tomb subst ruct ur es of the Middle Kingdom. Common in Graeco- Roman
and Coptic houses.
Common in small arches in Graeco-Roman and Cop tic architecture, Rare
in Dynastic buildings.
Common from the Old Kingdom onwards. Used over wide spans in Gr ecco-
Roman buildi ngs.
From the informat ion given above tr can be seen that t he bonding of the bric kwor k is of some value in establishing
the date of Egypt ian buildi ngs. The most useful feat ures are the t ransit ion from Class A bonds to Class C in the Graeco-
Roman Peri od. and the introducti on of new bonds in the later Roman age. A difficult y is created by t he very frequent
and long-lived use of AI.:\2 and A3 bonding. which makes them of lit tle use for dating purposes. Howeve r. by combining
all th e informat ion co ncerning bonding. bric k sizes, and types of mortar and plaste r it is usually possible t o assign buildings
to a particula r per iod. even if the brick bond alone is not distinctive.
Bond
b l
c l
ez
dl
n
fd l
Arches and Vaults
Uncommon at all periods.
Very common from t he Third Dynasty onwards, in small and large arches.
Only one example recorded, in an Old Kingdom lomb at Dashur. ( page 28) .
Extremely common at all periods from the laic First Dynasty. Used in
small and large vaults. the largest spans being foun d in t he New Kingdom.
Only two examples recorded, in Ihe lomb of King He r at Dashu r.
Only one example recorded, in a t omb of the Fif th Dynast y at Matmar
( page 137).
139
Fig. 89 Burnt brick set in comer of
mud-brick watl:
Burnt bric k appears as a construct ional material in two tombs of the Twentieth Dynast y at Nebesheh." and in .a wall
of pre-Saite times at Dctfeneh. 9 From t he Twenty-Fi rst Dynast y, t he use of burn t brick increases, t he following examples
being recorded:
SPECIAL BRICKS
Burn t Brick
I. poet , T. ~ ~ &. Loa1, w.LS. , Cemeteries nf A byuos, Ill . 1 7 & PI.l.
2. Gar3la ug.. J MaIIlJ$J .a all d Brr Klralla{, 7.
3. Emer y. w. 8. , A,cllalc Egypt. 1Sa.
4. Dunh, m, D. Second Cfltaracr Forts, II. It 9. 148.
So Borc hardl. 1- crat . ZAS 70 ( 1934), 2 5-- 35.
6. Borchardt .. t al. . 0 ,," cit . :J2-).
7. see rp. 1)2.
So p.,t r ie, W.M.F., TanLl, 11. Nebeslrclr & Dc/leI/eli. 1S-9.
9. Ibid., 5 So
CHAPTER FIFTEEN:
The use of burnt bric k in Egypt did not become common until the Roman Period. but there issufficient evidence
to show t hai the material was known from a very early date, although used infrequentl y. Long bars of baked clay
were employed in the Predyna stic grain-kilns at Abydos 1 and Mahasna,
2
and , while these cannot be called bricks,
they show a knowledge of t he effect of baking on ord inary mud. It is impossible that the early Egyptians were
unaware of the fact tha t mud-bricks cou ld be hardened by burn ing, since they could have observed t his process in
any building which, by accident or design. was gutt ed by fire. Several examples of this accidental prod ucti on of
burnt brick occur in the large First Dynast y to mbs at Saqqa ra. ldue to the ir having been burnt by plun derers, and
similar cases must have been fairly commo n. However, we have, as yet, no evidence thai t he Egyptians deliberately
prepared burnt bricks fo r use in buildings during t he Archaic Period or the Old Kingdom, the earliest examples of
thei r use being in the Middle Kingdom for tresses in Nubia, in whi ch they were used as paving-slabs." These slabs,
which measure 30 x 30 x Scm, were employed because of their greater resistance 10 wear and to damp, compared
wi th mud brick.
No more inst ances of the use of burn t brick are recorded until the time of t he New Kingdom, when the y occur
in conjunction wit h funer ary cones in the superst ruct ures of lambs at Thebes. 5 The ordinary cones were t he wrong
shape to be fin ed at the cor ners of t he frieze above the lomb entrance, and so rectangular burnt bricks. stamped with
the name and titles of the tomb-owner, were used in t heir place (Plat e 37). These bricks were also set in t he angles of
the mud-brick superstruct ure. inde pendently of the fune rary cones , for which pur pose they were made in the form
of 3 wedge, so that they would project from t he corner and display the inscripti on.
6
(Fig.89). However, this was not
the only reason for t heir presence, since the project ing burnt bricks were also intended to protect the angle of the
softer mud- brick wall. Such protection was unnecessary in tomb architecture. and this practice seems to be a slavish
copy of a techique which was employed in domestic buildings," to prevent damage to the corners of houses by the
passage of t raffic in t he streets. The reinforcement of house corners was usually formed of wood, and examples are
known from t he Middle Kingdom and the Graeco-Roman Period, alt hough the techn ique may well have been in use
at other dat es. In funerary architect ure, where the intenti on was decorati ve rat her t han functional, burnt bricks were
substit uted for wood, since they could be easily inscribed. Most of the private stamps on bricks arc derived from t his
usage (page 146 and Plate 37).
140
' 41
Tail-bricks
Bricks of Special Shape
73
SO
56
91
98
98
77
74
52
74
Page
u'"
Floor of private house .
Floor of house IV.
Walls of Takeloth shri ne
Walls of Osorkon II chapel. 10
Stairs in building of Tuhurqa by Sacred Lake.
Floor in t omb 20b.
Osiris ceno taph of Neche.
Burnt brick plaque s against face of encl osure wall
of Mont u temple.
Und erground tombs.
Ramp of tomb 31 in the Baqaria.
Walls around baths in the Sanatorium.
Suwa
Armant
Dendera
Medinet Habu
Medinct Habu
Karnak
Karnak
Karnak
Medinet Habu
Karnak
Karnak
Locat ion
XXVI-Pt a!'
Alexander I
early Ptcl.
Date
XXI
XXII
XXII
XXII
XXV
XXV
XXVI
pre-XXX
Burnt brick occurs mor e frequently in t he arch itecture of the Gracco-Rornan Period, but it does not become
common unt il t he second half of the First Century. All the earlier examp les of its use, quoted above, show that
burnt brick was usually employed in places expos ed to excessive wear or damp, such as floo rs and underground
construc tions, whil st for general buildin g pu rposes, ordinary mud-bricks were quite satisfactory. The same con-
siderati ons affect the use of bu rnt bri ck in Roman and Coptic houses, for although the material is more common ,
it is still rest ricte d t o floors, thresholds, stairs, con duits and baths, and does not occur t o any large extent in
ordinary house -walls. Thi s shows that burnt brick was only employed in the domestic buildings of t his period
when there was some distinct advantage to be gained from it , and the re can be no doubt that the examples of
its use from Dynastic times were mot ivate d by the same reasons. In t he religious or official monuments of the
Roman Period such rest rictions on the use of burnt bri ck were not observed, and the entire structure could be
composed of this material, as shown by buildings at Al exandria and Thebes. II It is quite common to fin d mixe d
constr uct ion in buildings of Roma n and Coptic date, with bu rnt bricks appe aring singly or in groups in,a mud-brick
wall. but this is pro bably due to th e builders making use of those mat erials which were most read ily available.
However, in a few cases, especially in Coptic and Byzantine architecture. the insertion of burnt bri ck into the wall
had a decorat ive purpose, as in houses at Medinet Habu 11and Edfu. 13 In the latter example , the burnt bri cks form
the outer cou rse of an arch over a window, whilst the inner course is formed of mud brick.
From the foregoing, it must be concluded tha t bu rnt brick was known in Egyp t at all peri ods, but use d only
when its durabili ty would give particular advan tages over mud brick . In Roman and Coptic t imes this rule is still
partly t rue, bu t only in domest ic architecture, since burnt br ick was used more extens ively in Roman offi cial and
religious buildings.
The Egyptians made use of a wide range of specially-shaped bric ks for certain purposes, such as t he bu rnt frieze-
bricks described above (page 140) and the square paving-slabs deseussed in Chapter 10. The majority of special
bricks, however, occur ill the const ruct ion of arches and vaults , the commonest type being the thi n brick empl oyed
10. 11., ASA lIS! (195 1), 554.
11. " bove, pp. 79- 80. 89.
12. Hol,eller, u, r.M.H., V,47.
13. ":lich alow"ki, I<. .,t al , TeIlEd/ou, 1Tl, (1 939), I S.1-4.
14. La uer, J.Ph. , ASAH SS ( 19 58), 207- SI. O t her e"3mplcs: LE.
HxcawtioIlJ af Saq' I'Jr<l, 19 12 4.223,36-7.
These bricks arc composed of yellow desert gravel (tajl) and sand, with littl e of no addition of chopped st raw.
They are usua lly of small size. and are fou nd in the construct ion of pr ivate tombs in deser t ceme teries and, to a
lesser ex tent, in houses. Small and medium-sized mastabas of the Archaic Period and Old Kingdom are some times
built ent irely of taj7-bricks, a good example being the tomb of Sebekemkhent at Saqqara. 14 It is common to find
lafT and mud-bricks mixed in the cons tru ction of a single tomb. The use of these bricks in small tombs, and t heir
absence fro m large offici al or religious buil dings, suggests that they were made as required on the desert t o avoid
the labour of bringing mud bricks from a dist ance. Buildings const ructed of taj7-bricks usually have mor tar and plaste r
of the same ma terial.
for vault s of d l form. These bricks are cf various sizes at different periods. but th e rati o of the length : breadth:
thickness is 6:3 : 1. as compared with 6 :3 :2 for ordi nary bricks. The reason for making the bricks thinner th an usual
was to red uce the ir weight. so that they woul d be sufficiently light to be held in position by the morta r during the
const ruction of inclined vaults. To help improve the cohes ion of the mortar, the bricks are scored on the large faces
with several grooves. as shown in Plate 538. Some bricks of this type have their long sides of unequal length. so that
they assume a wedge-form bett er suited to th e construc tion of vaults (Fi g. 90). Thin bricks are also common in vaults
of type x l , but in this case they are not really necessary, since such vault's were built over temporary cent ring.
Fig.90 Special type of Brick found ill dI vaults:
In the vault d2. which does not come into use until the Graeco-Roman Period, thi n, square burnt -bricks meas uri ng
26 x 26 x 7cm were employed . I "Special bricks of true voussoir form were used in el vaults, which are also of Graeco-
Roman da le. 16
An interesting series of vault-bricks has been found in tombs of the Ol d Kingdom at Giza, 17 but the specia l shape
of t hese examples is par tly decorative in int ent. The bricks are curved on one edge to a semicircular or qua dran t form.
so that when assembled in a vault they produce t ransverse ribs on t he interior of t he roof. in imitat ion of a vault of
dried reeds. 18Three differen t kinds of such bricks arc shown in Fig.9 1. with t heir dimensions. Types I - II were intended
for use in dl vaults. but t ype III was used in arches of c l form.
Fig. 91 Speciel Vauh-Bricks frem Tombs at Giza.
's
II
'0
[,
III
n
In tomb 3033 at Giza. these moulded bricks are fur the r specialised by having a projection at each end . 50 as to
interlock wi th each other 19( Fig.92 ). Details of the vaulting forme d of these interlocking bricks are given on page 123.
Fig. 92 Interlocking Brick from Tomb ,1033
at Giza.
.2.2S
Special bricks were used for maki ng cornices above doorways and on pylons in the New Kingdom to mbs of Deir
el-Medina and Dira abu' l Naga. 20 These bricks are of fairly large size. so that t he front part could safely over hang t o
form the co rnice without risk of the brick falling (Fi g.93 on p. 143). Type III of this group was cer tainly intended for
use at corners. since it is moulded un Iwo sides.
Columns built or shaped bricks have been found in buildings or widely diffe ring age, but in some cases the
details of constructi on have not been repor ted. This is t rue of the columns in the temple storehouses at Amarna.
21
and the circular brick piers in the Milit ary Quar ters at the same silc.
J1
I 5. Mond, R. &. Myers, O. H.. Blfcll""" t 1. 1.
16. sota; In, PI.CXIlt.
17. C. Minor Gila, 6S. 106. 117. J unk" r . H.. a e e. rx. 14 ) .
B.ldJwy in Abu Bah, A M.. E;r. (/lvtlrlmuat GI:a, 1)(; 1.
I ll. Junk". beli eved l hal l he Vlull in,ilald wnnd en see II.. Gil4 I X. 14).
19. Fish" r. C . Til" Mino r lit Giza, 11$-7.
20. 8.. Ddr t:J..ut:dim'll. 19 24- 5. 39. tota; 19 ) 0, 30. Similar bri ck' o<:cu"..,.J in
runerary t"mr le or TUlh mO'ls III (See abov e, PJ>. 66 ).
'21. Po:n.Jle bury . J. n s.. Qt. eft}' of Akh""aren. nr. aa. 109.
22. Ibi d., I 32.
142
11
Fig. 93 Cornice-Bricks from Dei' et-Medina:
II
III

.'
,
1,5
31 .5

,
-
,
' "

"
Bricks of Exce p ti onal Si ze
A more unusual technique occurs in the Roman temple at Deir el-Hagar in Ed-Dakhlah Oasis. where the columns
are composed of segmental bricks, each making up one-fift h of the full circle. 25Such bricks are also known in quad-
rant form, in t he tomb-chapels of early Copti c nmes at El-Bagawat in Kharga,26whilst tri angular bricks were used in
columns in the Roman for t of Luxor.F' Tbe walls of Roman bath s were often built of hollow burnt bricks, so tha t the
heati ng air could be circulated thr ough th em (page 92).
Occasionally. bricks of unusual shape are found in a sit uation where t here is no st ructural reason for their use, an
example being the square bricks used in tombs of the Late Period at Sais (page 50). Ordinary Egyptian building-bricks
were always rectangular. the breadth being approxi mately equal 10 half the length, but in t he town sites near the
Asiatic frontier of Egypt square bricks become common aft er the Twenty-Second Dynasty . 28
Square bricks. measuri ng one cubit (52.3cm) along each side. were used for pillars in t he Old Kingdom mastaba
of Kaem-beser at Saqq:ua. :!: 3In Coptic bulldjngs at Medamud. lwo circular burnt bricks have been found
24
which
were intended for use in columns. and thei r dimensions are given in Fig.9-l. . The second example may have been
employed in a column with a taper ing shaft, because the diamet er of t he brick is greater at the base than at t he tcp.
Fig.94 Circular cotumu-Brtcks from Medamud.
In cert ain large mastabas of the Archaic Period. a special form of brick. of very small size, was employed in the
constr uction of th e palace-facade niches. 29These bricks do nol occur in all panelled rnastabas , and they vary in size
from one tomb to another, as shown in the list below:
Tomb
Naqada mastaba
Tarkhan 2050
Tarkhan 1060
Saqqara 3035
Saqqara 3506
Saqqura 2405
Saqqara 307 0
Giza T
Size of Bricks (em)
17 x 9x7
17.3 x 8.6 x 6.6
15 x 7 x 7
17x 5x5
15 x 7 x 7
14 x 7 x 7
lO x 5 x 5
15 x 7 x 6.5
23. Qui be ll, J. F. & Ibrl er . A.G. K.. l'yNl"'id. Nort!. 20-
24 . Biuon 111 R<XjllC, Y. 1927. 31-
2S. Winloc k. H.t::. . F.iJ.Odk.hkhQd$iJ H .
26. I'akhry. 1\. . EJ. RIIJ(OIW<lt in o...m. 22-3.
27. t..Jcau, 1' . , A SA F. 34 ( 1934), 18.
28. Petrie. \\' . M.}' A"'h"doll, 7. fd.. 1'Is. I X- XI. LXXII.
29 . ncraus of pa13c".. raca<le m:llabM arc ltivc n un 1'1' . 15-2 1.
143
The development of these bricks may be t raced as follows: They were int roduced to deal with the problem of
building t he complex niches of Archaic mastabas, and fi rst used at Naqada, in the ir larger size of 17cm long. They are
absent from t ombs of t he reign of Djer , but appear in two sizes under Uadji at Tarkhan, and in t ombs of the reign of
Udimu at Saqqara. After Udimu t hey fall out of use as the palace facade itself disappears towards t he end of the Fi rst
Dynasty. The revivals of th e panelled mastaba in the Archaic Period use bricks of similar dimensions to the small er of
the f irst Dynasty sizes, except in t omb 3070 at Saqqara. The two ID.eSwhich appear regularly are ] 7 x 9 x 7cm ami
15 x 7 x 7cm, whi ch. allowing for the roughness of the material and the probable approximatio n of the measurements ,
may represent 1/3rd x 1/6t h cubits and 2 x 1 palms respectively for the length and brea dth . An examination of the
met rology of the palace facade is given in Appendix I.
Some ext remely large br icks occur in Egypt, but all the examples have been found loose, so it is not known for what
purpose t hey were int ended. Several bricks near the mastaba of Iynefer at Dashur ]Ohad t he staggering size of 1.10 x D.56
x 0.3Om, which means t hat their weight must be in the region of 230kg. Engelbach reco rds finding thr ee bricks in the
shaft of tomb 305 at Riqqeh. Ueach measuring 71 x 35 .5 x 3D. 5cm. and other examples have been foun d at Abydos,] 2
61 x 30.5 x I I .Scm in size. All these bricks would be too heavy and inconvenient for no rmal usc, so they were probably
made specially to fulfill a pa rt icular purpose, of which we have, as yet, no kn owledge. The largest bric ks which occur in
buildings are 53cm in length. or one Egyptian cubit, and exampl es of t heir use have been foun d in monuments of the
Old Kingdom at Saqqara aaand Naqada.
34
Bricks with Roy a l or Official Stamps :
The practice of stam ping mud bricks wit h a royal name, or with the name of the building in which t hey wer e to be
used, begins in the early Eighteenth Dynas ty and continues regularly un tit t he Nineteent h, after which it appears mor e
inte rmittently down to the Twenty-Sixth. Most brick stamps give on ly t he name of the Pharaoh, but some bea r t he name
of th e queen also. The names are wri tten inside a simple oval. or in a t rue cartcuche. but the re is no chronological
distinction between t he two types. The High-Priests of the Twenty-First Dyna sty sometimes enclosed their names in
a rectan gular frame instea d of a carto uche. Stamps giving t he names of buildings are frequentl y written inside t he
rectangular enclosur e. which occasionally for ms the hieroglyph for hwt "mansion", and is then to be read as pari
of the inscript ion.
Drawings of a large nu mber of st amps are given in Plat es 21 36 , and alth ough every effort has been made to
include all the published stamps, the list cannot be claimed to be exhaust ive, since 1ha...e not attempted 10 give the
many unp ublished bricks now in various collections.
The earliest stamp which I have been able t o find is t hat of Amosis I, on the bricks from his cenotaph at Abydos.
3 S
II is st range that the practice should begin so suddenly, without any previous occ urrence, no t even in the large brick
monuments of the Middle Kingdom. ]6 TIle Eighteen th Dynasty bricks occur mainly at Thebes. especially in the
mortuary temples. Under Tuthmosis I. not only do bricks of the Pharaoh himself occur, but also of t:le Prince wacjmose.
all the examples having been found at Deir cl-Mcdina. No bricks of Tut hmosis II have yet been discovere d, but th is
may be due to his short reign and the dest royed slate of his mortua ry temple, Hats hepsut has a varie ty of stamps,
derived from her Valley Temple at Deir el-Bahari and from the Small Temple of Mcdin ct Habu. One example has
a joint inscription of he rself and Tut hmosts I. The stamps of Tuthmosls 1Il are found at Nnqada and Gurob as well
as at Thebes. There is consi derable re-use of bricks from his mortua ry temple in lat er tombs at Qumu . at [he Rames-
scum and at Medinet Habu. The name of the funerary temple is given on several bri cks from iLS enclosure wall as
MII-I!pr-rc rnlj.Onc example, found re-used at Mcdinet Habu, gives t he name or a building as .'\'sp
mri l mn. which must refer to some unknown temple in t he Thcbau distric t. Apan from the listed stamps of Tuthmosls
III. t here are t wo unpublished bricks in the Met ropolitan Museum of Art , New York. which read MIl -lj pr-rr- li b pflt)'
and ft/I1-ljpr-rr wt st. J7
3a. Bars.tnll, _...... ASA f-' 3 ( 190Z). 20...
]1 . En(':clhach . R. &: fe l ri., W.M.F &, Yr.).
]2. p.,lrie. W.M. F. , A bydQ.l 11, 50. 52..
3] . S above, r. 27
]4. p.,lric. w. M. F.. lIiaqada ""d Sollla.r. 66.
] 5. Rd ...rences 10 I lI l he ruhll.hcd hr ic h ue given 0" lh e P13I......
36. The Inscripnon In Wll ki n, on MSS, I, 143, (; I'M, V. 19 1) isccrla l"ly no t from a brick.
hut mol Ybe fr o m a rHu,,<lall o n der ooil phq lJ" o f r.
37. Hayes, W.e., Til e Sup,e, of t:;Kypf, II, 120. Per hl "o i ne , l am" N... 17 (Pl 24 ) is a, 1e"n r
for the lat t er o f .. e xa mples.
144
145
Two problematical copies have been glven
38
of a damaged stamp of Amenhotep II, as shown below:
The problem here is the lacun a at the top of the inscription, where Lepsius wrote htp (?) and Quibell doubtfully
suggested r'{lm Recent disco veries suggest that the reading given by Quibell is prob ably corre ct, as a similar inscript ion
has bee n found on re-used bricks of Amenh otep 11 fro m t he t omb of Tjanuni at Thebes, although in this case the
sign t::::I: does not occ ur. 39
Brick-stamps conti nued under Tuthmosis IVand became very elaborat e in the reign of Amenhotep III. who added
the name of Tiyi to some examples. An interesting stamp of this king is number 32 (Plate 26), which is almost certainly
from his funerary temple, alt hough it was found re-used at Dclr el-Medina. The semi-cryptogr aphic writ ing dece ived
Bruyere, who labelled the inscription "inconnu" ,40and the epithet Ill')' Sokar is paralleled in the canoucbe on t he
back of the southernmost of the Memnon The inscribed bric ks from Malqata show elaboration in th e forms
of the stamps and have references to the ' House of Rejoicing in t he Hou se of Amun'. Two examples of this reign come
from Nub ia, the only Eighteenth Dynast y stamps so far discovered in t hat province.
The stamped bricks of t he Amarna Period give t he names of Akhenaten, Nefert iti and Smenkhka re, as well as the
names of bu ildings at Amama. A few bri cks of Akhen aten have been found at Thebes. mos tly loose. or re-used in late r
structures, A detail ed study of all the Amarna bricks has been made by H.W. Fairman in Oly o{Aknmaten, II, and
t he provenance of each type is t here given.
The two inscribed bricks of Ay (59- 60) bear t he name of his mortuary temple, from which they originally came,
befor e being re-used by Ramesses JTI at Medinet Habu.
In the Nineteen th Dynast y, there are no known bricks of t he ephemeral Ramesses I, but his successor Set! has his
name on bricks at Abydos and Amara West . The only other king t o possess stamps in this dynasty is Ramesses 11. whose
bricks occur at Thebes and Mat mar. The majorit y of his Th eban bric ks originate from the Ramesseum. although lat er
re-use carried (hem t o different areas. The name of t he Ramesseum is given as {nl'f wtr-mr rt-rr stp-n-rr , {nl'f wsr-mrrt-
rr stp-n rr m pr I mn. and !/ lI'f IVsr-mJ ct-r r sip-n-rc !;IllIl l / Il') There are four examples which give t he name wsr-mr r t-rr
with out rhe epit het ssp-n-rc; these belong t o the period of Ramesses' co-r egency with Seti J.
The Twentiet h Dynasty. rather inexplicably. has produced not a single stamped brick, not even from the large
monuments of Ramesses 1Il. However, t he cus tom re-appears in the Twen ty-First Dynasty, and ISused both by
Psusennes I and the High-Priests PinuJjem and Ienkheperrc. There is the name of lstemkheb, Leading Lady and Chief
of the llurim of Amun, on the bricks of Pinudjem, and ano ther lsremkhcb wit h the same titl e occurs in the brick-stamps
of Menkhcperre. These ladies are probably 10 he identified as Istemkhcb A and Istemkheb C. the wives of Pinudjem I
and Mcnkheperrc respectively. 43
The bricks of Menkheperrc are of interest in that the y occur not only in temples but also in fortresses at El-Hibeh,
Shurafa and Gebelein. Bricks bea ring his name from Gcbelein have bee n long known,44 bu t it is not generally recognised
tha t a separate fortress stoo d on each of the t wo hills al th is point, North of the village of Sheikh Moussa both containing
stamped bricks of Menkheperr c.
4s
Aft er the Twenty-First Dynast y t here are very few examples of roy al stamps on bricks. on ly those of Shabaka and
Neche bei ng recorded, apart from an illegible stamp from Mcdlnet Habu. (96) However, some Twenty-Fift h Dynasty
examples of the stamps themselves have been discovered, belonging to Shabaka and Shebitku. The Shabaka stamp (94)
is made of copper, wi th a handl e on the back. whilst that of Shcbifku is of stone. and bears the king' s prenomen Djed-
ka-ra. (95)
46
Evidently the stamps could be made of various materials . since ano ther example, in t he Brit ish Museum, is
formed of wood. 47
38. L. D., (II, 62. quibell, J. L:., TIt#! I'LXL
39. Ur. c k, 1\., D<U T;<I'1unl. 61-3. Abh. 18lnd PlA9 e.
40. H. , De/r el-M"<limh, 1934-5,24.
41. 1lI, t 42.
42. Fronl<forl , H. & Pendl" bur y, J. D. S. , Ci ry of Akl,enutrn, ll , 1so.
43. Kilch en, K.A., Tllird ' '''..nrreduW! J'<orlod. 615.
44. Ga ul hier, H., Livre J ..s R ois, 111. 267.
45. Informa ti"'" kin dl y .... pf' lied by Bern..r d V. 8 ul hm C1".
46. Cupies 94-5 (1'1.36) are "'"rived fr o m Ihe'" "nd "re, Iherefure, ...es,
47. n. M. 5993.
a
W
I I I

Quibell
Lcpsius.
o
e-ec>
!i!
III
"c
Fig.95 Copies of Stamp of Amcnnotep II.
In conclusion, it may be said t ha i the custom of impressing roya l names on bricks was only consistent in the Eigh-
teent h Dynast y, in which it began, and after tha t t ime it declined , despite occasiona l transitory revivals. The purpose of
the custom is not easy t o see, except in the case of stamps which give the name of a buildi ng; t hese were inte nd ed for use
in t he building of that name, alt hou gh they could find th eir way int o other struct ures.r" Bricks bearing only a royal
canouche are more di fficult t o explain: it cannot signi fy t hat they were struckin royal brickyards, otherwise the
pract ice would occur more regularly ; probably it is a way of emphasising the king' s involvement in t he cons t ruction of
t he ent ire fabric of the building. In t his case, like much in Egypt ian architect ure, it would be a symbolic cust om, since
the inscription on the br icks would not be visible once t hey had bee n built t ogether.
Bricks with St amps of Privat e Individuals:
Inscript ions of private per sons can occu r on t he decor ative frieze-bricks fro m Th eban t ombs 4 9 or on ordinary
buil ding-bricks, but t he former t ype are by far the commoner. The frieze-bricks are usually stamped with the name
and titles of the owner of the tomb, and the inscription is very often ident ical t o that on the funer ary cones. In many
cases, the stamp occurs severa! times upon a single bri ck, normally on th e sides and ends, since the inscription was
intended t o bevisible {Plat e 37).
The occurrence of private stamps on buildi ng-bricks is not common. These bricks are composed of unbaked mud
and t hey hea r the inscription on the upper surface, usually surro unded by an o...al or rectangular frame. One example,
copied by Lepstus, has the name of the owner enclosed in a canoucbe, but thls may be an epigraphic 38).
As in the case of official stamps, the inscript ions on these bricks would behidden once they had been used for building.
The practice of placing stamps of private individuals on bric ks probably originated from imit ation of the royal inscribed
bricks, and it is int erest ing to no te that all t he known examples seem to come from Thebes. Although many of t hese
bricks ha...e been fou nd out of t heir or iginal loeations, the style of t he inscriptions .shows clearly t hat t hey were used in
tomb-const ruct ion. A nu mber of typical stamps are drawn on Plate 38. No private inscribed bricks are earlie r in date
tha n the New Kingdom,SI wi th the except ion of a si ngle brick from the tomb of Neferma at at Meydum. .. vhich bore the
name of the owner, roughly inscribed by the finger. s2The fact that the inscription was not applied by mean s of a stamp
places thi s brick in a separate category from those described above.
4 8. AI Amam a, bri c ks wil h sta mp int t"ndet.l for t he Small Tem" le. were fOllnd ;n t he
Royal mal n;n"" 1,"" ls Quarters an d Ihe };as t bl. ock or Gnv"rn menl
49. see pp. 140.
so. L.D. T.. tit . 2S0.
st. t::xcludinr ink on I he hri c ks in M.K. pyumid ...
S2. Pel ri e, W. M. I ., M e.1'(I ,.,., & J/t"mphis 1tI. 4 & P1.XX. 2.
146
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: BRICK SIZES
TIle dimensions of Ancient Egyptian bricks have considera ble value for dating purposes, provided tha t they are
used inteUigcntly and in conjunct ion with all the other available architectural evidence. It is not suffici ent to take
measurements of t he bricks in a building and simply assign the struct ure to a period at which similar sizes occur,
since t he same size may appear at several different dates. The chronological value of brick sizes was denied by
Jdquier, who gave a list of examples to illustra te his argument , but his opi nion is invalidated because he has for gott en
to convert all hi s examples to tile same system of measurement. I The same kind of criticism has been voiced by
othe r archaeologists, because t hey have expec ted to find a simple corr elation betwe en the dimensions of the bricks
and their dat e, which is not the case. Brick sizes are not only dependent upon date, but also upon the type of build-
ing in whi ch the bricks occur. Throughout most of Egyptia n history the bricks fall into two groups: ( 1) Large bricks,
used in major public works, and (2) Small bricks, intended for houses and small private tombs. Some overlapping of
the use of these two groups occu rs, and occasionally the large " official" brick is found in houses, and small bricks in
monumental buildings, but the separate use of the two types is fairly consistent. The occ urrence of large bricks in
ordinary domestic buildings is usually due t o their re-use from offi cial struct ures, an example being the employment
of bricks from the royal mortuary temples in private houses at Den el-Medina. 2: In this particular case, the official
bricks are about 40cm in length, and sometimes bear a royal stamp, whilst t he normal domestic bricks are most
frequently only 30 -33cm long. Dsfficultics occur when small bricks are found in an offi cial building, since it is
impossible 10 distinguish t hese from common domestic bricks. The existence of two groups of brick sizes is not
apparent in the Archaic Period or in late Roman and Coptic times, when the bricks for all purposes are of small
dimensions.
Different groups of sizes can be distinguished by plotting the lengths and breadths on a diagram of t he type
shown 0 11 Plat es 41- 43. This syst em was firsI devised by Petrie, "and has been used more recently in a study of
t he bricks at Mirgissa. 4 Ideally, it is desirable to plot t he meas urements 10 an accuracy of mulnner res. as Hesse has
pointed out, 5 since t his prevents the accumulation of a number of examples at one poin t. The vast majority of bric k
sizes recor ded from Egypt are only measured to th e nearest centimetre, or half-cen timet re at best, and until more
accurate values are obtained t hese dimensions have to suffice. Conseq uently, some of the points plot ted in t he
diagrams on Plates 4 1- 43 represent more t han one example. These dra..... ings illustrat e t he existence of separate
groups of sizes, usually dist ributed along t he line where the ratio of the length to the breadth is equal to 2: J . From
the Old Kingdom unt il t he Graeco-Roman Period there arc both large and small bricks, but t he bricks of t he Archaic
Period form a homogenous group. The graph of brick sizes on Plat e 4 2 shows the variati on of both t he large " official"
bricks and the small " domestic" type from t he Old Kingdom until the Coptic Peri od. Bet ween t he t wo groups t here
is some overlapptng.as shown hy the shaded area on tbe graph, where it is impossible to assign bricks [ 0 either class.
This kind of graph does 110 t really give a very accurate pictu re, becau se the number of available examples varies at
different periods, but it docs at least show a general trend. Bricks of except ionally large size. such as the cubit-bricks
of the Old Kingdom, have been deliberately exclude d from th e graph, since t hey would create a false impression on the
basis of a handful of examples. The basic patt ern of Egyp tian brick sizes is as follows: the bricks of the Arch aic Period
arc all small. t hen comes an increase in size unt il the Middle Kingdom, followed by a fluct uation until the Twent y-
Sixt h Dynasty, afte r whic h there is a decrease unt il modern times. There is chronological value in the variation of t he
sizes, especially when they are used in conjunction with the information on bonding given in Chapter 14. Brick sizes are
also valuable in the st udy of t he monuments of a single ancient site, since they can be used to distingui sh. t hose buildings
which are contemporaneous, and whet her there has been any re-useof the bricks. The great number of brick measure-
ments deri ved from the tombs of Oau. Maun ar and Most agedda
6
have been ploned on t he diagrams shown in Plates
43- 44. Throughout the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. the bricks atall t hree sites fall wi thin a limit ed
range of srze. 7 but a number of larger bricks appear in t he NewKingdom graves at Matrnar. Probably these large bricks,
1. J li' IUiN. ( l. , MUltli d Egyp rilmne. I, ,14- 5.
2. 0. , Dei , " P .'!f.'di!,,,h, 19 34 S. & 24] 335 Il urr hn
3. Petrie. W. M.F Bffhp,kr. I, 2 1 &. !'I<.. LXlJ l.
4. A. h, Vcrcuu ll er. J Mi'll l,ull, I. 10 2 14.
s . ibi,L. 104. Tb.. lise o f d iagnml u f Ihi.'l kind erso helps I" Ollt
err " r, hy shri n kage ur Ih,' hr ie k!i.
6. See the Tu m b R"t: i' lc "," p uhlisheJ in I!ru nton, G., Qa.. lind BQdQrl, ]. 111; Ma l"''' ' . an d MO$tagt ddtl,
7. Th" 25 ,. 12: ,. 7cm rtom a tomb o f the Ftrsr fntC1lTl edial .. .... n od at .'.' at mar"
almost ,,,n:o; nly the resu lt o f r... usc o f blicks fro m an Archuie tomh. Se e Brunt on, G., Matmc.r. 4 1.
147
especially those over 38cm in length. were re-used from official buildings in the vicinity. (Bricks in the Temple of
Matrnar: 45 x 20 x IDemand 36 x 16 x 8cm) At Oau, the sizes are very much the same at all periods, probably due
to extensive re-use of the bricks of the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate graves. and no large bricks comparable
to those at Matmar occur. The sizes of the bricks in the Late-Period tombs strongly suggests that they were generally
re-used from earlier graves. or , in some cases at Matmar, from the monument al buildings of the New Kingdom. II need
hardly be stat ed that it is most important to detect the re-use of bricks when collecting examples for chronological
study.
148
APPENDIX I ' METROLOGY OF EGYPTIAN BRICKWORK
The unit of measu rement most frequently employed in t he const ruction of bu ildings of the Pharaonic peri od
in Egypt was the Royal cubi t of t wenty-eight digits. a length equivalent 10 S2.4i::m. A considerable amount o f
deviatio n from this value occurs in many mud-brick st ruc t ures, although in cer tai n buildings t he dimensions can
be extremely accurate . as in th e py ramid of Sesost ra III at Dasher, the sides of which measu re 200 cubits of I
A good example of the range of variation in th e val ue of th e cubit is afforded by t he different lengths of the four
sides of the enclos ure wall around the mas raba of ldi at Dara,2 all of which were intended t o be 100 cubits :
North side
East side
South side
West side
52.S5m
53.32m
58.40
51.10m
In t he list below, a number of indu ctions arc stated, derived from various buildings. t o illustra te furt her t he different
standards of accu racy which occ ur.
149
I. Dc J., Oach o" r, .Har...J"j.,. 189 4 , 4 i.
2. w-ur 1(. & ,\1., Varo. 114.
a Petrte. W.M_F. , G/ ; t'h and N il l'h, 6.
4. Morella,d l. 1.-. 7-AS 36 (1 89 8). 104 5 . nd. PIs.XIVXVI.
The metrology of t he panelled mas tabas of the Archaic Period is interesting. but sat isfactory induct ions cannot
always be obtained for t he dime nsions of the various bu t tresses and recesses. There are diffi culties caused by errors
and approximations in the ancient const ruction and in the modern measurement s. Mastaba V at Giza had niches
wide, separated by butt resses 2.73m across, whi ch Pet rie considered t o be 100 and 150 t rue digits respectively. I However,
a length of 3'n cubits could also be a possibility for the widt h of the niches. The Naqada mastaba of Neit hhotep is
intended t o be 100 x 50 cubit s in sue, the values of the cubi t being 53.03-S3.28cm and 52 .25cm. Some of the internal
chambers also suggest cubit measur emen ts: the burial chamber is 14 x 12 cubits, and several of t he magazines arc 5 x 8Y.!
cubits. (Value of cubit e 52.6 and 52.4cm) Borchardt took the tot al widt h of the ma in niche plus t he but tress to be7*
cubhs. Sbut this does not agree well with t he overall size of the tomb. II seems that t he widths of the individ ual niches
and buttresses on the tong sides of t his t omb were no t t he same as on the ends. since the ratio between the length and
breadth is I :2, but the ratio be tween the number of niches on t he long and short sides is J3-'6_
Met ric Cubi ts Value (em)
53. 16x 26.1 IOO x 50 53. 16, 52.20
57.3 x 26.0 110 x 50 52. 1. 52.0
47.55 x 19.55 90x 37 52.8, 52.8
31. 75 x 15.85 60x 30 52.8, 52.8
104.9 x 104.9 200 x 200 52.45 , 52.45
130 x 130 250 x 250 52.0. 52.0
77.8 145 53.6
76.4 145 52.6
76.6 145 52.8
15. 5 30 51.7
20.9 40 52.25
10.6 20 53.0
10.84 20 54. 2
3.2 6 53.3
3.7 7 52.8
Thebes: Rarncsseum storehouses
Locat ion
Naqada mast aba
Saqqara t omb 3035
Saqqara tomb 3506
Saqqara tomb 3500
Pyramid of Scsost ris III, Dasher
' Edifice 101,' Dara
Enclos ure of South Pyrami d,
Mazghuneh. North
Eo"
West s. Sou th
Thebes: Stores of Merenptah
Funerary temple
The intended size of t he component parts of t he palace-facade can be deduced from t he t otal size of t he mastaba by
means of a simulta neous equation. in which x = the length of the large niche + that of t he butt ress and y = t he length of
the butt ress alone. This method not only shows the theoret ical size. but also reveals erro rs in ancient or modern measure-
ments, since the results can disagree wit h the published dimensions of the monuments. Th e examples below illustrate t he
method of calc ulat ion.
Example 1: Saqqara Tomb 3038.
Size of mastaba = 36.9 x 13.8m (mean values)
'" 70 x 26 cubits.
Let x = length of Recess + Butt ress.
Let y = length of Butt ress alone.
The mastaba has 9 recesses on the long sides, and 3 on the sho rt .
There fore 9x + y =70
3x+ y =26
Subt ract 6x = 44 The refore x=44 =7 J/3rd cubits.
6
Substit ut e for y: 66 +y == 70
22 +y '" 26 Therefore y = 4 cubits.
The butt ress is 4 cubits wide. the recess 7 1/3rd- 4 = 3 1/3rd cubits.
These results agree well wi th the observed measurements of the facade. (3 1/3rd cubi ts for 1.75m. value of
cubit '" 52.Scm.)
Example 2: Saqqara Tomb 3035.
Size of mastaba = 57.3 x 26;n == l 10 x 50 cubits.
The mastaba has 14 recesses on the long sides and 6 on the short.
Therefore 14x +y =110
6x + y = 50
Subt ract 8x = 60 Therefore x '" 60 = 7\oi cubits.
8
Substi tute for y: 105 + y == 110
45 +Y = 50 Therefore y '" 5 cubits.
The buttress is 5 cubits wide, t he recess - 5 = 2\oi cubits.
The results in thi s case are in disagreement wil ' , Emery's mcasnremcnu ! which allow 2.25m for the butt ress and
J.60m for t he recess, This kind of discrepancy frequently arises when th e lengths of the panelling are analysed in t his
way, as t he equation gives the theore tical, ideal dimensions, whereas the sizes of the niches on the monuments t hemselves
were almost cer tainly not ent irely regular, a nd were, t o some extent, infl uenced by t he sizes of the bricks. In those tombs
in which the dimensions of the panelling on the long sides di ffer Iro-i t hose along the ends. such as thc Naqada tomb, or
the mastabas at Tarkhan.
6
the equat ion cannot be applied. since it merely leads to an impossible result .
The de termination of the intended size of individua l bricks is even more difficult than the metrology of the palace-
facade. and it seems t hat most Egypt ian bricks were no t made to any standard size, but only with in a general range of
dimensions which varied with date. Only the cubit-bricks of the Old Kingdom show clearly that Ihey were made t o a
fixed size, being one cubit long and half a cubit across.
7(
52-53 x 26cm) These bricks also occur in col umns. in which
case they are a cubit square.t lt is virt ually impossible t o say anything definit e abou t the sizes of othe r bricks; t he very
common dimensions of 30 x IScm in domestic architecture may be 4 x 2 palms, which is the sort of format one would
expect t o find in such bu ildings, but t his is no more than a tentative suppositlon.?
5. Eme.,.. w.a, ThO' To... " o/ l1cmll lr."" J .
6. ....Iri e, W. M.F.. TII, lr.hllfl, n, 4 & t'LXVIII.
7. ""I r;." W.M. t'. , Naqflda ,Itld 66. Qu ibooU. J. E. & A.G. I\ .. Tnt PYNmid. Nunh Sid... 17. 19.
8. /bld. , 20.
9. On th e of evaillall rog hr lck sizes, see Mnro d, K. &, MY" n , O.H. , Til", 1. 4K-,}.
150
GENERAL INDEX
Abbott Papyrus 37
Air passages 64. 65. 73. 74. 76. 78, 82. lOS, 114, 116,
135
Arch 5-57 passim; 68, 75, 77. 78 I23.(i , 137; bonding
of, 7. 137, 1389; earliest, 23, 123; nat , 25, 47. 123.
124; over doors , 6, 41 , 45, 47, 51, 52. 53. 54, 55.
51.94,97, 100.101,102. 103. 125; ove r windows,
101, 102. 141; pointed , 37, 48, 49, 101,124;
relieving, 28. 34, 38. 39. 43, 124. 128; ribbed, 25.
123, 142: suppor ting inclined vault , 23. 4 1, 125
Batter 22. 25.32. 41.62.70.114
Bonding. passim. especially 7. 136-9; chronology of ,
1389; decorative, 137
Brick. passim; burnt, 4, 5. 17. 39.44. 48, 50,52.53,
54,5 5,56.57.73 . 74, 76.77,78,80,82,84,89.
91,92,93,98,99. 100, 101, 102,103, 106, 109.
110, 116, 119, 120. l 24, 126, 134, 135,137,
14(H , 142, 143; composition of, 3. 27,39;
manufacture. 3-4; re-used, 46, 49, 50. 60, 65, 69,
70,79, 108. 109, 148; sizes. passim.cspeciaUy
147.8. 150; special shape. 25, 27, 33,34, 40,46.
47 , 49. 50,5 1. 54, 56, 67, 68, 69. 80.82. 84. 85,
86.87,88,89, 91. 93.94.97,98.99, 100. 101.
102. 108, 110, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 140,
1414 ; special size, 17, 18. 19, 20, 21, 27. 4 1, 42,
46,64. 118, 1434 ; stamped, 48, 64. 65, 66 , 67,
68,69, 70,74. 75.76, 85.86,88. 95,96,97.
106, 108. 109. 140, 144-6, 147: strength of, 3;
taft, 22, 23, 25, 26. 27, 34.134, 14 1; weight of,
38, 41, 144
Brick-mould 3, 4-
Brick stamps 145
Bridge, at Amarna. 85, 132
Butt resses 18, 61, 64, 68, 69, 71, 72, 84, 95 , 105, 106,
107, 112, 113; in palace-facade, 149, 150
Byzantine Period 101, 124, 137, 138, 141
Casing. brick 18, 25, 26, 33, 34, 59, 113, 128; stone,
26,28, 37, 52, 53. 59, 61, 64, 65, 68, 72, 76, 80,
81,82.85,87,88, 114. 133;wood, 17, 60. 87,
132
Centring 40, 51, 52, 80, 87, 94. 125, 126, 142 ; earth,
29, 75,77. 125, 130
Chapel, peripleral, 71; lomb, 20, 26, 33, 46.47, 49.
52.54.57, 58
Column. brick, 27, 49, 66. 69. 84, 87, 88 , 89, IDa,
110, 130, 1423, 150; stone, 85, 86, 89, 98, 133 ;
wooo, 46,60. 84. 87. 94, 95, 130
Coptic Period 48, 54. 55, 57, 58, 80. 100,101, 102,
110.124, 126,132,133, 137. 141. 143
Corbels 126-7; circular, 29, 30. 32, 36. 41, 126;
grained, 12. 13, 126; in brick pyramids, 46, 47,
50-1,52, 127;over stairway, 23; in roo fing, see
Roofing
Corpus of brick bonds 7
Cubit 16,27,29.144, 147, 149-50
Desert Altars, at Amama. 85, 88
Digit 27, 149
Dome, sec Roofing
Doorframes, stone. 60. 74. 84. 85, 86, 87, 89,92. 98,
133; wood , 60, 90. 92. 95, 99 . 100. 102. 131
Doorjambs. stone, 74, 78, 84, 85. 86. 87, 89, 133;
wood,60,87, 9S,99, 100, 131
Doorsills, brick, 95, 97 ; burnt brick, 100, 101, 102,
141; stone. 60, 74. 88, 89, 95 ,97, 133 ; wood,
90, 98. 99 ,1 31
Filling, gravel, 30, 46. 60. 71, 72. 75, 79. 120; mud,
22; rubble, 10, 19. 22.23.25. 38, 61.104. 128;
sand, 11. 18, 19,2 1,23. 25,37,64.71. 72,77.
80, 85,88, IDS, 106. 121
Floors, brick, 14, 50, 55, 6 1. 8-1-, 88, 94, 97, 98.1 19,
120; burnt brick. 52. 84, 98, 100. 101, 103. teo,
110. 11 9 20, 14 1; special bricks, 84, 85, 86, 87,
88, 89, 94, 98, 119: slone, 86. 89, 133; wood,
17,1 9, 131
Foundations 60, 66, 82, 96, 104, 120-2; brick, 66,
70.71,72, 75,76, 77. 79,82,96, 106, 107, 120,
121, 122; burnt brick. 100, 102, 120; for columns,
84.86, 120; of forts, lOS, 106, 107. 108, 109,
121; of houscs, 120; plat forms, 71, 72, 75, 79, 82,
88. 106.107, 108. 109, 105, 106,
110, 115, 120, 121; of temples. 60, 66, 70, 71, 72,
76, 77, 12 1.2
Itrtcze-bricks 48, 140, 146
Funerary cones 39, 48, 140. 146
Granaries 19. 126. 127
Gypsum. see Plaster
Harris papyrus 116
Kilns, for grain,S. 140
levelling 67, 70. 85, IDS, 120. 135; with edger-head-
ers, 16, 22, 23, 24. 25, 29, 30. 47. 51, 60. 61, 73.
79, 81,83,98,102, 114,136
lining. brick. 5. 6, 10, I I, 13, 14. 15, 23, 26, 29, 30,
31, 35. 43. 44, 45. 48, 50. 51, 52, 55, 62. 74, 121,
136; st one. 27, 52, 61. 86, 87, 89. 92, 133; wood ,
14.17,90,92.132-3
Maga7.ines 15, 16, 17, 18, 84, 85. 86, 87, 88, 149;at
Ramcsseum. Bs-e, IN
151
Mastahas, solid const ruction of. 128-9
Mort ar, lime, 79, 80, 91, 92, 101. 133; mud, 114. 133,
and passim: raft, 22.23.25,27,34. 39 , 42. 49.64.
72,98, 117, 128. 133, 14 1
Mound, in temple foundations, 67. 77; in myt hology.
114
Mud, in bricks, 3; over corbels, 26, 29, 30, 32, 127; in
morta r, 133; in niches, 20, 2 1, 134; in plaster. 134,
in roo fing, 94. 99, 130, 134
Niches, formed of mud. 20. 21, 134; offering. 19, 20,
22. 26, 28. 29. 130, 131; palace-facade, see Palace-
facade
Palace. of Amenhotep I ll , 87-8, 89, 108. 134 ; of
Apries, 89, 92. 107, 117; of Ay, 86. 89. 120; at
Ballas. 88 ; ar Hierakonpolis, 83, 117; of Merenptah ,
84, 88; of Ramesses II, 85. 88. 117; of Ramesses
111 , 86-7, 89, 117, 120, 125. 133; of Sct i Il, 84,
88; at Urcnant. 84
Palace-facade 15, 16. 17, 18. 19. 20, 2 1, 22. 83, 117-
18, 128, 143. 144, 149, 150; simplilied, 12. 18,
19. 20. 28,51. 53,59.60. 83, 104. 118
Palms 18, 27,144. 150
Pcndentivcs 48, I 26
Pilasters. in tombs. 17
Plaster, black. 26, 60, 134; gypsum, 39. 70. 119. 134 ;
imitating brickwork . 26-7, 34. 134; imitating stone,
54,57,78,80.82.134; lime. 91, 92, 93, 100. 134;
mud, 134 and passim; fafl, 23, 134, 14 1; yellow.
25,33.37,60, 134
Plugs. wood, 20, 95. 131
Pylons. brick, 51 2, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68 , 69. 70, 72,
74, 80, 82. 86, 114
Pyramids, construction of, 124, 128-9; of Dyn. XI,
37; of Dyn. XII, 378; of Dyn. XIIl , 39; of Dyn.
XVII. 44; in private tombs. 46-7. 49. 50- 1. 52. 57.
127, 128-9; of Tetishcri, Abydos, 64
Ramp. const ruct ional, 62; at Amarna, 85; at EIKab.
75; ofpcriptcral chapels, 71,72. 79, 120-1
Reeds, in brickwork. 17, 18, 19, 21, 23. 25, 27, 37.
47.49, 51, 53,68.70. 7 1,72, 73,75. 76,77. 81.
82.95. 104-, 105. 106, 108, J14. 134-5; in roo fing,
see Roofing; on wall faces, 59, 135
Roofing, corbelled, 12, 13, 14, IS, 19, 23. 24. 25, 26.
29, 30, 3 1. 32, 33, 36.37. 4 1, 54, 95. 1167; domed,
25, 32, 33, 36. 4 1. 42. 48, 50,55, 57, 58. 106. 107,
lOS. 121. 126; gabled, 32, 33, 45, 48, 50, 53. 54,
57; reeds, 10, 99, 130, 135; stone, 28. 38 ; vaulted,
1236 nnd passim: wood, 56. 10. 12, 13, 16. 17. 18,
46. 59, 60. 69, 85,86.87.89. 94, 95,96,97.99,
100, 102, 130. 134. 135
Sections, of undulating walls, us. 116
Solar temples 62
153
Stability of walls 112-13
Stairway 12. 13, 23, 39, 48. 54, 75, 94, 95. 96, 97, 98,
99. 101,1 02, 131
Step pyramid 130. 132; tombs near, 27
Slicks, in bonding, 16, 19, 21, 132, 135
Stone, at angles of walls. 61, 74, 78. 81, 82, 99, 116,
132, 133; archit raves, 85, 86, 126. 133; on steps,
96. 101
Str aw. in bricks, 3. 22; in plaster, 22, 134
Stress, in walls, 112-13
Tap , bricks of, see Brick; mor tar of, see Mor tar;
plaster of. see Piaster
Tension. in walls. see St ress
Towers, on enclosure wall at Medinct Habu, 70. 108.
109. 110; in Roman forts. 110
Tumulus, in mastabas. 18. 19,23
Vaults 123-6; bondi ng of, 7. 137. 138-9; earliesl. 10,
I I , 123; ribbed. 25. 123, 142; in roofing. see
Roofing; under stairs. 95. 101,102, 103
Walls 112-18; bon ding of , 7, 136-7, 138; buttressed,
5. 18,61, 64, 68.7 1. 72,84.95,105, 106, 113,
121; casing, 25, 26. 28. 33. 37, 59, 113. 128; in
concave courses. 71. 75, 90, 92, 99, 100. 102,
103,107. 117; filled walls, 38, 61, 64, 113; retain-
ing, 25. 41, 62, 64, 71,72, 77,80, 11213 , 121,
136; sinusoidal, 28, 38, 39, 6 1. 62, 63, 95-6, 97,
113. 136; undulating, 62. 63, 65, 68, 69 , 71, 72,
73. 74. 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 90, 107,
114-16
Windows 26. 54, 90; arched. see Arches; stone-framed.
133; triangular, 57. 58; wood framed, 54, 90. 92.
98, 99, 131
Wood, as decorat ion in brickwork, 132; as reinforce-
ment in brickwork, 29, 60. 64 , 65, 71, 72, 73, 75,
76, 77, 78. 79, 81, 82. 84. 88, 90, 92. 94-5, 98,
99, 100.102. 103.104. 105.106, 110. 114, 117,
131-2; as reinforcement at come rs. 18, 84, 90, 98,
99, 102. 116, 132, 133, 140; on steps, 75, 98, 99,
13 1
INDEX OF NA.\ tES
Abu Bakr, A. M. 25
Achoris 73
Adj-ib, tomb of, 14 ; tombs of reign, 19
Adu I, tomb of, Dcndera, 32. 36
Aha, tombs of reign, 16
Ahmosc-Ncfertari 66
Akhcnatcn, bric ks of. 145
Akhethroep , lomb of, Giza, 33
Alexander I, bull burial of. 55, 56
Amasis, chapel at Karnak, 74, 77; temple at Mendes,
71; wall at Tanis. 7 1
Amenemhat I 98
Arncnemhat II 28. 34
Amenemhat III, pyramids of, 38, 61, 94; seals in tomb
or Her, 43
Amenemhat IV, pyramid of, 38
Amenhotep I 66
Amenhot ep II. bricks of, 65, 14 5; temple at Giza. 64.
65
Amenhol ep III, bricks of. 67, 70. 88, 95. 145; palace
of, 878, 89; villageof, Thebes. 95; wall at Medinet
J-l abu, 67
Amenhorep SOil of Hapu. temple of. 67, 119,125
Arnosis I, bricks of, 64. 144 ; temples at Abydos, M.
113; town or, 95
Amun, temple at Dcir el-Medina, 69; at Herrnopolis,
68-9, 84 ; at Karnak, 734 . 76. 82
Amun hearer of prayers, temple at Karnak, 74
Anra, temple at Tanis, 71
Apollo, temple at Naukratls. 71
Aprles, palace of, 89. 92
Awibre Hor, lomb at Dashur. 43, 44.137.139
Ay. bricks of. 66, 70. 86. 145; temple of, 667. 86.
145
Badawy, A, J, 4
Baqaria. see Buch u
Barguet, P. 114
Borchardt. L 46, 149
Brunton, G. 32. 48
Bruyere. 8. 145
Bucheum, see Buchis
Buchis, tombs 3 1 Armant , 55-7. 136
Butehamun, house of, 98, 133
Chassinat , E. 59
Cboisy, A. 1. 8 1,86, I I...J
Daressy, G_20
De Morgan, J. 28. 37. 38. 43
Dcsi, tomb at Saqqura, 26-7. 34. 134
Djadjaemankh, tomb at Abusir. 34
{}j et. tomb of, 14; tombs of reign. 16-17. 144
Djoser, 22
Emery. W. B. 16, 17, 18, 20, 59. 118, 136, 150
Engelbach, R. 41, 144
Fairman,1I. W. 145
Fisher. C. 25
Garstang, J. 48
Gauthier. IL47
Cemntcmha r, tomb of, 42
God' s wife of Amun , mort uary chapels of, 52, 53
Green. F. W. 5
Grenfell, 8. P. 54
Haishtcf. tomb at Saqqcra, 27, 34
Hat hor , temple at Deir cl-Mcdina, 69; "Tomb-shrine"
of at Esna, 48
Hatshcpsut. bricks or, 67, 144 ; walls at Medinel Habu,
67
Hemcith, tomb ascribed to, 18
Hesse. A. 105, 147
llcsy, tomb at Saqqara, 20
Hetepsekhemui 24
Holscher, U. 46
Hoc. see Awibre Hor
Horcmhcb, temple of 66-7
Horus. temple at Edfu, 8 1
Hyksos 43, 44
ldi, tomb at Dara, 29. 149
Idi, to mb at Saqqa ra, 28
Impi, tomb at Saqqara, 27. 34
Inyotef, tomb in Asasif, 40. 42
lnyotef II pyramid of. 37
Irincfer, lomb of at Dcir el-Medina, 46
Irti, tomb at Giza. 33
Isis, mother of Apis. temple of. 72, 112- 13
Istemkheb 145
Iy-nefcr.fomb at Dashur , 144
Jequter, G. 28, 38-9, 147
Ka-a, tomb of, 14, 132; to mbs of reign. 10, 19, 20, 22.
59
Kaemheset. tomb at Saqqa ra. 27, 34, 143
Kaemscnu. tomb at Saqqa ra, 34
Ka-rrer, to mb at Saqqara, 27. 34
Kemp. B. J. 6
Khasekhcmui, funerary palace, 83; tomh of. 14, 133
Khcndjcr, pyr ami d at Saqqa ra. 39
Khufu, pyramid of, 25
Khui, lomb at Saqqara, 26, 34
Khnum temple at Elephantine, 81
Khnumhotep II, tomb of, 40
154
Lectant. J. 74
Lcpsfus, C. R. 75, 85, 145. 146
Mace, A. C. 50
Mackay. E. 38
Macramallah. M. R. 107
Mariett e. A. 37.38. 41. 50
Maspero, G. 28
Mehu, lomb ,11 Saqqara. 27, 34
Meni, tomb at Ofza. 33
Menkhcpcrre, high-priest, l OS. 109: bricks of. J45
Mentuhotep II, temple 0 (. 37
Mcmuborep III, chapel of. 63 ; mor tuary temple. 6 1
palace at Memphis. 84. 88: mortuary
temple. 86. 126. 133. 149
Mcmett . fornb ascribed to, tomb of. 14
Merra. tomb ,11 Dcndera, 32, 36
xlcru . tomb at Saqqa ra. 34
Monte!. P. 14,20, 70, 7 1
Mont u, temple at Karnak. 66. 73, 76, 79, 82
Mont ucmhat , tomb at Thebes, 512, 127. 133
Mut, temple ,11 Karnak, 798 0, 82
Mycerinus. temples al Gil.3. 5960, 118. 120, 130. 137
Myers. O. H. 1. 7. 57, 137
Nakht-min. to mb of. 46
Narmer 5, 6
Nebumun, to mb of. 47
Neche. bricks of. 74. 76, 145; building at Karnak. 74.
76. 141
Ncctauebo I, wall at EI Kab. 75; ,1 1Karnak , 734: at
Luxor, 74, 80
Ncctanebo II. Buchis bu rial, 55, 56, 136; temple al
Saqqara, 72, 73, 76
Ncfcrt. tomb at Giza. 25, 33. 126
Nefcnrkare, pyr amid temple. 60. 130, 132
Ncfcrmaa t, brick of, 146
Ncfertitl, bricks of, 145
Ncfcrup tah , pyramid of, 38
Nelthhot ep, tomb ascribed to, 15-16, 149
Nekhthorheb, sec Nect anebo II
Ncnki. tomb at Saaq ara, 28. 34
Ncuscrre, pyr amid of, 26: pyramid temple. 60; solar
temple, 62. 63. 136
Nictocris , chapel at Karnak, 74. 77
Osiris. ruler of ete rnity. temple of, 74. 77
Osiris Khentamentfu, temple at Abydos, 62, 63, 64
Osorkon II. shrine at Karnak, 141
Pbes. lomb at Thebes. 52
Peel . T. E. " 1,50
Pchncfer, tomb at Saqqara, 34
Pendlebury, J. D. S. 64
l'cpi I. temple at Abydos. 62, 63: temple at Bubastis.
62, 63
Pcnbsen, to mb of, 14
Pet rie. W. M. F. 6, 13, 14, 20. 29, 32. 38, 4 1, 50. 6 1,
67. 71, 94, 120, 125, 147,1 49
Philip Arrhi daeus 77
Pieron. H, 47
Pillet, M. 29
Ptnudjem I, bricks of, 145; buildings at EI-Ilibeh, 108.
109 ; at Medinel Habu, l OS. 109
Psamrnctichus I 106, 126
Psa mouthes 89
Psuscnnes I. bricks of. 70. 145 ; wall at Tanis. 70, 76
Ptah, gate of. Karnak. 73; temple at Memphis. 68, 77,
82
Pt olemy V 73
Quibell, J. E. 23. 73.145
Radjcdef, pyramid temple. 59
Rahc teph. tomb at Meydum, 29. 132
Rame sscss II 70; bric ks of, 68, 69. 145; block of. 74;
temples of, 68, 69, 85-6: wall ,11 Karnak. 74
Rar nesses III. in Harris papyrus. 116; palace of. 86-7.
89, 133; mort uary temple, 70, 121. 135. 145
Reisner, G. A. 10, 13, 18,60
Rekhrntre, to mb of, 3
Rekhuf tomb at Saqqara. 34
Ricke, 11. 67. 81
Rokhu, to mb at Saqqa ta, 28. 34
Rowe. A. 28
Scad, Z. Y. 27
Saber, tomb at Giza, 25. 123, 124. 142
Sabni, to mb at Edfu, 32
Sanakht, to mb of reign, 23
Scbekcrnkhent. tomb at Saqqara, 27, 34, 14 1
Sebekn eferu, pyramid of, 38
Scmcrkhc l, tom b or, 14, 20, 136
Scncb, lo mb at Gila . 25, 33, 126
Sesost r!s I, 62, 63
Sesost rls 11 , pyr amid of, 37; pyrami d temp les, 6 t ;
pyramid town, 94
Sesost ris III, temples at Abydos , 61; pyrami d at Dashur,
378.1 49
Set! I. "palace" of. 85: stamped bricks, 68 , 69, 145;
temples of. 68, 69. 85. 135
Set i 11 68. 74, 84, 88. 119
Shabaka, brick of. 75. ' 45; wall at Dendera. 78
Shebitku, brick-stamp of, 145
Shcpenu pet I, mortuary chapel, 52, 53
Shcpcnupct II, shrine at Karnak. 77
Shepseskaf 59,60. 134
Sheshonk, tomb in AS3sif, 51
Shcshonk I. fort 30 1Bcthpelct, 108
Sheshonk 111 70. 76
Srncnkhkare, bricks of, 145
Sneferu 28
Somers G arke 104
155
Taharqa, brick of, 75, 77; work at Karnak, 74.1 41
Takelot h. high-priest , shrine at Karnak, 77. 141
Tel i, pyramid cemetery , 26-7, 34, 57
Tetlshe ri 64
Thot h, templc OI l Hcrmopolis, 68, 69
Tiherius 78
Tiyi 88 , 145
Tuthmosts I, bricks of, 96, 144 ; chapel at Dcir er-Medtna.
66; mortu ary temple. 66, 144; wall OI l Abydos, 64
Tut hmosis IV, bricks of 66,69, 145; mortuary temple,
66
Uadji, tombs of reign. 10. 17, 19. 20. 144
Udimu. tomb of, 14; to mbs of reign. 17. 18, 20, 144
Unas. pyramid cemctcry, 27, 34
Uscrkaf. solar temple of, 26, 62, 63, 117
Uscrkaf-ankh , tomb al Abusir, 34
Van Seters. J. 70
Wadj mose, bricks of, 144
Weill. R. 29
wennefer, tomb at Saqq ara, 52
156
TOPOGRAPHI CAL INDEX
Abu Gurab , see Abusir
Abu Roush, ' fur t' at 107, 108. pyramid te mple, 59;
tombs, 14, 20, 21,1 18, 136
Abusir, houses at , 94; pyramid temples, 60; solar
temples, 62. 63. 112, 117, 136; tombs, 26.34, 40,
42
Abydos, 5. 145; funerary palaces, S, 83. 118;grain-
kilns, S, 140; Osiris temple. 59, 62, 63. 64, 65;
temple of Arnosis I, 64 , 113 ; temples of Scsostns III.
61; temple of Se li I, 68. 69, 85. 88. 119, 135;
tombs. 5. 10. 13. 14, 20.31, 3u, 41. 42 , 45-6, 49,
50-1,53.57, 124. 126.130, 131. 132-3, 136; town,
95.97
Ain Amur, sec Dakhlch
Alexand ria 8<J, 91. 126. 14 1
Amara West 86, 89, 97,106, 145
Anclba, tombs at , 46, 47. 49. 127, 128; town, 106
Arman' , houses at, lOt , 10 2. 133; temple of, 81. 82.
116; tombs. 24. 32, 36, 557. 58. 137, 14 1
Asasif, tombs in, 40. 44, 51-2. 53. 54
Askut. fort at. 105
Bacchias. temple of, 78, 82; tombs, 54, 57
Badari 6, 33, 65
Bawit 126, 132
Behbei t 76
Beit elWali, temple. 87, 125
Bcit Khallaf, tombs. 223. 24. 123,126, 128
Beni Hasan 40
Bethpclc t. fort of Sheshonk I, 108
Bubastis, temple of Pep! I, 62, 63; t ombs, 42
Buhc n. fort at , R4, 105. 119
Buto, temple of, 76
Dakhlch Oasis, temples in. 82
Dara. tombs at. 29 , 35. 124, 125, 128, 149
Dashu r, official buildi ngs, 83; priest's houses, 94 ;
pyramid of Amenemhat 11I , 38, 83; py ramid of
Sesos t ris III , 37 8; pyramid temples, 59, 61; t ombs,
18, 34, 41, 42.43, 44. 144
Deffeneh, fort of Psammc uchus I, 106, 108. 121, 126;
Rar ncssidc burnt brick, 140
Dcir el-Baha rl, houses at , 95: sta mped bricks, 144;
temple of Dyn. XI. 37
Deir cl-Hagar, sec Dakhl ch
Deir el-Medlna. chapels at. 66: houses at , 96. 97. 120,
147; Pt olemaic temple, 80. 82, 121. 124, 125; temples
of Dyn s. XIX-XX, 69; tombs. 46-7, 49, 55, 58, 124,
128, IU, 143
Delta 44; official buildi ngs, 89; temples. 678 , 7D-2,
121
Dcndcra. sanatorium at, 91, 92, 134, 141; temple, 78,
82.137; tombs, 32. 36,118,1 24, 125,126; town
wall , 110
157
Dime 90, 92, 100, 102, 131, 132, 133
Diospolis Parva, Roman fori at , 110. temple of, 79, 82,
12D- 1
Dira abu' I Naga, tombs. 47, 48, 49, 124, 118, 142
Edfu 3, 4. 121.1 26; houses. 10 1, 103; Ro man baths,
912. 93. 134; temple, 81, 82, 115; to mbs, 32, 36-7,
41. 42, 44,124: town walls, 104, 106. 109, u o,
1I7
Ehnasya, temple. 64
EI-Aha iwa, t ombs at , 10
El-Amama, houses. 94-5, 97. 119,130, 131, 133, l3 5;
official buildings, 84-5, 88, 11 9, 130, 142; sta mped
bricks from, 145; temples, 64, 65
El-Amra , house-model from, 131; tombs at. 10, I I,
12, 13, 14, 136
El-Bagawar, see Kharga
El-Balt as. palace at. 88
Elep han tine, houses at, 102, 103; temple , 81, 82, 116;
to....n walls. 104, 106, 109, 117
El-Hibeh, fort at , l OB, 109, sta mped bricks from, 145
FJ Kab 125, 131; houses. 94, 103 ; Roman for t , 109,
110; te mple, 65, 75. 77. 120, 121; tombs. 42, J18;
town wall, 104
Ps na. to mbs at , 44. 48. 49
Fayu m, temples in, 78; tombs, 54; towns, 54, 117.
13D- I, 132
Gebelein, forts at. 108, 109; st amped brick s from,
145
Gcrnetyemt. temple of, 71, 76, 121
Gerar 108
Gil a. houses at , 94; pyr amid te mples, 59-60, 118,
120, 130, 137; temple of Amcnhotep II, 64, 65;
tombs, 10. 20, 21, 25-6, 33, 117, 123-4, 126, 142.
143,149
Oourna. te mple of seu I. 69
Gurob, temple at, 64, 65; to mbs . 35, 45, 48
Haragch, tombs at, 42
Harit , tombs ar, 54, 57
lIa wara, pyramid of Amenemhat III, 38, 128; of
Neferup tah, 38; to mbs, 57
Hehopohs, temple at , 67-8
Helwan, tombs at, 25, 118
I-Jermopolis, houses at , 97, 98, 100, 102; palace of
Sc' ti II. 84. 88,1 19; temple, 62, 63, 68, 69, 73, 76,
116, 137
Hierakonpol is 6; "fort" at, 104, houses, 94; palace, 83,
117; temple. 59, 65 ; tombs. 5, 10, I I , 14, 136;
t own wall, 104
Hu. see Diospoli s Parva
lllahun, see Lahun
Ierne 100
Kafr Ammar. femple. 76: tombs, 34
Kahun, see Lahun
Karanis 90, 99, 102, 131
Karanog 57
Karnak, Amun temple, 73-4. 76. 115. 116, 121, 135;
Grecco-Reman buildings, 79. 82; Late Period buil dings,
76-7.89.92. 141; Montu temple. 73, 76, 79,82, 141;
Mut temple. 79-80, 82,120; chapels of Dyn XVIII ,
66
Kasr el-Banat , t ombs at. 54. 57
Kawady mound (Sais) 50
Kerma 106
Kharga, Roman fort at, 110; temples. 82; tombs, 57.
58,126, 143
Kom abu Billu 57
Kom Afrin, temple. 76
Korn ed- Dikka. see Alexandria
Korn el-Hisn, temple. 76
Kom es-Sulta n 65
Kom Ombos, temple, ~ I, 82
Koptos 6
Kuban. fort at . 104 , 135
Kubanieh, to mbs at , 42, 43
Kurnrna, for t at, 106
Lahun. chapel, 6 1; py ramid of Scsost ris II, 37; pyramid
temple, 6 1; t ombs. 42; t own, 94, 124, 125
Llsht , hou ses, 98; pyramid temples, 61
Luxor, Roman fort, u o. 143; temple, 74, 77, 80,
82
Mabasna 5, 6; grain-kilns, 5, 140; t ombs, 10, 14
Matgata (nea r Karnak) 120
Malqata, palace at , 87-8, 89, 145
Manfalut 29
Mastaba t el-Fara' un 60, 124
Matmar, brick sin's at, 1478; stamped bricks. 145;
temple at, 68, 69; tombs, 32-3. 35, 48, 52, 137,
139, 147-8
Mazghuneh, chapel at. 61, 1 2 ~ ; pyramids at, 38; walls
at, 113, 136. 149
Medamud, hou ses at, 100, 102, 143; foundation-
platform, 71, 121: temples. 59. 63. 65, 79, 82
Medinct Habu, administrat ive buildings, 87, 89, 119.
125; Grecco-Roman buildings, 80. 82, 91. 93; houses,
96,97,98, 100. 101, 102, 119, 120, 131, 141;
chapels of God' s wives. 52. 53; chapels west of
temple. 46. 52. 53: palace of Ramesses 111. 86-7,
119. 125, 133; structures of Dyn. XVIII . 67. 144;
of the Lat e Period. 77. 108. 109. liD; temple of
Ramcsscs Ill . 70. 121. 135, 145: t ombs. 52, 53,
54.55,57.1 26
158
Medinel Maadi 90. 9:!
Memphis, chapel at . 68. 69; foun dation-pl atform. 121;
milit ary camp, 107, 109, 126: palace of Apries, 89,
92. 107, 109; palace of Merenptah , 84, 88; temple
of Plah. 77, 82
Mendes 71, 121
Meru-Aten 84
Mesopotamia 6. 15.50, 108
Mcydum. tombs at. 20. 28-9. 34.1 18
Mirgissa. fort at , 84.105. 119. 135; sizes of bricks . 147
Mostagedda. brick sizes at. 147; tombs, 32-3. 36. 14 7
Naga ed-Dcr , tombs at , 10. I I , 12-13. 15, 18, 22. 24,
29-31,36, 118, 126, 130, 136
Naqada. predynastic cultures, S. 6; temple. 65 ; tombs.
5.6. 10, 14. 15. 21, 117. 123. 143, 149, 150; town.
5. 6, 9 ~
Naukratis, fort OIt , 107, 108. 121, 126; foundation -
platform. 121; temple, 7 1, 76
Ncbcsheh, temple OI l. 72 . 76. 121; to mbs, 44, 48, 50,
52. 140
Nuhia, fort resses of, 84, 104-6, 120, 132, 140; stamped
bricks from, 145; tombs in. 42-3, 46.47.49, 1289:
towns in, 57. 106
Nub t sec Naqada
Osireion 68, 125
Oxyrhynchus, tombs at. 54. 57
Palestine 50
Philadelphia. houses at. 99. 102; temple, 78 , 82
Philac 115, 120
Oalzum 88
Oantara. tombs at, 53, 57
Oasr Qarun, houses at, 98, 102
Qat tah. t ombs at , 40, 124
Qau, brick sizes 01 1, 147-8; tombs, 13, 14, 24, 32-3,
35. 43, 49,50, 52-3, 57, 147-8
QU5, fort at, 108
Ramcsscum 856, 88. 11 7. 119. 136, 145, 149; mor t uary
chapels ncar, 46. 49
Reqaqnah, tombs at , 23, 24, 29, 36. 118. 123. 126
Riql lch, tombs at, 4 1. 42, 126, 144
Rotab, Tell el-. 67, 69
Saft . temple, 76: t ombs. 48
Sats, temple, 76; t ombs, 50. 52. 143
Saqqara, foundation-platform, 71, 72; houses, 94. 98:
pyr amids of Dyn, XIII. 38-9. 128.136; temples.
72-3, 76. 112, 118. 120, 121. 135. 137; tombs. 5.
6, 10- 11. 15. 16- 19. 2().I, 22, 23-4. 25. 26-R, 34.
42. +;. 52, 5i , 59. 60, 117-18, 123. 124. 130, 131
132,134-5.136. 143. J44, 149-50
Scdment , t omb s at, 35. 43, ~ . 48
Scmna. fort at. 105
Serapeurn 73
Sesebl, town, 97, 106
Shal fak, fort at, 84,105. 119
Sheikh Abdel Ouma, t ombs at. 46
Shu rafa, for i at . 108, 110; stamped bri cks at. 14 5
Shun el ez-Zebib S. 83. 118
Soleb, tombs at, 47, 49. 1:28-9
Suwa, to mbs at, 50, 52. 14 1
Tanis. foun da tion-pla tform. 7 1. 121; temples, 70- 1. 76
Tarkhan, t ombs at. 6. 10. 14.18, 19,21, 117. 131, J3 5.
143. 144, 150
Tebtunis, temple, 78
Tell Da' be. temple, 68, 69; tombs, 43, 44
Tell et-Yahudieh, temple, 67-8, 69; t ombs, 44, 45, 48,
50, 52. 53,57
Tenideh, see Dakhl ch
Theadel phia, houses at. 99 . 102. 130; temple. 78 , 82.
134
Thebes (see also Karnak, l uxor ) condui ts, Roman, 9 1,
93; houses, 95 -7, 98; temples, Middle Kingdom,
6 1,63; New Kingdom. 66- 7, 69-70, 85-7, 88-9,
119; tombs. Middle Kingdom, 37, 39-40: New
Kingdom. 44. -16-8, 49. 127, 135, 140; Lat e
Period, 46, 5 1-2. 53, 118, 124, 127; Cracco-
Roman, 54-5. 57-8. 126
Thmuls, house at. 102
Ta d, houes at, 103; temples, 63. 8 1. 82
Tukh el-Oaramus, temple, 77, 82, 121
Tuna el-Gebel, tombs at, 54. 57, 134
Tura, t ombs at, 10, 11, 14.23.24,26,33, 126
Umm cl-Qa' ab. tombs at, 13-14,83
Uronar ti, fort at , 84, lOS, 135; palace at. 84
159
,

Plat e 4
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FRIEZE BRICKS
EXAMPLES OFINSCRIPTIONS ONFRIEZE BRICKS
Plate 38
EXAMPLESOF PRIVATESTAMPS ON MUD BRICKS
Q.w.bell,J.E., l'he. R.......<.S'je!!rt\,
P.J. .XI.
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I I
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EL KAB: TEMPLE ENCLOSURE
TANIS: TEMPLE ENCLOSURE
I :
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A
KARNAK: GENERAL PLAN
A
Reference:
A. Latest enclosure, Montu templ e.
B. Remains of walls of Dyn. 18. and
later.
C. Part of Late-Period wall of
Montu temple.
D. Great enclos ure wall of
Ncct anebo I.
E. Earlier wall around Amun
temple, Dyn.2S (?)
F. Burnt-brick st ructure of
Necho II.
G. Roman mud-brick wall.
II. Chap el of Arnasis & Nitocris.
J. Roman chapel.
K. Enclosure-wall of Mut
temple, Ptolemaic.
L. Burnt-brick wall ncar
sanctuary of MOl temple.
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D)' NASTIES ll )'NRST'E.S
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STOREHOUSES AT THE RAMESSEUM
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Plate 45
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PL49 A (Top): Karnak Enclosure Wall, North side, inner face.

Pl. 49 B (Centre left ): Air channel in Karnak enclosure wall.
Pl. 50 A (Centre right]: Wall of tile XXVth dynas ty. Karnak.
PL 50 B (Botto m): Wall at the temple of Amun-Hearer-of-Prayers, Karnak.
.(
.'
'.
- .-
.- - "
~ "
, \
Pl. 51 A (Top): Dendera enclosure wall.
PL 51 B (Middle): Deir El-Medina Temple wall.
PL 52 A (Bottom): Vaul t Ol'eI' Manimis i, Deir El-Med il1a.
~
: t l
PL 52 B ( Top) : Ramesseum storehouses:
PL 53 A (Middle): Springing of Vault s, Ramesseum.
PL 53 B (Bo ttom): Details of Faults, Ramesseum:

..
..
-c .
PL 54 A (Top): Conduit A at Medinet Habu.
PL 54 B (Middle): Conduit R at Medinet Habu.
PL 55 A {Bot tom): Coptic houses, Medlnet Habu.
.'
.... -;"""''''

,
PI, 55 B ( Top): Coptic house. Medinet Habu.
Pl 56 A (Middle): Coptic buildings above Roman tower. Medinet Habit.
PL 56 B (Botto m): Roman to wer, north-west corner of temple enclosure, Medinet Habu,
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