Doppler effect

is the change in frequency of a wave for anobserver moving relative to the source of the wave. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession. The relative changes in frequency can be explained as follows. When the source of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Therefore the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced; so the waves "bunch together". Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is increased, so the waves "spread out". In classical physics, where the speeds of source and the receiver relative to the medium are lower than the velocity of waves in the medium, the relationship between observed frequency f and emitted [3] frequency f0 is given by:

where is the velocity of waves in the medium is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium; positive if the receiver is moving towards the source. is the velocity of the source relative to the medium; positive if the source is moving away from the receiver. The frequency is decreased if either is moving away from the other. The above formula works for sound waves if and only if the speeds of the source and receiver relative to the medium are slower than the speed of sound. See also Sonic boom. The above formula assumes that the source is either directly approaching or receding from the observer. If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a constant velocity), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than the object's emitted frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through equality when it is closest to the observer, and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the observer. When the observer is very close to the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt. When the observer is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is gradual. In the limit where the speed of the wave is much greater than the relative speed of the source and observer (this is often the case with electromagnetic waves, e.g. light), the relationship between observed [3] frequency f and emitted frequency f0 is given by:

Observed frequency

Change in frequency

where is the velocity of the source relative to the receiver: it is positive when the source and the receiver are moving further apart. is the speed of wave (e.g. 310 m/s for electromagnetic waves travelling in a vacuum) is the wavelength of the transmitted wave in the reference frame of the source. These two equations are only accurate to a first order approximation. However, they work reasonably well when the speed between the source and receiver is slow relative to the speed of the waves involved and the distance between the source and receiver is large relative to the wavelength of the waves. If either of these two approximations are violated, the formulae are no longer accurate. The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental and abbreviatedf0, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In terms of a superposition ofsinusoids (e.g. Fourier series), the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum.
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All sinusoidal and many non-sinusoidal waveforms are periodic, which is to say they repeat exactly over time. A single period is thus the smallest repeating unit of a signal, and one period describes the signal completely. An overtone is any frequency higher than the fundamental frequency of a sound. The fundamental and the overtones together are calledpartials. Harmonics are partials whose frequencies are whole number multiples of the fundamental (including the fundamental which is 1 times itself). These overlapping terms are variously used when discussing the acoustic behavior of musical instruments. Due to a translation error in its coining, Alexander J. Ellis strongly suggested avoiding the term overtone in deference to upper partial (simple) tones.

Harmonics: Also called overtones, these are vibrations at frequencies that are multiples of the fundamentals. Harmonics extend without limit beyond the audible range. They are characterized as evenorder and odd-order harmonics. A second-order harmonic is two times the frequency of the fundamental; a third order is three times the fundamental; a fourth order is four times the fundamental; and so forth. Each even-order harmonic second, fourth, sixth, etc.-is one octave or multiples of one octave higher than the fundamental; these even-order overtones are therefore musically related to the fundamental. Oddorder harmonics, on the other hand third, fifth, seventh, and up-create a series of notes that are not related to any octave overtones and therefore may have an unpleasant sound. Audio systems that emphasize odd-order harmonics tend to have a harsh, hard quality.

Natural frequency is the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it has been set into motion. In other words, natural frequency is the number of times a system will oscillate (move

back and forth) between its original position and its displaced position, if there is no outside interference. For example, consider a simple beam fixed at one end and having a mass attached to its free end, as shown in Figure 1. If the beam tip is pulled downward, then released, the beam will oscillate at its natural frequency. For example, consider a simple beam fixed at one end and having a mass attached to its free end, as shown in Figure 1. If the beam tip is pulled downward, then released, the beam will oscillate at its natural frequency.

Figure 1 Figure 1

frequency can be calculated using the simple

Figure 1

If the tip mass (m) weighs much more than the beam to which it is attached, the natural frequency can be calculated using the simple formula

String frequency equation

The equation for the fundamental frequency of an ideal taut string is: f = (1/2L)(T/) where

f is the frequency in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second T is the string tension in gm-cm/s L is the length of the string in centimeters (cm) is the linear density or mass per unit length of the string in gm/cm (T/) is the square root of T divided by in seconds

Note: Typically, tension would be in newtons, length in meters and linear density in kg/m, but those units are inconvenient for calculations with strings. Thus, the smaller units are used.

Linear density
Linear density is the mass per unit length: = m/L, where m is the mass of the string or wire in gm. The reason is used instead of m/L is because when you use the equation to determine the frequency for a string of a different length, you must also adjust the mass to correspond to the different length. The situation where you change the length but keep the mass constant is seldom used.

Ideal string
The equation is actually an approximation for an ideal one-dimension string. Factors such as elasticity, material characteristics and diameter of the string or wire are not taken into account. (See Thickness and Material Factors in Equation for Sound from a Wirefor more information on that subject.) The equation holds well if the amplitude of the string is small. The equation falls apart for strings plucked too vigorously.

Music
If the parameters of the string or wirethe length, tension and massare at certain values, the sound made from plucking the string will be a musical note that is pleasing to the ear. But if they are slightly different, the sound may not be musical and just be a sound. Note that what is pleasing in one culture or nationality may not be considered musical in another culture.

Examples of changing the parameters

If the frequency for a given stringand the resulting soundis a specific value, and you change one parameter of the string but keep everything else the same, the frequency will change accordingly.

Doubling the tension

If you double the tension, the frequency will go up 1.414 times the original frequency, provided all other parameters remain the same. Consider the frequency for a given configuration: f1= (1/2L)(T/) If T is doubled, then the new frequency f2 is: f2= (1/2L)(2T/) Your can take the square root of 2 to get: f2= 1.414(1/2L)(T/) = 1.414f1 Thus, if the frequency of the string is 500 Hz for a given configuration, and you double the tension of the string, the frequency goes up to 707 Hz. f2 = 1.414f1= 1.414*500 Hz = 707 Hz

Shortening the length

If you shorten the length of the string by 1/2, while keeping all the other parameters constant, the frequency also goes up 2 times the original frequency. f1 = (1/2L)(T/) Replace L with L/2: f2= (2/2L])(T/) f2= 2f1 Again, if f1 = 400 Hz, then f2= 800 Hz.
Note: Since reducing the length by 1/2 also reduces the mass by 1/2, remains constant.

Reduce the mass

If you change the material of the string, reducing its mass by 1/2 but keeping the same length, the new frequency is 1.414 times the original frequency. Substitute = m/L in f1 = (1/2L)(T/): f1 = (1/2L) (TL/m) Keeping other parameters constant, replace m with m: f2= (1/2L)(TL/m)

f2 = (1/2L)(2TL/m) f2 = 1.414f1

Solving for other parameters

You can solve for the other parameters by squaring each side of the equationor multiplying each item by itselfand rearranging them. Squaring a square root, gets rid of the square root sign and just leaves the number or variable. Squaring both sides of the equation f = (1/2L)(T/), results in: f = (T/)/4L or f = T/4L

Find tension
Thus, if you know the frequency of the sound and the mass and length of the string, you can find the tension of the string: T = 4Lf

Find length
If you know the tension and mass of the string and the frequency of the sound, you can find the length of the string: L = T/4f L = (1/2f)(T/)

Find mass
If you know the tension, the length of the string and the frequency of the sound, you can find the mass of the string: m = T/4Lf

Summary
A stretched string or wire will vibrate and create a sound or musical note when plucked. The vibration will be a fundamental frequency, according to the tension, length, and mass of the string. There is a general equation that calculates the frequency. Changing the parameters results in changing the frequency of the vibration and thus the sound.

Frequency and Resonance Sound waves traveling through the air or other mediums sometimes affect the objects that they encounter. Recall that sound is caused by the molecules of a medium vibrating. Frequency refers to the number of vibrations that an individual particle makes in a specific period of time, usually a second. The frequency of a wave is different than the speed of a wave. Frequency refers to how often a wave passes through a certain point, while speed refers to how fast a wave passes through the point. Particles vibrate at a specific frequency for each source, called its natural frequency. Steel, brass, and wood all have different natural frequencies. Occasionally, objects vibrating at their natural frequencies will cause resonance. Resonance is when objects with the same natural frequency as the vibrating source also begin to vibrate. Resonance does not happen very often and only affects object close to the vibrating source. Sometimes, the effects of resonance can be powerful. A singer can make glass vibrate enough to shatter, just by singing a note with the glasss natural frequency! Changing Pitch A string vibrates with a particular fundamental frequency. It is possible, however, to produce pitches with different frequencies from the same string. The four properties of the string that affect its frequency are length, diameter, tension, and density. These properties are described below: 1. When the length of a string is changed, it will vibrate with a different frequency. Shorter strings have higher frequency and therefore higher pitch. When a musician presses her finger on a string, she shortens its length. The more fingers she adds to the string, the shorter she makes it, and the higher the pitch will be. 2. Diameter is the thickness of the string. Thick strings with large diameters vibrate slower and have lower frequencies than thin ones.

A thin string with a 10 millimeter diameter will have a frequency twice as high as one with a larger, 20 millimeter diameter. This means that the thin string will sound one octave above the thicker one. 3. A string stretched between two points, such as on a stringed instrument, will have tension. Tension refers to how tightly the string is stretched. Tightening the string gives it a higher frequency while loosening it lowers the frequency. When string players tighten or loosen their strings, they are altering the pitches to make them in tune. 4. The density of a string will also affect its frequency. Remember that dense molecules vibrate at slower speeds. The more dense the string is, the slower it will vibrate, and the lower its frequency will be. Instruments often have strings made of different materials. The strings used for low pitches will be made of a more dense material than the strings used for high pitches.

Vibration of Stretched Strings

In physics, the word 'string' is used in a more general sense than what it normally denotes. In olden days, musical instruments employed strings of twisted intestines of animals, such as cat-gut. Nowadays, the strings of musical instruments like the veena, violin and guitar are made of metal wires. An ideal string is an infinitely thin, perfectly flexible cord of uniform area of cross-section. It should offer no resistance to bending and there should be no change in its length during vibration. In practice, a thin, long metal wire of uniform cross- section, stretched between two fixed supports can be considered as a string. Anyone who has played a musical instrument knows that a thick heavy string, when made to vibrate, has a lower natural pitch than a thin one a short string has a higher pitch than a long one and the tighter a string is stretched, higher is its pitch a stretched string can be excited by striking with light felt mallets as in a piano or by bowing with resined horsehair as in a violin or by plucking with finger nails or picks as in a veena or guitar.

In all the above cases, transverse vibrations are produced in the string. The velocity of the transverse wave that travels along the length of the string, depends on the nature of the string and its state of tension.

Sub Topics

1. Velocity of a transverse wave along a stretched string 2. Frequency of vibration of a stretched string 3. Laws of transverse vibrations of stretched strings 4. Law of length 5. Law of tension 6. Law of mass 7. Law of diameter 8. Law of density

Velocity of a transverse wave along a stretched string

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Let LAM represent a portion of a stretched string in which a transverse wave is travelling towards the right, with a velocity V. If the string is drawn towards the left with the same velocity, the wave becomes stationary. Let PQ represent a small element of this portion of the string. It is in the form of an arc with its centre of curvature at O. Let For the sake of clarity in the diagram q has been shown to be

large, but it will be quite small in practice. Let the tension in the string be T at P or Q. The tensions will be along the tangents, meeting at A. Join AO. AO represents the radius of the circular arc PQ, which is represented by r. If m is the mass per unit length of the string, then length of the arc PQ = m . PQ

The components of the tensions at P and Q along the radius will add up, while those perpendicular to it will cancel out. Therefore, the resultant tension in the element PQ is 2T sin q acting along AO and this provides the necessary centripetal force, making the particles of the string trace a circular path.

Frequency of vibration of a stretched string

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The fundamental mode of vibration of a stretched string is shown in the figure. It has two nodes at the ends and an antinode in the middle. If L is the length of the vibrating segment between the two nodes, then

Substituting for v from equation 1.47 we get

Laws of transverse vibrations of stretched strings

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Law of length
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"For a given string under constant tension, the frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to the length of the string.

Law of tension
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"For a given string of constant length, the frequency of vibration is directly proportional to the square root of the tension.

Law of mass
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"For a string of constant length and under a constant tension, the frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to the square root of its mass per unit length.

If M is the mass and L is the length of the string, then

If d is the diameter of the wire, then

Substituting in equation (1.48), we get

The law of mass may be put into two additional laws, for strings of circular cross-section, as given below.

Law of diameter
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"For a string of a given material and length and under a constant tension, the frequency is inversely proportional to its diameter.

Law of density
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"For a string of a given length and diameter and under constant tension, the frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the material of the string.