Wave Interference and Normal Modes

When two or more waves overlap in the

same region of space, the resulting effect
is called interference.
The resulting amplitude can be either
larger or smaller than the amplitude of
each individual wave, depending on
whether the waves are in-phase or out-
of-phase.

When the waves are in-phase,

the result is called constructive
interference.
qoccurs when the path difference
r_2-r_1 of two waves is equal to
the integral multiple of the
wavelength λ that is given by the
equation:

When they are one-half angle

out-of-phase, it is called
destructive interference.
qoccurs when the path difference
r_2-r_1 of two waves is equal to
that of the half-integral number
of wavelength λ given as:
 Wave Interference and Normal Modes

When two waves overlap, the displacement at any point is the

algebraic sum of the displacement of the corresponding points of the
overlapping waves.

In other words, the wave function y(x,t) that describes the resulting
motion in this situation is obtained by adding the two wave
functions for the two separate waves.
 sina + sinb = 2sin 1/2(a+b) cos 1/2 (a-b)

y1= Asin (kx -wt)

y2= Asin (kx -wt-Φ)
 sina + sinb = 2sin 1/2(a+b) cos 1/2 (a-b)

y1= Asin (kx -wt)

y2= Asin (kx +wt)
Standing waves on a string
A standing wave is produced by two trains of waves traveling in
opposite directions.
By the principle of superposition, the amplitude of the standing
wave is the algebraic sum of the instantaneous amplitudes of the
individual waves.

In a standing wave we can see points that never move at all. These
points are called NODES.
At a node, the displacement of two waves always equal and
opposite and cancel each other out.
Midway between the nodes are the points of greatest amplitude,
called the ANTINODE.
At the antinode, the displacement of two identical waves gives a
large resultant displacement.
Normal modes of a string
When there are two boundary
points or surfaces, we get
repeated reflections.
qIn such situation we find that
sinusoidal waves can occur only
for certain special frequencies,
which are determined by the
properties of the medium.

We can satisfy this condition by adjusting the string length to fit

an integral number of half-wavelengths or by setting up a
particular wave whose half-wavelengths will fit into the fixed
length of the string.
This standing wave can exist only if its wavelength satisfies the
equation
The corresponding frequencies are

Each frequency and its associated vibration pattern are called

Normal Modes.
The fundamental frequencyf_1 is the smallest frequency (n=1)
that correspond to the largest wavelength
A standing wave is produced on a 2m long taut string fixed at both
ends. The speed of the wave is 60m/s. At what frequency does the
string vibrate?
A 3cm stretched string fixed at both ends, vibrates in its third harmonic
at a frequency of 60Hz. What is the speed of the traveling transverse
waves on the string?

A person plucks a C note on a guitar string. As a result, it oscillates at a

fundamental frequency of 261Hz. Let the speed of waves on the string
be 400m/s. What is the length of the guitar string?
Longitudinal standing waves and normal modes

For sound waves in an air column of pipe, a closed end is a

displacement node and pressure antinode.
And the open end is a displacement antinode and pressure node.
For an open pipe (a pipe open at both ends), the normal mode
frequencies are:
Here, all harmonics are present.

For a closed pipe (a pipe open at one end and closed at the other), the
normal mode frequencies are:
Only the odd-harmonics are present.
Resonance

When a periodically varying

force is applied to a system
having normal modes, the
system vibrates as that of the
force; this is called forced
oscillation.
If the force frequency is equal to
one of the normal mode
frequencies, the amplitude of
the resulting forced oscillation
can become very large; this
phenomenon is called
resonance.
The normal range of hearing is about 20 to 20,000 Hz. What is the
greatest length of an organ pipe that would have its fundamental note
in the audible range if (a) it is closed at one end and (b) it is open at
both ends?
1. Draw the resultant of the two waves