Exploration Drilling: First Edition 2010

Exploration Drilling
First edition 2010 www.atlascopco.com
There is always a better way
At Atlas Copco, our focus on customer productivity requires a steadfast commitment to continuous improvement and finding solutions. It may be a design innovation to our surface and underground drill rigs, in-hole tools or diamond products. More efficient distribution may be made possible through new ways of thinking. Or a customers productivity will be enhanced through customized on-site service and training. Because we listen, we understand. Because we are more engaged, we will always find a better way.
Contents
Foreword
2 Foreword by Daniel Misiano
Marketing Manager Exploration Atlas Copco Geotechnical Drilling and Exploration
Talking technically
3 8 14 20 24 30 32 36 40 44 48
Trends in exploration Geology for exploration and mining Prospecting and exploration for minerals In search of the right balance An introduction to Reverse Circulation drilling Reverse circulation drilling with new hammer concept Four decades of Diamec core drilling rigs Selecting the right coring bit Efficient core recovery Hydraulic and mechanical surface drill rigs Keep the rig and business running
Case studies
50 52 54 58 62 66 68 70 72 74 76
Confirming the future of Zambian copper Atlas Copco exploration rigs prove reserves Excore optimizes performance for Drillcorp New record depth for CS14 core drilling rig Grade Control at Kemi Mine Reverse circulation drilling in Australia Diamec MCR in Australia Reverse circulation technology wins in Brazil Thin wall core barrels improve productivity Groundbreaking technology in the Valley of Gold Christensen CS3001 works well in extreme conditions
Product specifications
78 83 88 90 92 94
Diamec core drilling rigs Christensen core drilling rigs Explorac reverse circulation rigs Excore core drilling tools In-The-Hole tools Reverce circulation tools
For latest updates contact your local Atlas Copco Customer Center or refer to www.atlascopco.com
Front cover: Core sampling with Atlas Copco equipment. Northern College of Applied Arts and Technology, Kirkland Lake, Ontario Canada. Photographer: James Hodgins.
exploration drilling
Foreword
Satisfying future production demands
The mineral exploration community has, in recent decades, suffered its fair share of cyclical times. However, the latest cycle is unprecedented in the large swing from the successive boom years of 2005-2008 to the sharp decline in late 2008 caused by the global financial crisis. The last three cycles have one distinct common factor, which is the ongoing increase in demand for mineral resources as a result of global population growth and the emergence of less-developed countries. Even in the current economical turmoil, most will agree that the mid- to longterm outlook favours continued increased demand for mineral commodities, and pressure on exploration drilling programmes. Technological advances in all aspect of mineral exploration have ensured evolutionary and revolutionary improvements in drilling techniques, and Atlas Copco has continued to offer innovation and leadership in the supply of mineral exploration products. Our global presence has facilitated the introduction of new products such as computerized drilling rigs, high performance diamond tools, and improved in-the-hole equipment, which have been developed for both core and reverse circulation exploration applications. All of our products embody the safety and environmental features that are an integral part of Atlas Copcos continued commitment to our clients and the industry. The search for new mineral resources is in ever more remote areas of the globe, where infrastructure is often absent and the cultural acceptance towards mining may not yet be fully understood. In these environments, it can be difficult to attract and recruit skilled labour. It is therefore necessary to provide the exploration drilling companies with top quality products that will ensure increased productivity, optimized efficiency, and reduced downtime. Apart from the obvious advantages, such products are also a major factor in improved labour retention. When designing, manufacturing, selling and servicing Atlas Copco equipment, we strive to achieve optimal productivity, minimal downtime, best safety, environmental friendliness and high return on investment for the customer. These important objectives are achieved by a collaboration of customer input and Atlas Copcos ability to bring to market such products and services. We must never underestimate the value of our clients input, and its role in creating a lasting and trusting business relationship. Each of our products needs to reflect the clients signature, something which Atlas Copco is proud to achieve. The ambition in offering this reference book is to further encourage interaction between all respective parties, technical and commercial, who have a special interest in mineral exploration applications. The participants include the global exploration community of drilling services, governmental agencies, consultants, geological associations and companies, educational institutions and, of course, our own sales, marketing and technical organization. The cases described in this manual are chosen for the variety of geological, geotechnical and environmental conditions experienced in different parts of the world. We sincerely hope that the articles will lead to continued interaction between the diverse parties that form our exploration community. It is our objective to be an integral part of the continued challenge to be more competitive and profitable. Yours sincerely
Daniel Misiano
Marketing Manager Exploration Atlas Copco Geotechnical Drilling and Exploration daniel.misiano@se.atlascopco.com
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Trends in exploration
necessity of mineral exploration
production, survival and expansion. These activities are undertaken on a more or less continuous basis by the internal organization of individual companies, by contractors, or by funding junior companies. Exploration is carried out close to existing mine sites in order to identify and investigate extensions, and in new areas to find and delineate fresh deposits. Historically, spending on exploration is cyclical, and tends to follow metal and mineral prices and the general business trend.
exploration cycle
Mineral exploration is, by definition, the process of finding ore to mine. Ore is commercially viable concentrations of minerals. Usually undertaken by mining companies, partnerships or corporations, mineral exploration is a more intensive, organized and professional form of mineral prospecting. Despite frequently using prospecting services, the process of mineral exploration is a much more involved operation. The exploration cycle includes a number of steps and activities such as area selection, target generation, geophysical methods, remote sensing, geochemical methods, resource evaluation, reserve definition and extraction. Resource evaluation usually involves core or reverse circulation drilling, by which time a lot of money has already been invested into the exploration project. These first drill holes are needed to verify the findings from the initial investigation, and all obtained cores or samples are saved as tangible proof of what has been found.
exploration spending
Exploration expenditure is mainly driven by metal prices and, in the long run, by metals demand. When metals demand peaks, so does exploration expenditure.
Explorac 220RC reverse circulation rig operating in Australia.
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Studying non-ferrous exploration budgets over a 20-year period (see fig. 1), we can see that, after a flat period in the beginning of the 1990s, there was an increase in spending for six consecutive years, reaching a peak in 1997. But in 2002, after a steady five years, spending fell back to the 1989 level. Since then, exploration budgets increased dramatically every year, reaching an all-time high in 2008. Then the world economic downturn in late 2008 drastically reduced the level of activity, and spending in 2009 dropped off accordingly. This shows
Figure 1: estimated total worldwide exploration budgets (excl. uranium), 1989-2008 (US$)
clearly just how highly cyclical the exploration drilling business is. The historical budget figures have not been adjusted for inflation, which means that the actual growth is not as large as indicated. This means that the actual activity on the ground has not increased in direct proportion to the expenditure, despite continuously increasing exploration costs.
increasing difficulties
Some cost increases were due to lack of staff and equipment during the mining
Figure 3: Worldwide exploration budgets by compant type, 1999-2008 (as a percentage of worldwide exploration)
boom. Also, new deposits are found in more remote and challenging regions located further away from final markets, high up in the mountain ranges of Latin America or out in the Asian deserts. In addition, ore grades are continuously declining, making discoveries more difficult than when ore bodies outcropped or were at shallow depths. At the same time, increased demand made it necessary to increase the rate of discovery of new deposits, otherwise total ore reserves to relative total metal production would decrease. With hindsight, it is apparent that exploration should have been increased at a higher pace than that achieved. As a result, the current decline, driven by falling metal prices, has been more dramatic than the trough in 2001/2002. This brings about the likelihood of another price peak in a few years time, driven by a perceived reduction in reserves.
increase in all regions

During the five years to 2008, exploration increased in all regions, and the relative geographical distribution remained basically the same, see fig. 2. North America as a region is still number one, closely followed by Latin America, which for a long time has been a popular exploration region. Canada keeps its top position as the most popular country, followed by Australia. Yearon-year growth in each region varied considerably. Forinstance, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Indonesia planned for a 60 % increase in exploration in 2008 compared with 2007. Also worth noting is the fact that exploration expenditure in Africa is considerably higher than the regions share of mine production, indicating that its future role in metal and minerals production will grow. Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Tanzania, Botswana and Ghana are countries with high exploration activities. Meantime, China and Mongolia are the most important countries in Asia.
Figure 2: Worldwide non-ferrous exploration budgets by region, 2008
Figure 4: Worldwide non-ferrous exploration budgets by target, 2008
active players
The global mining industry is made up of some 6 000 companies. The vast majority are the 4-5 000 junior exploration
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companies that do not have a mine in operation, but hope to find new deposits to exploit. These companies do not have any cash flow, but depend on funding from the stock exchanges or from private placements for risk capital. They are small, innovative, and often with highly trained staff. They have been willing to take risk and are fast to make decisions, and dare to go into new areas and to apply geological models in new ground. In recent years, the juniors have accounted for a growing proportion of exploration expenditure, but in 2008 there was a slower growth for the juniors and an increased spending from the major companies. Many of the traditional mining companies have earlier downscaled their internal exploration departments and spread their risk by funding juniors, see fig. 3. In the Nordic countries, for example, juniors accounted for some 50% of exploration, and this figure is similar for companies based in Canada, Australia and the UK.
greenfields vs brownfields
During the last five years the share of the grassroots exploration has decreased, and Late Stage and Minesite have taken over that share. The spending in Late Stage has become larger than in grassroots exploration. The junior companies have accounted for more than half of the grassroots exploration, and major companies for about 80 % of the minesite exploration during the same period. The increase in the brownfields sector indicates the efforts to both replace and increase the ore reserves in existing mining areas. With less total spending on exploration after the beginning of the financial crisis in late 2008, it can be expected that the share of the grassroots exploration will continue to decrease. On the other hand, there is a demand for new large mineral deposits, and they have most probably to be found in new sites in remote areas. This should result in increasing greenfield exploration.
Type of metals
2008 was the first year since 1989 when exploration budgets for base metals such
Christensen CS4002 surface core drilling rig operating in Mexico.
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Diamec U8 APC core drilling rig in operation.
as copper, nickel and zinc were higher than for gold, See fig. 4. Gold has, prior to 2008, always attracted more capital than other metals, but for five consecutive years the percentage spend for gold has declined. However, looking for gold has always been exciting, and will continue to be so. Diamonds are the third most important mineral after gold and copper but, like gold, declined for five years.
Definitions (courtesy Meg)
looking forward
The world economy is a major influence on the exploration business, with metal prices and availability of minerals as the main driver. After the chaos in the world economy in late 2008, it was natural that the level of exploration activity should significantly reduce. Because credit is now less-freely available, it can be expected
Junior companies Category mainly includes pure explorers, but also aspiring producers. Principal means of funding exploration is through equity financing. Major companies Companies with annual non-ferrous mining-related revenue of more than US$ 500 million, and the financial strength to develop a major mine. grassroots exploration From the earliest stage through to perimeter drilling, prior to quantification of initial resource. Includes reconnaissance and evaluative forays. Minesite All exploration at or around an existing mine site held by the company, including searching for satellite orebodies within economic transport distance. late stage Exploration to further define, quantify, and upgrade a previously identified orebody, including feasibility work up to a positive production decision. intermediate In the first hand based on a company's adjusted annual revenue with at least $ 50 million in annual non-ferrous revenue and less than $ 500 million major-company threshold.
that less capital will be available for new exploration projects. However, mineral exploration is an optimistic business, and new projects will emerge as the long-term demand for metals increases. In 2009 we are observing a steep decline in the exploration business in line with that of the global economy. The question is how deep will the curve dip? Will it be down to the 2002 level, or will it level out before that point? It is possible that the mining companies have learned from the previous downturn in 2002, when it took a long time to restart exploration activities after deep cuts in spending and resources. Nowadays, many companies have integrated exploration into their longterm business strategy, and carry on planning their exploration activities over the business cycle. They may well stick to their original plans, and pick up the activity level after the initial cuts. There is a question mark hanging over whether the trends will swing more with higher peaks and lower bottoms, or just swing faster. There are many theories about how the global economy will develop, and how exploration demand will contribute to its revival. The cost of exploration has increased, and in order to find future volumes and qualities of minerals, exploration has to be in remote areas and, in some cases, high-risk areas with higher costs. Some of these cost increases can be compensated by use of new methods, and by investment in new and more efficient exploration equipment. For example, core drilling rigs have been developed to operate in deeper holes, demanding less personnel and support, contributing to higher productivity. All mining companies have to ensure proven ore reserves for long-term growth, for which core in the boxes, showing grade and quantity, is essential as the proof. That is their future capital.
anders gustafsson
Atlas Copco is very grateful to Metal Economics Group for the right to publish their graphs and definitions.
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Core drilling operation in Mexico.
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geology for exploration and mining

importance of geology
A thorough understanding of the geology of a mineral deposit is fundamental to its successful exploitation. As such, geology is a vital factor in the process of selecting methods in exploration and mining. The theory of plate tectonics has improved our knowledge of ore formation, and also helps the explorer to select areas of high mineral potential. Plate tectonics gives us a better understanding of important geological processes like mountain building, volcanism and earthquakes, and how these processes are connected. The use of geological models makes exploration and mining more effective. This chapter reviews basic aspects of geology that may affect decisions about exploration and mining. Atlas Copco offers a full range of drilling products for site investigation, and for mine development and production.
Volcanic rocks sculptured by wind erosion, southern Bolivia.
The earth
The earth consists of an inner and outer core surrounded by a mantle. At the surface is a thin layer of rocks known as the crust. This shell-like structure has been confirmed by studying seismic waves originating from earthquakes. The velocity, or propagation, of these waves is related to the density of the material and its state, be it solid or liquid. According to this interpretation, the inner core is solid and the outer core is liquid. The mantle and the thin crust of the earth are solid. The thickness of the core and mantle together corresponds roughly to half the radius of the earth. We can observe only the upper part of the earths crust. The deepest drill hole is 11 km, but we can get information from the equivalent of some tens of km by studying eroded mountain chains. The earth was formed more than 4.6 billion years ago by aggregation of
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cosmic material from our solar system. The meteorites falling down on earth are of same origin as our planet so, by studying this material, we can get data about the chemical composition of the deeper part of the earth. There are two types of meteorites: stone meteorites dominated by Fe-Mg-silicates, or chondrites; and iron meteorites mainly consisting of metallic iron and nickel. Seismic and meteorite data indicate that the chemical composition of the core is similar to iron meteorites and that of the mantle is similar to stone meteorites. The difference in density also explains the velocity of the seismic waves in core and mantle, and the high average density of the earth, which is about 5.5 g/cm3. The thickness of the crust is normally between 10 and 35 km. However, there is a great difference in thickness between oceanic crust and continental crust. Under a mountain chain the crust thickness can be up to 70 km. The chemical composition of the outer part
of the crust is well known, and is dominated by seven elements: silica, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The continental crust is higher in silica, aluminium and alkali due to the high content of granitic rocks. The oceanic crust is lower in silica but higher in magnesium and iron due to the dominance of volcanic rocks, mainly basalts.
Minerals
A mineral is a natural chemical compound with a defined crystal structure and composition. A rock, on the other hand, is a naturally formed aggregate of minerals. There are thousands of different minerals but only about fifty rock-forming ones, most of which are silicates, always containing silica and oxygen. Feldspars account for almost 50% of the earths crust and are hence the most common mineral. They can be grouped in potassium feldspar and plagioclase (sodium-calcium-feldspar).
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Other main rock-forming silicates are pyroxene, amphibole, quartz and mica. In addition there are at least three other types of minerals: sulphides, oxides and carbonates. To identify a mineral in the field, one or more of the following physical properties of minerals are considered: hardness, density, streak, lustre, cleavage and crystalline form. Mineral hardness is commonly graded according to Mohs scale, based on ten minerals of increasing hardness. The hardness scale starts with talc as the softest mineral, and ends with diamond as the hardest of all known minerals. The density of many rock-forming minerals is between 2.6 and 3.2 g/cm 3. Most ore minerals have a density of 4 or higher. Some elements have much higher densities, gold for example 19.3 g/cm3. Other diagnostic features are streak, cleavage and crystal type. Streak is the colour of mineral powder produced when a mineral is scratched, whereas cleavage describes the property of a crystal to split along certain crystallographic surfaces. All minerals belong to one of seven crystal systems. For example galena (PbS) sometimes forms small cubes, which is typical for cubic minerals. Mica has a layered structure, which causes cleavage parallel to these layers.
EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICAN PLATE CARIBBEAN PLATE
ARABIAN PLATE
INDIAN PLATE
NAZCA PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE AUSTRALIAN PLATE SCOTIA PLATE
Fig 1: Some of the major plates of the world.
Plate tectonics
The modern theory of plate tectonics has improved the understanding of basic geological processes like mountain building, volcanism, earthquakes and formation of many types of ores. According to this theory, the crust and upper part of the mantle can be divided into 10-12 major plates, which move in a complex pattern. The driving force of this movement can be attributed to heat generated by radioactive decay within the mantle and core. The heat is transported by slow convection streams, which move the plates. The speed of the motion of plates is just a few centimetres per year. Three major plates are North American which includes North America, Mexico and Greenland, South American which includes the whole of South America and a part of the Atlantic, and the
African plate consisting of the African continent and parts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. These plates are shown in fig.1. Plates can interact by moving apart (divergence) or towards each other (convergence). Three types of plate margins will be discussed briefly. When two continental plates collide, mountain ranges may be formed. Thus the collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates resulted in the formation of the Himalayas, the highest mountain chain on earth. When an oceanic plate moves towards a continental plate such as South America the oceanic plate will move below the continent, or subduct. When the oceanic plate starts to melt, volcanic activity will occur. Therefore, we find a great number of volcanoes along the western part of South America. Subduction also leads to the formation of ores. In the middle of the Atlantic there is a long chain of volcanoes called the
mid-Atlantic ridge. Similar ridges are found in the other oceans. Along these ridges two oceanic plates are moving apart, leading to partial melting of the mantle below. This causes repeated eruptions of basaltic lava, forming a new ocean floor. The youngest volcanic rocks are found close to the ocean ridge, and the age of the rocks increases out from the spreading centre. The mechanism of seafloor spreading is an important part of the plate tectonic theory. Volcanic activity occurs at diverging, or spreading, ocean plates and also as a result of a collision between ocean plates and continental plates. Volcanism is normally accompanied by earthquakes, which may be extra strong when two plates are sheared or sliding along each other. The earthquakes in Los Angeles are of this type. A collision between the Nazca and South American plate is shown in the fig. 2 on the following page.At a certain depth the subducted Nazca plate will
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Porphyry copper Mn nodules with Cu, Ni, Co 0 km Ocean Continent 30
60
200
Fig 2: Andean type ocean - continent collision.
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start to melt. The magma intrudes into the overlying rocks and also causes volcanic activity. Most porphyry copper deposits are formed in this geological environment. This is the main reason for the frequent deposits of this type along the Andean mountain range. One third of the worlds copper production comes from Chile as a result. Porphyry copper deposits are always associated with quartzdioritic or granodioritic intrusive rocks with a porphyry texture. The copper mineralization is not only found in the intrusive, but also in the surrounding rocks. The main copper minerals of porphyry copper deposits are chalcopyrite and bornite. The content of copper in this type of deposit is usually low, about 0.5%, but porphyry copper often contains some gold and molybdenum. Due to the large size of these deposits they are mainly mined in cost effective open pits, and form the greater part of the worlds copper production. The discovery of black smokers found at the bottom of the ocean close to a spreading centre was a big sensation. Black and hot at about 350 degrees C, hydrothermal solutions rich in sulphides are injected into the water from chimney-like structures. When the hot
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sulphide solution comes into contact with seawater, the sulphides are immediately precipitated. The sulphide minerals formed in this way are mainly of pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite. Similar deposits of old age have been mined on Cyprus for thousands of years. Black smokers can be called a modern analogue for the frequent volcanic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits mined all over the world. The first commercial attempts to exploit black smokers are underway in the deep waters north of Papua New Guinea. Another interesting type of mineralization related to plate tectonics is the occurrence of manganese nodules on the ocean floor. These nodules of varying size are formed close to active spreading centres, where hot metal-rich water emerges. The nodules formed are rich in manganese and iron and have low concentrations of copper and nickel. The quantity of these nodules is huge but the potential cost of exploitation is, at least for the time being, too high.
Magmatic rocks
Magmatic, or igneous, rocks are formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma. This is normally taking place
at great depths in the earth, where pressure and temperature are high. If the intrusion of magma occurs deep in the crust, cooling and crystallization is a slow process. This will favour a coarse-grained texture, which is typical for intruded magmatic rocks. Some magma will reach the surface, where it loses most of its gas content turning into lava, which forms volcanic rocks. At that stage, the crystallization is much faster and results in a fine-grained or glassy volcanic rock. The shape of volcanoes often reveals the chemical composition of the erupted lava. Basic lava, or basalt, often has a low viscosity, forming shield volcanoes or more or less horizontal lava fields. When the content of silica increases in the magma, it also gets richer in water. Such a combination leads to more explosive eruptions, and the formation of strato volcanoes with cone shaped profiles. This type of volcano is composed of alternating beds of lava and pyroclastic material, and the chemical composition is intermediate or acidic. Table 1 shows volcanic rocks have a magmatic (plutonic) counterpart. The volcanic basalt corresponds to gabbro, andesite to diorite, dacite to quartz diorite, and
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rhyolite to granite. When a magmatic rock contains large crystals in finegrained groundmass it is known as porphyry. When the magma is rich in silica, a light coloured rock is formed. It has a high content of silica and feldspar, and is known as felsic. On the other hand, if the magma is poor in silica but rich in magnesium and iron minerals like olivine and different kinds of pyroxenes, amphiboles will dominate causing a dark colour of the rock. This type of basic rock is called mafic. If the content of SiO2 is lower than 45% we get ultramafic rocks like komatiites and peridotites. This kind of rock is often associated with nickel mineralization, see table 1.
Table 1: Main magmatic rocks

Silica content Basic <52% SiO 2 Intermediate 52-65% SiO2 Plutonic rocks Gabbro Diorite Syenite Acidic >65%SiO2 Quartz diorite Granodiorite Granite Dykes and silts Diabase Porphyrite Syenite porphyry Quartz porphyrite Granodiorite porphyry Quartz porphyry Volcanic rocks Basalt Andesite Trachyte Dacite Rhyodacite Rhyolite
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of eroded fragmented rocks or precipitation of dissolved material. Sedimentary rocks are quite common, covering about 75% of the surface of the earth. However, the volume of sedimentary rocks is low, indicating limited thickness of these rocks. Sedimentary rocks can be divided into two types, clastic and chemical, as shown in the table to the right. Clastic sediments consist of fragments of eroded rocks. Thus, the original rock will partially determine characteristics of the sedimentary rock. Large rounded rock fragments in a finer matrix of fragments are called conglomerate. If the rock is dominated by grains of sand, it is called sandstone. A greywacke is a kind of sandstone with a matrix of fragments, sand and clay. Limestone is the most common of the carbonate rocks. It is either formed by chemical precipitation of calcite, or from depositions of skeletons of dead organisms such as corals and molluscs. Chert is a chemical sediment consisting mainly of quartz. Evaporites like gypsum and halite are formed in bays and lakes of arid regions. Bedding, or layering, is a characteristic feature of many sedimentary rocks. The layering may be due to a variation in grain size or in chemical composition. Initially, the layers are more or less horizontal, but later tectonic forces may fold or overturn
A typical sandstone.
Table 2: Some sedimentary rocks

Type of sediment Clastic sediments Rock type Conglomerate Sandstone Greywacke Shale Chemical sediments Limestone Chert Gypsum, halite Composition/Original material Gravel, stones and boulders Grains of quartz and small fragments of rocks Like a sandstone but with higher content of rock fragments and argillaceous material Fine-grained argillaceous material Precipitated calcium carbonate Precipitation of fine-grained quartz Evaporation of sea water
the layers. Sedimentary rocks make up a very heterogeneous family with varying characteristics as shown in table 2.
Metamorphic rocks
When magmatic or sedimentary rocks are subjected to high temperature and pressure they will re-crystallize, often
forming new minerals. A metamorphic rock is formed. The change in mineral composition means that the new minerals are stable at the higher temperature and pressure. This occurs without melting of the original rocks, and little change in the chemical composition. Metamorphic rocks are also characterized by new texture and structure.The reason
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Table 3: Typical metamorphic rocks

Rock type Amphibolite Mica schist Gneiss Green-schist Quartzite Leptite Slate Marble Original rock Basalt, diabase, gabbro Mudstone, greywacke, etc Various igneous rocks Basalt, diabase, gabbro Sandstone Dacite Shale Limestone Degree of metamorphism High Medium to high High Low Medium to high Medium Low Medium
for a change in temperature and pressure may be due to heat from intruding magma, or because the rocks or sediments have sunk deeper into the earths crust. Compression and tension in the earths crust also play an important role during the metamorphic stage. Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the earths crust. They are divided into three groups, depending on the degree of metamorphism: low, medium
and high. In the first group there are only slight changes in mineral composition. Typical low-grade minerals are chlorite, albite and epidot. At medium and high metamorphism many new minerals are formed, for example, sillimanite and garnet. Due to the strong re-crystallization, all primary textures are destroyed, and in many cases it is very difficult to determine the primary rock. Metamorphic processes often
make the rock denser and harder and more difficult to drill. Foliation is a kind of layering which is a characteristic feature of many metamorphic rocks. When rocks re-crystallize under pressure from one direction, platy minerals like mica are orientated in layers perpendicular to the source of pressure. This results in banded or foliated rocks. Another type of metamorphic structure is lineation, where elongated crystals in the rock are oriented in the same direction, resulting in a cigar-like structure. Very often, the metamorphic rocks are named after the parent rock. Metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are called metasediments and volcanic rocks metavolcanites. Some examples of metamorphic rocks are given in table 3. Quartzite is a very hard rock formed by the metamorphism of pure sandstone. Schist is a common metamorphic rock of medium to high grade. This rock is often named after the most common mineral, for example: mica schist; and chlorite schist. Marble is a well-known metamorphic rock formed from re-crystallized limestone.
Rock cycle
at liz al st ry
ion
MAGMA
Sm el ti
n
g
IM
EN TS
TA EN KS M C DI SE RO
Cementation
Fig 3: Rock cycle.
There is a relationship between magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, which is shown in the fig. 3. Starting with the magma at the top of the figure and going down to the left, the magma will crystallize into a magmatic rock due to decreasing temperature and pressure. If crystallization occurs within the crust, an intrusive rock results, for example, granite. If the magma is erupted by volcanic activity, the result will be rhyolitic lava, or a tuff of similar composition. A rock formed at high temperature and pressure is not stable at the surface of the earth. When magmatic rocks are exposed to surface conditions, rocks are eroded and weathered by mechanical and chemical processes.Chemical weathering will decompose many minerals, but the remaining part of more resistant minerals and rock fragments will be transported by water, ice or wind until deposition occurs. After sedimentation, compaction and cementation of the mineral grains, a
MA GM RO ATIC CK S
PHIC MOR TA S ME ROCK
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Me
tam orp
SE
g erin p. Weath trans Erosion
hism
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sedimentary rock is formed. If the sedimentary rock is buried deeper and deeper under other rocks and sediments, the increasing pressure and temperature will cause re-crystallization, often combined with the formation of new minerals. A metamorphic rock is formed. At great depth in the crust the metamorphic rock will start to melt and form a new magma, and the cycle is completed. However, there are also some other possibilities. When metamorphic rocks are exposed at the earths surface, weathering starts and the cycle is shortcircuited. Erosion and weathering will transform the rock into sediment, which later can form a sedimentary rock. There is also a possibility that a magmatic rock is metamorphosed without forming a sedimentary rock in between. In other words recycling of rocks is always going on.
Table 4: important ore minerals and their composition

Metal Cobalt Chromium Copper Copper Copper Gold Iron Iron Lead Molybdenum Nickel Silver Tin Titanium Tungsten Tungsten Zinc Ore mineral Cobaltite, Chromite, Chalcopyrite Chalcocite Bornite Native gold Hematite Magnetite Galena Molybdenite Pentlandite Native silver Cassiterite Ilmenite Wolframite Scheelite Sphalerite Mineral formula (Co,Fe)AsS FeCr2O4 CuFeS2 Cu2S Cu5FeS4 Au Fe2O3 Fe3O4 PbS MoS2 (Fe,Ni)9S8 Ag SnO2 FeTiO3 (Fe,Mn)WO4 CaWO4 (Zn,Fe)S
Formation and classification of ores

Ore is a natural concentration of one or more heavy metals which can be mined with profit. Such a concentration in the earths crust is very rare. The reason is that most metals have to be concentrated many thousands of times to form an ore. A mine also needs a minimum size, a good location, and a qualified staff. Furthermore, the ore should be possible to mine and concentrate to become an economical success. Ores can be formed by the same processes as rocks. This means that magmatic (igneous), sedimentary and metamorphic processes play important roles in formation of mineral deposits. Hydrothermal activity is another important process, often related to magmatic activity, in ore formation. Hot circulating water leaches metals from passing throw rocks, and these metals are later precipitated due to cooling, pressure decrease, or a chemical reaction with another fluid. Some major ore types are summarized in the table 5.
Table 5: Some major ore types

Processes Magmatic Sulphide immiscibility Crystal fractionation Silicate-sulphide immiscibility Magmatichydrothermal hydrothermal Fluid mixing Hydrothermal solutions Exhalative venting black smokers Sedimentary exhalative Sedimentary Sedimentation of heavy minerals Placer deposits. Gold in conglomerate Au Fe Iron oxide-copper-gold deposits, associated with felsic volcanic rocks. Ex. Olympic Dam, Australia Epithermal quartz-gold veins, Lode deposits in tectonically deformed zones. Volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS). Ex. Trodoos deposits, Cyprus SEDEX deposits in sedimentary rocks. Ex. Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag deposit, Alaska Au, Ag Au, Ag Cu, Zn Zn, Pb, Ag Nickel and copper deposit. Ex. Sudbury, Canada Monomineralic chromite layers. Ex. Bushveld Complex, South Africa Komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu deposits. Ex. Kalgoorlie, Australia Copper porphyry deposits, associated with granodioritic intrusions. Ex. La Escondida, Chile Ni, Cu Cr Ni,Cu Cu, Au, Mo Type of ore/mineralisation Metals
Tom ekstrm
Contributors; Hans Fernberg and Magnus Ericsson
Chemical sedimentation Ironstones and banded iron formations (BIF). Ex. Mount Whaleback, Australia
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Prospecting and exploration for minerals

in search for orebodies
For a geologist in the mining business, exploiting an existing orebody is the easy part of the job. The hardest part is to find new ore deposits and to define their extent and metal content (grade). But how do you find these accumulations of metallic minerals in the earth's crust? The mining company has to ensure that the deposit is economically viable and needs a guarantee of ore production over a sufficiently long period of time, before the heavy investments required to set up a mining operation will be considered. Even after production starts, it is necessary to locate and delineate any extensions to the mineralization, and to look for new prospects that may replace the reserves being mined. Investigating extensions, and searching for new deposits, are vital activities for the mining company.
Prospecting
Prospecting involves searching a district for mineral deposits with the view to mine it at a profit. In other words to transform the mineral deposit into an orebody. Exploration, while it sounds similar to prospecting, is the term used for systematic examination of a deposit. After an interesting area is chosen, an application for exploration permit is made. Approval by officials is needed before exploration activities can commence. It is not easy to define the point where prospecting turns into exploration. A geologist prospecting a district is looking for surface exposure of minerals, by observing irregularities in colour, shape or rock composition. His experience tells him where to look, to have the greatest chances of success. Sometimes he will stumble across ancient, shallow
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Gold panning in the wind.
Table 1: Exploration activity sequence in general

Area selection and review of existing data Application for permit Air borne survey Geochemical survey
Activity
Geopysical survey on surface Trenching Drilling Environmental impact study Application for mining permit Feasibility study
Time
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mine workings, which might have been what led him to prospect that particular area in the first place. Gravity methods such as panning is used for gold prospecting in alluvial river beds. In areas with limited access to water wind panning can be done towards the wind direction.
exploration activities
The first step is to conduct a review of historical and existing data, See table 1, Especially from closed down mines and terminated exploration there often exist core samples and other relevant information which can be accessed. This can result in great savings in time and money required for new activities. One of the cheapest phases of property exploration is preparation of a comprehensive, detailed and accurate geological map which often starts with basic instruments such as tape and compass. The accuracy can be enhanced by using air photos to help locate outcrops, major fault zones and basic topographic control. Each step adds some more costs, but it also improves the accuracy and detail of the resulting map. Soil-covered ground is inaccessible to the prospector, whose first check would be to look for an outcrop of the mineralization. Where the ground cover comprises a shallow layer of alluvial material, trenches can be dug across the mineralized area to expose the bedrock. See picture to the right. A prospector will identify the discovery, measure both width and length, and estimate the mineralized area. Samples from the trenches are sent to the laboratory for analysis. Even when minerals can be found on the surface, determining any extension in depth is a matter of qualified guesswork. If the prospector's findings, and his theorizing about the probable existence of an orebody are solid, the next step would be to explore the surrounding ground. Exploration is a term embracing geophysics, geochemistry, and finally the more costly activities viz drilling into the ground for obtaining samples from any depth. Table 1 shows the sequence in time of various exploration methods. Efficient mineral exploration depends on increasingly sophisticated map
Are there minerals in the trench? International Gold Exploration AB, IGE conducts exploration works in Burundi.
production for planning purpose and access routes, for geological, geophysical, geochemical and structural mapping. Today detailed aerial topographic maps are available in many parts of the world giving the explorer basic information to determine where to find areas with good mineral potential.
geophysical exploration
After their introduction in the 1950s airborne geophysical surveys became commonly used as a first step in geophysical exploration. Large areas can be effectively covered in a short period of time. The most
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Airborne and surface geophysical survey map indicates where drill holes will be located, ref Lappland Goldminers, photo Patrick Trdgrdh.
common aero-geophysical maps are magnetometer maps which record the variations in the earths magnetic field with high degree of accuracy. The optimal selection of altitude and spacing as well as choice of instrumentation is important. From surface, different geophysical methods are used to explore subsurface formations, based on the physical properties of rock and metal bearing minerals such as magnetism, gravity, electrical conductivity, radioactivity, and sound velocity. Two or more methods are often combined in one survey, to acquire more reliable data. Results from the surveys are compiled, and matched with geological information from surface and chips or core samples from any previous core drilling, to decide if it is worth proceeding with further exploration. If yes, the information form basis for future drilling campaigns. As geophysical survey is commonly conducted from the air to begin with, information from the surface surveys are compared and added to the airborne mapping.
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Magnetic surveys measure variations in the earth's magnetic field caused by magnetic properties of subsurface rock formations. In prospecting for metallic minerals, these techniques are particularly useful for locating magnetite, pyrrhotite and ilmenite. EM (Electromagnetic) surveys are based on variations of electric conductivity in the rock mass. A transmitter is used to create a primary alternating electromagnetic field. Induced currents produce a secondary field in the rock mass. The resultant field can be traced and measured, thus revealing the conductivity of the underground masses. Electromagnetic surveys are mainly used to map geological structures, and to discover mineral deposits such as sulphides containing copper or lead, magnetite, pyrite, graphite, and certain manganese minerals. Electric surveys measure either the natural flow of electricity in the ground, or galvanic currents led into the ground and accurately controlled. Electrical surveys are used to locate mineral deposits at shallow depth and map geological structures to determine the
depth of overburden to bedrock, or to locate the groundwater table. IP (Induced polarization) surveys are conducted along grid lines with readings taken at receiving electrodes planted in the earth and moved from station to station. The electrodes, connected to a receiver, measure the chargeability (the capacity for various minerals to build up a charge of electricity) and resistivity effects on current forced into the ground and bedrock. The minerals detected by IP surveys are generally the same as for EM methods. Gravimetric surveys measure small variations in the gravitational field caused by the pull of underlying rock masses. The variation in gravity may be caused by faults, anticlines, and salt domes that are often associated with oil-bearing formations. Gravimetric surveys are also used to detect high-density minerals, like iron ore, pyrites and lead-zinc mineralizations. In regions where rock formations contain radioactive minerals, the intensity of radiation will be considerably higher than the normal background level. Measuring radiation
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levels helps locate deposits containing uranium, thorium and other minerals associated with radioactive substances. Seismic survey is based on variations of sound velocity experienced in different geological strata. The time is measured for sound to travel from a source on surface, through the underlying layers, and up again to one or more detectors placed at some distance on surface. The source of sound might be the blow of a sledgehammer, a heavy fallen weight, a mechanical vibrator or an explosive charge. Seismic surveys determine the quality of bedrock and can locate the contact surface of geological layers, or of a compact mineral deposit in the ground. Seismic surveys are also used to locate oil-bearing strata. All results from the survey are superimposed on maps which will show dozens or often hundreds of anomalous patterns which are useful when optimum location of drill holes are decided. See picture to the left
geochemical surveying
Geochemical surveying is another exploration technology featuring several specialities, the main one being to detect the presence of metals in the topsoil. By taking a large number of samples over an extended area and analyzing the contents of each metal, regions of interest are identified. The area is then selected for more detailed studies. The geochemist will take stream samples on a regional basis covering many square kilometers of the supposed favourable terrain. That survey will be followed by more detailed sampling of variations in chemical composition of drainages and by soil sample grids in anomalous areas. The area chosen might be relatively acidic or the metal ions in the ground water being neutralized by a bed of limestone. Rapid and accurate analytical methods such as atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP) have made it possible to determine many elements, commonly 30, in each sample which generates a vast amount of data. Exploration commonly includes programs of soil sampling. This entails digging holes at certain intervals to collect soil samples from identified horizons. The samples are placed in
Airborne geophysical surveys.
bags, dried, screened to collect the finer material and analyzed for pathfinder elements. A soil sampling survey might result in thousands of samples which need computer programs for efficient data handling. Geochemical surveys can also be conducted on rock chips from outcrops or rocky debris. Biochemical surveys might use leaves or bark in forested regions or plants and sage brush in arid environment.
exploratory drilling
The next and most expensive part of the exploration sequence is drilling. For a driller, all other exploration methods are like beating about the bush. Drilling penetrates deep into the ground, and brings up samples of whatever it finds on its way. If there is any mineralization at given points far beneath the surface, drilling can give a straightforward answer, and can quantify its presence at that particular point. The expenditure for drilling comprises about half of the total exploration costs mentioned above.
There are two main methods of exploratory drilling. Core drilling, yields a solid cylinder shaped sample of the ground at an exact depth. Percussion drilling yields a crushed sample, comprising cuttings from a fairly well-determined depth in the hole. Beyond that, the drillhole itself can provide a complementary amount of information, particularly by logging using devices to detect physical anomalies, similar to the geophysical surveys mentioned above. Core drilling is also used to define the size and the exact boundaries of mineralization. This is important for determining ore grades being handled, and vital for calculating the mineral reserves that will keep the mine running in the future. A strategically placed underground core drilling may also intersect new ore bodies in the neighbourhood. The core is an intact sample of the underground geology, which can be examined thoroughly by the geologist to determine the exact nature of the rock and any mineralization. Samples of special interest are sent to a laboratory for
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From prospecting to mining

To quantify the mineralization, and to define the shape, size and metal content of the deposit, the step by step procedure in exploration activities is required. At every step of the procedure, the geologists examine the information at hand, to recommend continuing the exploration efforts. The objective is to be fairly certain that the deposit is economically viable by providing a detailed knowledge of the geology for a clear financial picture. Ore is an economic concept, defined as a concentration of minerals, which can be economically exploited and turned into a saleable product. Before a mineral deposit can be labelled as an orebody, full knowledge is required about the mineralization, proposed mining technology and processing methods. The environmental impacts of mining and mineral processing are carefully studied and need approval. In case no serious negative impacts are found, the owners apply for permission to conduct mining operations in the area. A prerequisite for this application is owner's confidence of sustained profitability over a long period of time. At this stage a comprehensive feasibility study is undertaken covering capital requirements, returns on investment, payback period and other essentials, in order for the board of directors of the company to make the final decision on developing the prospect into a mine. The costs for a feasibility study is quite substantial and could reach an amount of approximately of 5% of the required capital costs for the entire mining project. Based on all geological documentation and the study the owners get a good idea of how to mine the deposit; whether it will be surface open pit mining or underground operations with or without backfilling of the excavated stopes. In the majority of cases mining will start with open pit excavation gradually turning into underground mining once the waste to ore ratio becomes too excessive at deeper horizons. Fig 1 shows initial mining plans at the Suurikuusikko gold mining project in northern Finland.
Fig 1. Two computer generated views of Agnico Eagle's Suurikuusiko gold mining project showing both surface and underground mining.
analysis to reveal any metal contents. Cores from exploration drilling are stored in special boxes and kept in archives for a long period of time. Boxes are marked to identify from which hole, and at what depth, the sample was taken. The information gathered by core drilling is important, and represents substantial capital investment. To obtain fast geological information at less costs, reverse circulation methods are commonly used. Instead of core
samples the geologist gets access to drill cuttings (chips) throughout the hole length which are checked and mapped for mineral content after laboratory analyses. Reverse circulation drilling as a method is rapidly gaining popularity for surface drilling applications. Compared with core drilling equipment, which are readily disassembled, the rigs are truck mounted and restricted to accessible terrain and better road conditions.
Exploration Results Mineral Resources Inferred

Increasing level of geological knowledge and confidence
Ore Reserves
Indicated Measured
Probable Proved
Consideration of mining, metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and governmental factors (the modifying factors)
The 2004 Australasian code for reporting exploration results, mineral resources and ore reserves.
hans Fernberg
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Whats in the cores?
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in search of the right balance
Explorac 220RC Reverse circulation rig in operation in Australia.
Chips or cores?
The question often faced by geologists is deciding which method of exploration drilling will get the most effective and economical results. Core drilling, Reverse Circulation drilling (RC), or a combination of the two?
Drilling methods
Core drilling produces cores of subsurface material and is the most commonly used method of obtaining information about the presence of minerals or precious metals, as well as rock formations. This method gives the geologist the opportunity to analyse the sample by eye as well as by more advanced methods. As the samples are placed in core boxes piece-by-piece and carefully marked, it gives a full picture of the rock strata. RC drilling by percussive air DTH hammer is a fast method due to higher penetration rate compared with traditional core drilling and gives a lower cost per metre. At shallow investigations it is used alone and at deeper exploration as an economical way of precollaring in order to get down to where the mineralization is located. Once there, it can
Technical logic
Since man first started searching for minerals and precious metals, three key factors have consistently proved decisive for success: time, cost and confidence. In other words, the time required, the cost of getting the job done, and confidence in the quality of the samples brought to the surface for analysis. This is more a question of basic technology and logic than one of science.
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be decided whether to continue with RC drilling to extract chips for evaluation, or to switch to diamond core drilling to extract cores. In this way, RC drilling becomes the perfect complement to conventional core drilling. Selecting which method to use for actual sampling work depends on the actual conditions, surface or underground, depths of the holes, rock conditions, and the preference of the geologist. But it also depends on the confidence that he or she places in the quaity of the samples. Modern core drilling rigs carry out fast and efficient core sampling of different diameters to very large length, and RC drilling has become so advanced that more and more geologists believe that chips are perfectly sufficient as a means of determining mineralization. Hence, surface drilling offers a choice between chips, core or a combination. Underground RC is possible technically,
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but is still only used to a very small extent.
early birds
As early as 1887, Craelius developed a rig that could recover cores at depths of 125 m. Confidence in these samples among geologists was very high, in that they were able to evaluate a piece of solid rock. Time was not necessarily of any great importance, and consequently neither was cost. Manpower was inexpensive and readily available. Hydraulic drill rigs were launched in the early 1970s and progressively improved. In 1997, Atlas Copco introduced computers into their control system, and 10 years later, the current version of Diamec U6 APC (Automatic Performance Control) represents the 4th generation of computerized rigs. It incorporates the latest hydraulic and electronic technology into a modern compact design and includes many options that offer added flexibility. For surface mineral exploration and mineral grade identification the relatively low cost and rapid Reverse Circulation method has gained popularity, while underground core drilling is still the predominant method. One reason for this is the need for smaller and lighter equipment suited to shaft transportation and set-up in limited areas, coupled with the ability to drill deeper holes in all directions. For surface exploration drilling, the core drilling rigs have been developed to higher efficiency and safety, independent of type of method used, pulling
Fig 1: Principles for RC drilling showing flow of compressed air and chips. The sampling collection box is integrated into the cyclone.
rod with a main hoist or with the rotation unit. The first RC rigs were water well drilling rigs equipped with a sampling system. Today, there are special RC
drilling systems, rigs, RC air hammers, DTH equipment, high-pressure compressors and sampling systems. Together, these offer efficient and safe drilling to increased depths, obtaining
100 80 60 40 20 0
% RC drilling Core drilling
Canada
Latin America
Russia China
Australia
SE Asia
USA
Africa
Table 1: Ratios between core and RC drilling. The figures reflect total exploration expenditures from national statistics for surface and underground.
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between the two methods should be based on the same factors as productivity.
Cost factor
Costs are mainly related to the time factor, except that investment in RC rigs and equipment is higher compared to core drilling. For shallow exploration applications, time and costs are in favour of RC drilling. The figures are easy to evaluate and vary depending on the location, and on the local drilling conditions and working environment. For deeper exploration applications, shallow subsoil water and rocky terrain, core drilling is still the only practical alternative. Technical developments in drilling tools and rig technology have resulted in lower drilling costs. Due to substantially longer diamond core bit life, less down time and reduced number of personnel are experienced.
Caption
Confidence factor
The third variable in the equation is the confidence factor. Investors, as well as geologists, expect contractors to deliver high quality information about the geological formation. Investors want the highest possible return on their investments in the shortest possible time. For example, whenever a gold nugget has been found, others may take over to conduct the drilling and blasting operations. As these are not the same people, the reliability of information plays a critical role. Geologists choose their drilling method carefully. If there is no need for continuous information about the geological formation on the way down to a specified depth, there is no need for samples. It is just a matter of minimizing the drilling time. If the goal is just to obtain a preliminary indication of possible content, then the geologist is not relying on any mineralized structure or geometry. With an evaluation giving positive results, a programme of core drilling is the logical way to continue, in order to bring the project to a resource/reserve status. If the mineralized structure is identified, but the geometry and rate of content varies, RC drilling is used as an
Christensen CS1000P4 surface core drilling rig operating in Zambia.
high quality samples. Atlas Copco RC rigs are controlled by tested and proven computer technology to help drillers to achieve optimal performances.
Time factor
For all exploration drilling the sample is the most important result. Time is money, with the cost of exploration paid up front, followed by a period of nonprofitable waiting while the results are analyzed. For core drilling, depending upon depth, the actual drilling time is estimated to be a third of the total time
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to extract a full core barrel because of the pumping in, pulling out, and adding and removing rods. RC drilling offers continuous drilling with a higher penetration rate. Percussive drilling is always faster than rotary abrasive but has practical restrictions on hole depth and dimension, which is normally no smaller than 125 mm. RC drilling can offer three times the productivity of core drilling, with an RC hole down to 250-300 m taking no more than a 10-12 h shift depending on drilling conditions, rock formation, and the drillers ability. Cost comparisons
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indicator for ensuring continued grade control. The geologist wants dry and representative samples in order to make optimal evaluations. RC drilling below the groundwater table was previously believed to undermine sample quality. Core drilling therefore remained the only viable method for these depths. Today, the availability of high-pressure compressors and hammer tools makes it possible for RC drilling to reduce costs, even for these depths. These days, professional contractors deliver dry sampling down to depths of 500 m. By sealing off the bit from the rest of the hole, it can be kept dry. In these cases RC drilling is the preferred alternative. It must be remembered that information from a core is crucial in estimating the period of mineralized structures. The core helps the geologist to calculate the cost of extracting the mineral from the ore. Large volumes of rock have to be excavated to obtain just a few grams of a valuable mineral. Cores also yield geotechnical data. Data about slope stability can be of the highest importance. Tradition and the environmental impact play a large role. RC rigs are heavy, assembled on trucks or track carriers. This fact tends to favour core drilling rigs, which are lighter and more adaptable in order to be flown into remote and sensitive environments. In areas with extremely cold climates, and where permafrost is present, RC drilling may have its limitations. Antifreeze rock drill oil helps to keep the hammer and bottom of the hole free from ice. Other, purely practical, issues determine the choice of one or the other drilling method. An intelligent, balanced choice between the two methods is the key to optimal results. The geologist plays an extremely important role in finding this balance, as do manufacturers such as Atlas Copco who continue to provide the right tools for the job.
anders gustafsson
Diamec U6 underground core drilling rig in a typical setup.
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an introduction to Reverse Circulation drilling

Reverse Circulation, or RC, drilling is a fast and cost efficient method of retrieving high quality samples from exploration and mine drilling. The system has been continuously developed since its inception in Australia in the early 1970s, and is now a preferred method for initial exploration, ore body development and in-pit grade control. Any method is only as good as the equipment developed around it, and Atlas Copco has called on the experience of drillers worldwide in order to perfect its offering. Rigs such as the Explorac 220RC are revolutionizing exploratory drilling, producing samples faster from deeper holes and in more difficult situations.
RC methodology
The RC method employs dual wall drill rods that comprise an outer drill rod, with an inner tube located inside the drill rod. The inner tubes overlap, and seal on the tube below with O rings when the drill rods are screwed together. These inner tubes provide a continuous sealed pathway for the drill cuttings to be transported from the bit face to the surface. The circulating medium, in most cases high-pressure air, enters the annulus between the rod and tube via the air swivel, which is normally part of the drill string, or sometimes mounted on top of the rotation head. The air travels down the annulus to the drilling tool, which is usually an RC hammer, or can be a blade bit or tricone roller bit. As in conventional open hole drilling, the air powers the drilling tool and the exhaust air carries the cuttings. In RC drilling the cuttings are returned to the surface through the inner tubes in the drill string and rotation head. Once through the rotation head, the air and cuttings comprising the sample change direction at the discharge blast box and are transported through the
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Explorac 220 in Australia.
sample hose to the cyclone. The cyclone slows the sample, separates it from the air, and collects it.
RC history
Difficult drilling conditions in some types of soft iron ore and mineral sands using conventional open hole techniques led to the development of RC drilling in the early 1970s for sampling. A dual tube configuration, occasionally used in the US oil industry, was adopted as the basis for the RC drill rod. The first RC drill rods were made in 1972 by Bruce Metzke and John Humphries in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. Shrouded tricone roller bits were initially employed in softer formations, returning previously unheard of sample accuracy and target depth achievement. The development of the crossover sub facilitated the use of conventional DTH hammers, and thereafter RC could be applied to almost all ground conditions. Speed and cost advantages over
diamond drilling led to a boom in RC drilling, and by the late 1980s more than 2 million m/y of RC exploration drilling were being completed in Western Australia alone. The need for cleaner samples led to the development of the RC hammer in 1990. High-pressure boosters and auxiliary compressors were introduced for deeper holes and faster penetration. Air pressures up to 100 bar (1 500 psi) were available, driving necessary advances in all aspects of RC drilling and RC systems. In the late 1990s, gold processing improved, viable ore grades became lower, but mining costs were higher, so many mines looked to improve their ore selection processes. One of the easiest ways to do this was grade control drilling, and RC drilling was the most cost efficient and accurate method available.As a result, RC drilling is now being used for initial exploration, ore body development drilling, and in pit grade control drilling.
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RC benefits
RC drilling provides virtually uncontaminated cuttings to the cyclone. As the cuttings travel directly from the drill bit through the steel inner tubes and sample hose, there is no cross contamination from other areas of the hole. Using good sample splitters and sampling procedures, RC results rival the accuracy of diamond core assays. Drilling penetration rates are similar to open hole drilling, and are often faster at greater depths. The sample velocity through the inner tubes can be up to 250 m/sec, so retrieval of the sample and hole cleaning is rapid. Production rates of up to 200-300m/ day are common at rates exceeding 10 m/h, many times faster than diamond drilling, and achieving rapid results for the customer. Unconsolidated formations can often be drilled and sampled without casing. Washing and scouring of the hole is minimized, because there is normally no fluid or cuttings flow against the walls after the drill bit has passed. Low impact bits, such as RC blade or RC roller, are ideal in these soft or loose formations. With good drilling techniques, samples can be kept dry, even several hundred metres below the water table. Dry samples are preferred as they split more accurately for assay, and are easier to handle. RC sample content ranges from dust to 25 mm chips, and is already partially processed for analysis. Wireline surveying of the hole is still possible through the drill rods. With the use of a stainless steel rod at the bottom of the string, hole azimuth readings are also possible.
Drill string
The components in an RC drill string have a similar arrangement to those of a conventional drill string, but are designed specifically for RC drilling, with all components having a central inner tube. As these inner tubes carry almost all of the cuttings from the hole at high velocity, they are subject to wear. The rate of wear is governed by the air volume and pressure of the rig, and the type of formation being drilled.
Explorac 220 with cyclone and cone splitter.
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RC rod with inner tube.
Apart from the hammer inner tubes, which may only last a few hundred metres in extreme conditions, the remaining components should last for several thousand metres of drilling.
Drilling tools
There are generally only three types of down hole tools used in RC drilling: hammer, roller and blade. The RC hammer is the most common method used, drilling almost all formations with few changes required. The commonest hammers are in the 4-5 in range as these meet the power, standard drill strings, and sample size requirements. The hammers work on the same principles as conventional hammers, but with a hardened, replaceable inner tube through the centre. The inner tube extends into the top of the drill bit. A conventional hammer exhausts the air through the bit, whereas a RC hammer exhausts around the outside of the bit splines and around the head of the bit, forcing the sample through the holes in the face of the bit and upward through the inner tubes. To help create a higher pressure zone above the bit face, and to force the sample up the inner tubes, a sealing ring is situated above the bit. This ring can be described as a shroud, sleeve or compensator ring and is mounted
on the drive sub, or bit chuck, and is usually replaceable. The RC hammer bit is similar to conventional hammer bits, but with two large ports in the face and a large bore through the centre to accept the hammer inner tube. There are deep channels on the outside of the drill bit head to allow the exhaust air to flush the sample into the ports in the face. An RC roller setup comprises a sub onto which a bit and skirt similar to a hammer shroud are screwed directly to the drill string. The bit is normally a standard mill tooth tricone roller bit, modified to allow a shroud to be fitted. The RC roller is only suited to softer formations, but can be extremely fast and produces a very accurate sample and very little disturbance in the hole. It requires minimal air volume, and down hole costs are low, so it is a very economical method of drilling. RC blade uses a sub and skirt setup similar to RC roller, but with a drag blade as the cutting tool. Used in heavy clay formations, which can be difficult or impossible with hammer or roller, it can be very quick and produces an accurate sample.
Rotating parts
RC drill rods consist of an outer tube, the rod, and an inner tube. The rods are externally flush and provide the strength
From top: RC bit face, RC bit with a shroud, RC saver sub, digout sub, RC blade with skirt, Adapter sub.
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for the assembly, and also the pin and box threads. RC drill rod threads have been developed to retain strength while maintaining a large hole through the centre for the inner tube and airway. The inner tube is installed into the rod through the box, or female, end, and usually sits on a shoulder in the rod and is retained with a circlip. Each inner tube has a male and female end, one of which has O-ring seals. Once the rods are screwed together the inner tube ends overlap, and the O-rings seal the tubes. The annulus between the rod and inner tube carries the high-pressure air to the drilling tool, while the inner tube provides a smooth bore sealed tube to carry the cuttings to the surface. Most drill rods are 3 m or 6 m long, and run pin down because of the inner tube installation. The most commonly used rod size is 4.5 in (11.43 cm), coupled with a 5 in (12.7 cm) hammer and 5.25 (13.3 cm) to 5.75 (14.6 cm) in bit, but rods are also available from 3.5 (8.9 cm) in to 5.5 in (14 cm) to suit other rig or drilling requirements. The inner tubes are a wearing, but easily replaceable, item. As with any drill string there are various subs used for adapting, reducing, and stabilizing. These are all available for RC drill strings. The air swivel feeds air into the drill rod annulus, while still retaining an inner tube to allow sample flow. They can be either in-line in the drill string immediately beneath the rotation head, or mounted on top of the head as an integral part of the head. The rotation head on an RC rig has a large bore through the spindle to allow for the replaceable sample inner tube. RC heads are usually built to provide high torque at moderate speed, with at least 10 000 Nm and 100 rpm normal for larger rigs.
Standard roller bit and drag bit.
Discharge system
The discharge system is the non-rotating part of the sample path that carries the sample from the rotation head to the sample cyclone. It normally consists of a mud swivel, blowdown valve, blast box, discharge manifold and sample
hose. The mud swivel, blowdown valve, manifold and blast box all mount rigidly to the top of the rotation head. The mud swivel seals the rotating head shaft and inner tube from the stationary parts of the discharge system. The seals in the mud swivel are critical as they need to contain the pressurized flow of sample. Most RC rigs now have a blowdown valve fitted to the discharge system. This is usually a hydraulic or air driven valve that closes off the sample inner tube and redirects the downhole air flow down through the sample inner tubes. This function is used to clear blockages in the bit ports or the inner tubes, and to force all air up the outside of the drill hole, hence cleaning the hole. It is done without having to depressurize and unscrew the drill string to add a sub, so is a very useful tool in difficult drilling conditions. The blowdown is mounted on top of the mud swivel. The sample stream can be travelling at up to 250 m/sec and needs to be redirected towards the cyclone. The blast box usually turns the sam-ple flow about 90 degrees to meet the sample hose. This direction change also reduces the energy of the sample considerably, but in doing so incurs very
high wear. Most systems have easily replaceable wear components in this area. The discharge manifold extends sideways from the blast box. It helps slow the sample to reduce sample hose wear and also holds the hose clear of the drill rig as the head travels up and down. There is often provision to inject small amounts of water into the manifold to mix with dry sample and reduce the dust at the cyclone. The sample hose is a heavy materials handling hose specially manufactured for RC drilling. The hose transports the sample from the discharge manifold to the sample cyclone, and is long enough to allow for the movement of the rotation head up and down the mast.
Sampling
The majority of RC drilling is done to obtain mineral samples for analysis, so correct sampling equipment and practices are necessary when undertaking this type of drilling. There are two main components to the sampling system: the cyclone; and the splitter.The cyclone serves to reduce the speed of the sample stream, and to separate the sample from the air, allowing it to be collected. It is important to have an efficient cyclone to remove
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Side inlet air swivel.
Tiered riffle splitter.
Cone splitter.
as much of the sample as possible, and also to avoid contamination of samples. A good cyclone will typically collect greater than 99% of the sample, with the remaining dust and air going to a dust collector or to atmosphere. The cyclone should be able to hold two complete sample intervals without contamination. An area of the cyclone called the dump box is equipped with a door or knife valve for this purpose. The sample interval is normally 1 m or 2 m of hole. As one sample has collected in the dump box, another is being drilled and is collecting in the cyclone. The lower dump box doors are opened to allow the sample to fall through the splitter. The lower doors are then closed, and the upper doors are opened to drop the next sample into the dump box. In this way sampling becomes a continuous process, with little or no interruption to drilling. Processing of the sample is one of the most important aspects of RC drilling. The sample from 1 m of a 5.5 in drill hole is about 30 lit, or up to 50 kg. The purpose of a splitter is to divide the sample down to a smaller size that is an accurate representation of the complete sample. This assay sample is collected in a bag and sent to a laboratory to be analysed for various minerals. Two main types of splitter are in use. Riff le splitters use several tiers of
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dividers that halve the sample at each level, until the assay size is reached. This usually involves 3 or 4 tiers to give 12.5% or 6.25% of the total sample. Riffle splitters are easy to use and clean with dry sample, but do not perform too well with wet samples. Tiered riffle splitter, sometimes known as a Jones riffle splitter. These essentially divide the sample in two at each tier. Half the sample goes to waste and the other half to be split at the next tier and so on. The number of tiers dictate the final assay sample size, see picture above. Cone splitters drop the entire sample over the point of an inverted cone and allow it to run down the cone. The assay sample is taken by collecting a segment of the sample as it runs off the edge of the cone. This segment size can be adjusted to collect the required percentage for assay. Cone splitters can give a more accurate split, but are more sensitive to setup than riffle splitters. The con splitter works by dropping sample through a 120 mm hole over the point of a cone in an hourglass effect. This provides an even flow of sample over the cone. Beneath the bottom of the cone are 2 segment shaped chutes that direct a percentage of the sample to the assay bags. These chutes are adjustable to take between 3 and 12% of the total sample. One is used as the assay
sample, the other for a dublicate sample. The waste materials falls through a chute and can be either collected in a large bag or wheelbarrow or left as waste, see picture above. Rotating cone splitters are used for wet sampling, as they reduce or eliminate the bias that is created as a wet stream favours one portion of the splitter.
Drilling guidelines
RC Drilling has many similarities to conventional DTH drilling, but there are also many procedures and techniques that are required to achieve the best results. In RC drilling, the hole is of little importance, while the sample is paramount. Holes are normally set up in a similar way to a conventional hole, with a short length of collar pipe or conductor casing set at the surface. A stuffing box, Tee piece or deflector box is mounted on the collar pipe to direct any lost sample or outside circulation away from the drill rig. Rotation speeds and feed weights are similar to conventional drilling. As much sample as possible should be retrieved from the hole. It is preferable to have at least 95% inside circulation, so that most of the sample is coming through the inner tubes and only
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5% or less is being lost to outside. It is not uncommon to retain 100% inside. Achieving high inside circulation sample return is achieved by having the correct clearance between the bit shroud and the hole wall, thus creating a seal and forcing all sample up the inside. It is also common to allow the hole to collar off above the hammer to help with sealing. This collar will often breach when the water table is reached in the hole, or it can easily be blown out using the blowback sub. If there is water in the hole, allowing the hole to collar off helps in keeping the samples dry. Dry samples split far more accurately, and are much easier to store, transport and process. Auxiliary compressors and highpressure boosters up to 100 bar are now commonly used with larger RC rigs. These are necessary to keep the hole dry, producing a dry sample and also achieving far greater hole depths. It is almost inevitable that material will fall in behind the hammer or bit, causing the drill string to become bogged. This is normal for RC drilling, and it is common to run a short, stabilized dig-out sub above the hammer for protection when digging through fallback. Blowdown valves are fitted to almost all large rigs now to help clean holes, and are usually used at each rod change to ensure the hole remains clean, or to remove excess water from the hole. Blowdown subs are available for insertion into the drill string, but these have to be removed to continue drilling.
Explorac 220 under testdrilling in Australia.
Safety with reverse Circulation Drilling

There is a wide range of safety regulations and requirements that vary from site to site, but some general rules will apply almost everywhere. While there are some potential hazards associated with the RC system, the normal safety requirements for the Explorac still need to be observed. RC drilling requires one or more Samplers or Offsiders who process the sample from the cyclone and they are also often required to manually handle some of the downhole equipment.
They work close to the cyclone and the rig mast, so they can be exposed to hazards not usually encountered during standard production drilling. While engineering solutions have been made for most hazards, the proximity of people to the machine in this type of drilling demands vigilance and management. The customer should have a safety management system in place and all hazards should be assessed most can be managed with procedures. Manual handling: Strains and injuries can be received with handling of heavy samples, hammers, bits etc. Falling objects: Due to the vibrations involved in percussion drilling there is potential for objects to shake loose from the rig mast. Correct maintenance and regular inspections are required. High pressure air: Can be extremely dangerous. All HP air hoses, including the sample hose should have sock type restraints on each end. Sample hose clamps should be correctly fitted and couplings tightened. Pinch points: There are many areas around the rig with potential for pinch or crush injuries. Mast boom and rotation head movement, rod loader movement, cyclone tilt and rotate, and the cyclone doors can all present some
hazard. Procedures, and communication between the driller and sampler are essential here. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) should be in use at all times; ear plugs, dust masks, safety boots, hard hat and gloves. These items are considered as statutory requirements in most mining environments.
Summary
RC drilling is a well-respected method within the exploration industry. It is fast and efficient, providing accurate samples for evaluation by the geologists using tried and tested techniques. The method is undergoing continuous technical development that will result in RC drilling being applied to deeper holes and more difficult geological conditions. RC drilling is frequently used in conjunction with core drilling for a better result in certain circumstances. The RC drilling method uses high torques, high pressures, big lifting capacities and rapid collection of samples, so safety is a major factor in the ongoing design process.
Jan Jnsson
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Reverse circulation drilling with new hammer concept

accurate sampling
Reverse Circulation (RC) drilling is gaining recognition and is already the most common mineral exploration drilling method used in many regions of the world. Combined with the Secoroc RC 50 hammer it is unbeatable for obtaining accurate and uncontaminated rock samples at high speed and low cost. Atlas Copco produces the complete RC drill string including hammer, bit and pipes, for both in-pit grade control and exploration drillers. Mounted on a choice of Explorac 220RC, Explorac R50, ROC L8RC and RD10 rigs, the system is the most productive available.
RC hammer
With a conventional DTH hammer, there is a risk of contamination as the sample is transported between the hammer casing and the hole wall to the collector sub. Demands for cleaner samples were identified in the early 1990s, and the first true RC hammer was developed with sample collection at the face of the drill bit and removal of the cuttings through the centre of the hammer to the dual wall drill pipe. This technique provides a true sample from the bit face with minimum risk of contamination. Higher air pressures were needed to achieve higher productivity, and to be able to drill deeper holes. The use of auxiliary compressors and highpressure boosters resulted in air pressures up to 100 bar, leading to necessary advancements in all aspects of the RC system. RC drilling is now a common method used for surface mineral exploration drilling throughout the world, and it is gaining increasing acceptance. The method offers: representative samples with high recovery rate; more accurate samples in low-grade ores; continuous sampling from the hole bottom; uncontaminated samples; straighter holes in
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The RC50 hammer from Atlas Copco Secoroc is designed for both deep hole exploration drilling and In-Pit grade control.
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broken formations; high productivity; reduced drilling costs; large bulk sampling capability; and penetration of unconsolidated formations with cavities without loss of circulation.
in-pit grade control

Atlas Copco has focussed on two main applications: in-pit grade control and normal exploration drilling. Gold processing techniques improved during the 1990s, making previously uneconomical ore grades viable, but with increasing costs for the entire process. "Mining operations had to improve their cost effectivness, the importance of knowing what grades to expect before the blast were identified. In Pit Grade Control returns an uncontaminated sample, providing needed knowledge of what grades to expect as well as the possibility to select what bench to blast next. This information makes it possible to to reduce waste rock in concentrator feed (dilution) as well as minimize the risk of transporting valuable ore to the waste dump." The importance of grade control and minimized dilution is increasing around the world. Dilution is defined as waste rock in concentrator feed, and can vary from 540% between different mines. The amount of waste raised from the mine is estimated by the geologists, but the actual process dilution is hard to measure. Dilution means not only lower grade ore, but also reduced profit. One of the easiest ways to control dilution is to use in-pit grade control, where RC drilling is the most costefficient and accurate method available. In-pit grade control is used in existing operating mines to define and map boundaries between waste and ore, and variations in mineral content, in order to optimize ore recovery rates. Another major application typical of, for example, iron ores, is to define the different ore grades in order to be able to mix them into set grades, giving increased efficiency of the ore process.
to the RC drill string, most of the RC drill rigs used today have a limitation in depth of 200-400 m. Secondly, RC drilling yields less information regarding the geological structure of the orebody. This is quite an important factor when estimating the cost of extracting mineral from ore. So, while coring yields a good physical sample on which the geologists can rely, RC drilling is faster and more flexible, affording economic sampling over longer distances in the hole. As a result, the two methods are often used in combination by mine operators, using RC for drilling shallow holes and in-pit grade control, and core drilling for deeper holes to identify future resources. Furthermore, many exploration contractors drill the first part of their hole with RC, and then continue to the total depth with core drilling techniques.
Conventional DTH hammer
Reverse Circulation hammer
The new RC 50 hammer

In recent years Atlas Copco RC technology has evolved, and the Secoroc RC 50 hammer concept has been tested and refined. The RC 50 was released in 2008, along with three new RC drill rig configurations known as Explorac 220RC, Explorac R50, ROC L8RC and RD10. The RC 50 hammer has the following features: higher stroke frequency performance; simpler design and fewer parts; built on the efficient Quantum Leap air cycle. These features give five main benefits for RC drillers: high productivity; high recovery rate; quick and easy service; low fuel consumption; and decreased cost per metre drilled. The Secoroc RC 50 hammer is designed for the hole range 140-152 mm, and during tests has proven to be more productive than any other RC hammer available on the market. Another attractive feature that adds to the productivity of the hammer, as well as availability of the rig, is the outstanding service life of wear components.
Cuttings
Air flow
Fig 1: The DTH hammer flushes cuttings out of the hole on the outside of the hammer, while the RC hammer collects all cuttings through the centre of the hammer.
Mineral exploration
RC drilling has two shortcomings when compared to core drilling. Firstly, because dual wall pipes add a lot of weight
Fredrik gabrielsson
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Four decades of Diamec core drilling rigs
The easy-to-move around Diamec 232 underground core drilling rig.
going hydraulic
For the last 20 years, core drilling rigs have been following the same trend as most other construction equipment, moving from mechanical to hydraulic transmission. In core drilling, there are three main activities that control the productive effort: drilling, rod handling, transport and setting up of the rig. This article compares these functions in both hydraulic and mechanical rigs
importance of control
To get the best penetration rate and core recovery it is important to be able to control the speed of the rotation unit
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and the feed and pull force in the feed frame. It is important to understand what is happening in the bottom of the hole. For example, the feed force has to be compensated with the right amount of holdback when adding rods to the hole to ensure the right pressure on the bit in the bottom of the hole. Not too much, but enough for good penetration. The chapter on bit selection elsewhere in this book is a useful reference. To empty the core barrel when drilling conventionally, and to change the bit when drilling wireline, all of the rods have to come out of the hole. This involves rod handling which is a very heavy, time consuming, unproductive, and sometimes dangerous,
part of the work. Therefore a lot of effort has been put into the design of better In-The-Hole tools and bits with longer life. The focus on the rigs is to make them more user-friendly, ergonomic, and faster when handling rods. Because of the potential risk for accidents with rotating rods and high pressure hydraulic hoses, operator contact with the rig is to be avoided as much as possible. For this reason, all Diamec rigs delivered from Sweden today are equipped with a guard protecting all rotating parts, and all rigs have oversized couplings and other crucial components. Transport on surface may be by truck, crawler, or trailer, but on the more remote sites helicopter transport may be necessary. For underground applications
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in mines and tunnels shorter distances are involved, so a truck may be used to move the rig from site to site. Crawler mounted solutions reduce the setup time and make transportation much easier In the last couple of years, Diamec rigs have been mounted on standard Atlas Copco Simba carriers. This makes the move around even easier, helping to reduce rig downtime between profitable drilling periods.
Mechanical rigs
The old type of mechanical core drilling rigs are still in production in some places, mainly on account of their good reputation for robustness and easy service and maintenance. The main components in a mechanical rig are: diesel or electric engine with a coupling and a four- or fivestroke gear box; rotation spindle with a hydraulic chuck; hydraulic feed cylinder; hydraulic system; main hoist; wire line hoist; and skid with mast. Note that these rigs have a hydraulic feed system. Drilling with a mechanical rig is harder than with the newer hydraulic rigs. The rotation speed is rather difficult to control because of the reliance on gears, so the optimal speed for the application, ground formation and ITH tools is elusive. The feed system is similar to the hydraulic rig, but with the disadvantage of a short feed frame. The very short stroke length demands frequent re-gripping, reducing drilling efficiency and increasing the risk of core blockage. The rods are pulled out of the hole with a main winch and a wire. All threads are opened manually with wrenches, which is time consuming and sometimes risky. To avoid the rods falling back into the hole a mechanical rod holder is used. Because a mast is needed for mechanical rigs, it is difficult to drill directionally and in tight underground locations. If wireline drilling, the core is taken out in a similar way to that used on hydraulic rigs. The rigs are in general rather heavy, especially in relation to their capacity. On the positive side, they are easy to assemble and disassemble, making for simple movement in remote areas.
The service-friendliness of a Diamec U6 core drilling rig.
hydraulic rigs
The first hydraulic core drilling rig, Diamec 250, was introduced to the market in the early 1970s. The deeper the hole, the heavier the rod string, so more lifting capacity is needed. In the underground situation, it
is important to be able to both push and pull to get the rods out of the hole. On long holes, more torque is required to rotate the rod string, because of the friction in the hole. When drilling angled holes, the friction increases, and even more torque is required. The conclusion is that the depth capacity of
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Underground core drilling in Canada with a Diamec U6 PHC core drilling rig.
the rig is set by at least two factors: pull force and torque. The value given in technical data sheets are often just the depth capacities, in metres/feet, for vertical down holes. When comparing one rig with another it is probably more correct to compare the power of the prime mover and the des ign of the hydraulic system, including pressure, flows, and number of pumps, rather than the stated depth capacities. A hydraulic rig, mainly used for underground applications, has the following main components: feed frame; rotation unit; rod holder; skid with a positioner arm or frame; wireline winch; control panel; power unit; and water pump. The rotation unit and the rod holder are mounted on the feed frame. The rotation unit comprises a hydraulic motor, a chuck and a hollow spindle, offering the most productive rod handling. The rod holder is mainly used to hold the rods, so that they dont fall in or out of the hole. To have a reliable rod holder
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is therefore a safety issue that has been solved on the most modern rigs using a gas accumulator that keeps the jaws closed. They are opened when necessary using onboard hydraulic pressure. A hydraulic cylinder in the feed frame transfers the feed and pull force to the rotation unit. The most modern rigs use a telescopic cylinder that gives the optimal penetration parameters, resulting in straight holes and low risk of core blockage. Most underground rigs have the options of an 850 mm or 1 800 mm stroke length of the feed frame. The longer stroke length, the higher the productivity because of reduced regripping. Every re-grip loses time-, and the rotation unit has to be stopped and restarted, which can result in vibrations in the rod string causing core blockage.
Optimal control
A hydraulic driven rig offers optimal control of the drilling parameters. The rotation speed and the feed and pull
force can be adjusted exactly. The control panel has the manometers and valves needed to control the drilling, and penetration rate and rotation speed can be varied according to the ground formation. To take up and down a rod string at a depth of 1 200 m can take the whole work shift to complete, and is a heavy and risky task. To design a good mechanical rod handling system that removes the human element is difficult, but some solutions are available on the market today. The number of rods used in core drilling compared with production drilling makes it difficult to design a productive system. The importance of setting up the rig in the right way cannot be overemphasised. Most of the underground rigs are mounted on a skid that needs to be fixed to the ground. A wall bracket is employed to fix the rig in the drilling direction. The unique positioner arm used on the Diamec U4 and U6 helps set up the rig at exactly the correct angle.
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Diamec U8 PHC core drilling rig in operation in the US.
The wireline winch is placed on the positioner arm for optimal flexibility, allowing the rig to be set in angles from vertical down to vertical up without moving the hoist.
automatic performance control

The latest generation of Diamec core drilling rigs are computer assisted using APC, or Automatic Performance Control. This is based on the well proven RCS. The operator sets the maximum and minimum values for the drilling parameters and the computer makes sure that focus is not lost. The computer stops the drilling as soon as the values are exceeded, or when the core barrel is full. The result is an optimal drilling procedure, with controlled rotation speed, penetration rate, and water flow, producing better core recovery and longer life for ITH tools and bits, resulting in more profitable drilling. The operator, who no longer has to
attend the drill rig, all the time, has more time for maintenance and core handling. The drilling procedure can be started and the rig computer left to handle the operation until the core barrel is full and it is time to hoist the core up.
Nowadays, there are more than 1 000 Diamec rigs in operation worldwide, with the highest populations in North America and Europe.
David Petersson
An operator with the control panel of the unique APC system for Diamec core drilling rigs.
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Selecting the right core bit
Driller checking outside diameter of an Excore core drilling bit.
Crucial operation
Selection criteria
Atlas Copco is an experienced ISO certified supplier offering a full range of equipment for all underground and surface exploration drilling applications. This includes rigs and a full range of high technology and high quality products, including (ITH) In-The-Hole tools and core drilling bits which are designed to maximize customer profitability. All products are designed to minimize downtime and maximize productivity. Atlas Copco core bits range from a Series 1 bit for the softest application to Series 10 bit for the hardest application. The numbers correspond to the different rock groups by hardness, and as a general rule, the harder the formation, the higher the series number required. However, other factors bear on the choice of bit, most important of which are the characteristics of the rock
Drilling with a core bit is introduced at an advanced stage of the exploration operation, by which time substantial resources have already been spent. The quality and continuity of the captured core is crucial in the assessment of a potential mine, making the core bit a key component of a core drilling rig. Core bit selection is based on the size and depth of hole and the hardness of the rock, taking into account the rig capacity and condition, the flushing medium, and the skills of the driller. To ensure the correct core bit, the drilling contractor needs a reliable bit supplier with the right hands-on experience to advise the best solution for every condition. Atlas Copco manufactures the entire range of core drilling tools, and will recommend and supply the type and designation most suited to the application.
formation, its hardness, grain size, abrasiveness, competence, and whether the strata is fractured or changing. The lift and feed force of the drilling rig, together with its rotation speed and chuck and rod holding capacity are other factors. Some rigs have better controls than others, and this must be taken into account. Smooth control of feed force, and accurate control of water flushing and rotation are key factors, along with the drillers technique. A variety of core bit types is available based on the diamond cutting elements used in their construction. The impregnated diamond core bit is most popular, followed by surface set diamond bits, tungsten carbide and polycrystalline diamond composite bits. Impregnated diamond bits should generally be used with a peripheral speed of 2-5 m/sec, depending on rock condition and machine capacity.
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impregnated diamond core bits

In most geological formations, impregnated bits are more economical to use than surface set bits as they provide additional benefits: greater resistance to wear in most formations, (particularly in hard and fractured formations), less sensitive to abuse, rough handling and improper use. Synthetic diamonds are used in the manufacture of Atlas Copco impregnated bits, with some bits using natural diamonds as gauge stones. The consistency of quality, shape, granular size, and strength make synthetic diamonds superior to natural stones. Impregnated diamond drill bits are designed to perform as grinders. Diamonds are embedded in an infiltrated or sintered matrix, which erodes away at the same rate as the diamonds become worn and rounded. Thus new sharp diamonds are exposed to continue cutting through the rock. The combination of diamonds and matrix determine the bit performance, and the simultaneous erosion of the matrix and the diamonds makes the bit self-sharpening. The ideal combination of optimal penetration rate and wear resistance is matched to achieve the ultimate in drilling economy. The diamonds are carefully selected by quality and size for the application. Through advanced manufacturing technology an extensive range of drilling requirements can be satisfied. Continuous control at each step in the manufacturing process ensures that all bits are of identical high quality. This consistent high quality means more drill metres per bit. Impregnated diamond bits are the bit most commonly used in exploration drilling, and are particularly recommended in the hard to extremely hard formations of rock groups 6-10. Productivity has constantly improved due to intensive research and development, which has introduced new generations of synthetic diamonds, metal alloy and improved production processes. As a result, impregnated bits can be used in almost all applications except clay, chalk and other unconsolidated formations. The impregnated bit matrix is available in a Series 1 through to Series 10
according to rock hardness. Extended channel f lushing (ECF), channel flushing (CF), and face discharge (FD) waterways can be selected, along with Torpedo V and JET crown profiles for competent formations. Atlas Copco manufactures core bits in 10, 13 and 16 mm crown heights. In terms of drilling parameters, weight on bit and rate of penetration have to be taken into account, as do fluid volume, and rotation speed. The revolution per rate of penetration is normally in the range of 150-250 rev/in (RPI) or 60-100 rev/cm (RPC).
Extended Channel Flushing
Surface set diamond bits

Surface set diamond bits can be used to drill in soft to medium hard sedimentary formations, but in hard rock impregnated diamond bits are normally more cost effective. Surface set bits are designed to utilize specific diamond size and quality according to the application, they are available in step and semi-round crown profiles, with a choice of CF waterways for consolidated rock or FD waterways for use with triple tube core barrels to avoid core washing out in soft formations. Step profile is normally used for standard and thick kerf wire line bits and is suitable in almost all kinds of formations, where they offer good penetration rate and stability. Semiround profile is used for conventional and thin kerf wire line bits. Atlas Copco surface set bits are manufactured to the highest standards in the industry, for the ultimate in drilling performance. They employ a hard type of matrix for all formations, and use selected and processed diamonds with a highly polished surface. These stones have a high impact resistance, and have been developed from many years of practical field experience. If the formation is soft a larger stone is utilized which results in fewer sones per carat. Harder formations require smaller stones. The setting patterns are important to the long service life, high penetration rate, and adaptability to changing formations that characterize this type of bit. Atlas Copco uses best quality processed N, S and P diamonds suitable for hard to soft formations. Most common
Torpedo "V"
Jet
Face Discharge
Diamond Surface Set (SS)
Poly Crystalline Diamond Composite (PDC)
Tungsten Carbide Insert (TCI)
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in the matrix and are recommended for harder sedimentary formations.
Reaming shells
A reaming shell should always be used in a coring system. It is a core barrel component, which joins the bit to the core barrel outer tube. The outside surface of the reaming shell is set with diamonds to a specified diameter, normally larger than the bit diameter. This provides a constant hole diameter independent of bit wear, and accommodates changing the bit without getting stuck in the hole. They also serve as a stabilizer, reducing vibration and prolonging the life of the bit. Reaming shells are designed with a tapered leading edge to ream the hole. Well designed waterways, reinforced with PDC pins, facilitate effective flushing and contribute to long service life and good drilling economy for both reaming shells and drill bits. For some core barrel systems there are optional reaming shells, longer than the standard, designed with two or three diamond set gauge rings. The longer reaming shells have to be used together with an optional extension sleeve for the inner tube. Double and triple ring reaming shells are used to improve hole deviation problems. Impregnated reaming shells full hole profile are also available, when added stability is required. Casing and rod shoes are manufactured to handle a broad range of conditions, from unconsolidated overburden to broken, abrasive formations. Impregnated standard and heavy duty casing shoes as well as surface set casing shoes are available, rod shoes are available only in an impregnated design.
Atlas Copco representative discussing diamond tool selection with driller.
quality is S, which is a natural, selected-, processed diamond, suitable for almost all applications. The size of diamonds, or stones per carat, is important because the harder the rock, the smaller the stones.
recommended in medium to mediumhard sedimentary formations. All TC bits can be used in clean-out operations, such as for the removal of steel fragments from a drill hole.
Tungsten carbide (TC) bits

TC core bits are used for drilling in non-consolidated formations and in overburden, and for cleaning drill holes. They are used for soil investigations and geotechnical drilling, and can also be used for mineral exploration for coring in softer rock formations. Atlas Copco manufactures two different types of bits with octagonal tungsten carbide inserts. Another type of tungsten carbide bit with more cutting edges than standard TC bits is Corborit,
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Poly-crystalline diamond composite bits (PDC)

PDC bits are an alternative to TC bits and surface set diamond bits, when drilling in non-consolidated and medium hard rock formations such as salt, potash, limestone, and clay stone with no crystalline or chert or similar intrusions. Atlas Copco offers two types of PDC bits known as Diapax and Tripax. Diapax bits have brazed round PDC inserts, while Tripax bits have brazed cubic or triangular PDC inserts embedded
Summary
To maximize drilling efficiency, choose the right drill bit and utilize sound drilling practices. There is no substitute for testing the system at site, because all sites are different, all formations are different, and all clients requirements are different.
gerry Black
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efficient core recovery
Efficient Team: Geologist, Driller, Atlas Copco representative.
Core in the box

The end users of exploration core drilling products are generally in the business of, and compensated for, providing representative and quality physical core samples to their customers, so nobody wins without putting core in the box. Core drilling is typically carried out either by contracted drilling companies, or directly by some mining houses, consulting companies or governmental bodies who have their own drilling departments.
Vital information
Recovered core samples are used to extract vital information where chips or other data gathering techniques do not provide an elevated level of confidence required to make decisions, be they related to mineralization or ground
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mechanics. The quality of recovered core samples is of paramount importance, and is influenced by the personnel, capital and support equipment, diamond products, tools and accessories used in given ground conditions. In The Hole (ITH) tools represent only a small component of total project cost, but their selection and use are hugely significant to the outcome and overall success of a drilling project. Understanding the end user, his goals, and in particular his application, influences how efficient coring and commercial solutions are developed and implemented.
Core recovery
Core can be generally defined as a volumetric cylinder of material, created by the advancement of a rotating hollow centred diamond drill bit through an
in-situ formation, and subsequently removed. Core recovery is a quantifiable measurement defined as the total linear amount of physical core sample extracted over the total linear advance in a borehole, expressed as a percentage. Recovery is often measured against a section of advance, typically in the target zone and/or for the entire borehole. CR (%) = Length of core X 100 Length of advance The core being created is encapsulated within, and subsequently extracted by, a retrievable sampling device called a core barrel. The core barrel is a mechanically designed device consisting of many interconnected engineered components. It is connected to a consumable core drilling bit, typically made with synthetic diamonds, which is the core cutting tool. As the drill bit penetrates through the material, it
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creates a core in its wake, entering the core barrel until its recipient tube is full, or the cores entry is impeded, at which time the sample recipient tube is removed, emptied of its core, replaced and drilling resumed.
Drill rod
Drilling diameters
A drilling application comprises the borehole starting point, or collar, the target and the path in between. Boreholes ranging from 48 mm to 146 mmdiameter, and depths of 3 m to 3 000 m share the following: diamond core drilling rig; flushing circuit; drill rod string; core barrel; and diamond tools. Selecting which diameter to drill for a given application is dependent on a variety of factors, most of which are not economic drivers and are beyond the scope of this basic overview, but capital and tools must be adequately sized and suited for each other and the objective to yield efficient recovery. As a general rule: the larger the core diameter, the better the core recovery. Core drilling rigs come in many shapes and sizes. The rig, properly anchored at the borehole collar, primarily needs to transmit rotation, thrust and pullback forces. As a general rule: the smoother the transmission of rotational force, the better the core recovery.
Flushing circulating
Casing tube Casing shoe Drill rod
Conventional
Wireline
Drill rod
Drill rod
Fluid flushing
The fluid flushing circuit can vary significantly, but typically consists of one or more pumps, the fluid media itself, the drill rod string, the available borehole annular area and the peripheral accessories for controlling delivery, treatment and handling. Fluid is primarily required to cool and flush the cuttings from the advancing diamond core bit, and evacuate them from the borehole. The flushing medium can be clear water, or include additives or muds to condition borehole integrity and complete the circuit. As a general rule, with deteriorating ground conditions, focus on the flushing circuit to improve core recovery.
Core barrel
Core barrel
Reaming shell
Core sample Bit Core sample
Reaming shell
Bit
Drill rods
Drill rods play an important role in efficient core recovery. Their tool joints are
Fig 1. Typical application.
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leak proof, permitting the f lushing medium to efficiently travel over great distances within the string to discharge through the face of the bit under remotely controlled volumes and pressures. Connected to the drilling rig, a straight rod string combined with smooth rotation and borehole conditioning will turn vibration free in the hole while transmitting the feed pressure to the cutting tool. As a general rule: proper care and handling of rods and a vibration free rotation are key to improved core recovery.
Core barrel
The core barrel is most critical to efficient core recovery. As a mechanically engineered device consisting of dozens of inexpensive individually interconnected and interdependent components, predictive and preventative maintenance is the easiest way to maximize recovery. The core barrel is sandwiched between the drill rods and the diamond bit. (see Fig 1) Whether conventional or wireline, the design will typically be configured as a double tube system consisting of an outer tube and inner tube. Triple tube systems using a split inner tube are common in broken ground. While the outer tube rotates with the drill rod, the inner tube is meant to remain stationary during advancement though the in situ material. As a general rule: to improve core recovery, ensure that components are serviced and bearings regularly greased.
Core lifter
The drilling fluid circuit operates within the available annular area provided. More specifically, after travelling through the drill rods, the fluid enters the core barrel. There it is channelled between the inner and outer tubes, exiting via the throat of the diamond bit, and back out between the outer tube and borehole wall to the collar (see Fig 2). At the bit end of the inner tube, core lifter case adjustment and core lifter selection are of great importance. The core lifter case needs to be placed close enough to the throat of the bit to allow for efficient core breakage, but
The objective is 'core in the box'.
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Double tube
Triple tube
Flushing medium
Reaming shell Inner tube
Split tube
Stop ring Core lifter
way into the inner tube with consequential effect on measurable recovery. In these poorer ground conditions the core barrel can be configured to accept a third split inner tube. The split tube is located within the regular inner tube and uses core lifter cases and diamond bits designed to direct the drilling fluid though the bit blank instead of though the bit throat, preventing sample washing (see Fig 2). As a general rule: choose the largest triple tube system possible in bad ground to improve core recovery. A core sample will enter the inner tube until the tube is filled, or the sample is impeded, or "blocked", from entering the tube, usually because of a fracture in the sample. When this happens, continuing to advance the drill string will likely result in grinding and degradation of the desired core sample. As a general rule: avoid deformations, damaging blows and mishandling to the inner tube in order to improve core recovery.
Core lifter case Minimal clearance Gap clearance
Diamond tools
The diamond tools are the business end of the string, and the bit, in particular, is a metallurgical marvel. The bit cuts through the material that makes its way into the core barrel. Crown profile, flushing, and gauge design characteristics react differently with changes to rotation, thrust and flushing parameters. As a general rule: to improve core recovery, choose bit designs that protect ID run out, and that minimize back-pressure and sample washing. The fundamentals for diamond core drilling have not greatly changed since 1887, when Per Anton Craelius started in the business. We still push, turn, cool, flush, cut and collect. However, advances by Atlas Copco in tooling and equipment have continuously improved the efficiency of core recovery.
Bit
Sample
Solid ground
Fig 2. Bit /ground interface.
Broken ground
its adjustment gap should not create an undesirable increase in fluid pressure and/or sample washing from the drilling fluid. By design, the tapered core lifter slides along the inside of the core lifter case, wedging and securing itself onto the core during core recovery and breaking. As a general rule: to improve core recovery, choose an optional fluted core lifter in difficult ground.
Core breaking
During core breaking, the drill string is raised slowly. The spring-loaded
inner tube assembly, by virtue of the core being firmly wedged by the lifter, remains stationary until the bit throat adjustment gap is closed. At this point, the core lifter case nests into the bit, transferring the substantial lifting force from the inner tube to the drill string until the core breaks away. As a general rule: the adjustment gap should never exceed the available compression spring travel to improve core recovery. In broken or friable ground, the flushing mediums pathway can wash away some of the sample before it makes its
Peter Balen
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hydraulic and mechanical surface drill rigs

Principles and trends
Core drilling rigs are designed to rotate the drill string, while providing pressure, to produce the core. In the core drilling industry, as in general construction, there is a clear development trend towards fully hydraulic rigs rather than the older mechanical rigs. The core drilling rig population can be divided according to whether they work on surface or underground. Most mechanical rigs are currently employed as surface machines. This section describes the general principles for mechanical and hydraulic surface exploration rigs.
Three aspects
Three different aspects of these machines are important: drilling; rod handling; and transportation and setup. Drilling: for the driller to have full control of the drill process, the rig needs to be equipped with variable rotation speed and variable feed or hold back force. It is crucial to control these parameters, and the flow and pressure of the flush water, in order to provide a good working environment for the drill bit and produce the best core. Rod handling: when changing the drill bit for wire line drilling, and for core recovery during conventional drilling, the drill rods have to be pulled out of the hole. This is very hard and time consuming work, during which great attention has to be paid to safety. Over the years, in-hole equipment has improved significantly, and drill bits are giving much longer life. At the same time, drill rig performance has improved through development. Transportation and setup: for movement between different drilling areas the rig can be truck mounted, or a truck may be used for towing or carrying purposes. Across poor terrain, rigs can be
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LJ Huges' Christensen CT14 surface core drilling rig drilling in the coal fields of West Verginia.
air transported, usually by helicopter. Movement between individual drill holes can sometimes be carried out manually. Setup for surface rigs is typically between 90 to 45 degrees, with most holes being drilled on some angle. Straight vertical holes are not so common, with a few regional exceptions.
Mechanical rigs
Mechanical rigs are still manufactured, though the numbers are decreasing from year to year. The feed system on these rigs employs hydraulic cylinders, while all other functions are mechanical. Mechanical core drilling rigs are not very efficient, and their operation involves a lot of manual handling. On the other hand they are fairly easy to maintain, so are useful in remote locations. The drill rig components are: diesel engine with a clutch and 4 to 5 step gearbox; rotation spindle with a hydraulic
chuck; hydraulic feed cylinders; hydraulic system; main winch; wire-line winch; feed frame; and mast. The rotation force is transmitted from the diesel engine to the rotation spindle via the 4 to 5 step gearbox, a straight cut gear, and a 90 degree angle gear. A pair of hydraulic cylinders mounted on the rotation spindle provides feed force, and rod handling is carried out with the help of the main winch, using the mast and a separate rod clamp.
Drilling
On mechanical rigs the driller has limited control of the drilling process, especially the rotation speed. In the absence of variable speed control, he uses the gear ratios of the gearbox and the variable revs of the diesel engine, both of which also change the available torque. The straight cut gear is equipped with a high and low setting, which will
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increase the available spindle speed, but is not sufficient for effective core drilling. The feed and lift force have variable control, and most rigs are equipped with some kind of compensation system for the weight of the drill string. The feed cylinders have very short stroke length compared to modern core drilling rigs. Short stroke involves frequent re-gripping with the chuck, slowing drilling and increasing the risk of core blockage. This means lower core recovery and increased wear on the drill bit.
Rod handling
On mechanical rigs rod handling is very heavy and slow work. A wire rope connected to a lifting plug is threaded on to the drill string, which is then lifted from the hole with the help of the main winch. The winch is driven by the diesel engine through a planetary gear equipped with brakes. All the making and breaking of drill rod joints is carried out using a pair of pipe wrenches, while a separate rod clamp holds the drill string and prevents it from falling down in the hole. The drill pipes are stored in a rod rack in the mast, or laid horizontally on a rod tray in front of the rig. The reverse operation is used for lowering the drill string. Handling of the inner tube while drilling with a wire line system is done with the help of a separate wire line winch, which is often slower than on a hydraulic drill rig.
A Christensen CS3001 surface core drilling rig in operation in Canada.
Transport and setup

Mechanical drill rigs are normally mounted on a skid. They are heavy, despite their comparatively low capacity. However, the individual components are easy to take apart and reassemble, which is useful for movement by helicopter. Using the main winch and the wire, the rig can slowly pull itself into the drilling position.
hydraulic rigs
In surface applications, a casing pipe may be used when starting the hole in order to create a stable hole through
the topsoil. Drilling down the casing requires lower revs/min and higher torque than for core drilling, and a rod holder that can handle the casing pipes. Hydraulic drill rigs designed for surface applications have rotation units capable of a wide speed and torque range in combination with a long feed stroke. The main components are: mast, rotation unit, rod holder, main winch/ hoist, wireline winch, frame for carrying the mast and the mast dump arrangement, control panel, hydraulic system, power pack, and carrier. Optional equipment may include rod rack in the mast, water/mud pump and mud mixer. On surface rigs, the mast is usually designed as a welded structure or a beam. Feed lengths start at 1.9 m, and can be up to 3.5 m on the bigger machines. The longer feed system offers less risk of core blockage, better core recovery and longer bit life. The drill angles are
commonly between 90 degrees and 45 degrees. The long mast is in sections, or telescopic, so that it can be shortened for transportation. In order to get a stable drill position, the mast can slide down to the ground with the help of a mast slide cylinder/dump cylinder. The drill head/rotation unit and rod holder/rod clamp are mounted on the mast. The rotation unit is equipped with a variable hydraulic motor connected to the spindle/chuck via a multiple step gearbox, usually with four gears. With this arrangement variable control of the rotation speed is achieved, along with lower speed and higher torque for drilling down the casing pipes. For core drilling, a high gear is used to provide higher speed needed when drilling with modern high productive diamond bits. The mid gears are used while drilling in large diameters and/or in angle holes. The rotation unit can handle P-size rods,
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upwards, and they lack the capacity to hold the drill string with the main winch.
Transportation and setup

Core drilling rigs are mounted on the most suitable carrier for the particular terrain. If the terrain is fairly flat, the rig may be mounted on an all-wheel drive truck. For the complete setup, a drill rod truck is needed, as well as a water truck. The drill platform can be equipped with hydraulic jacks, enabling it to stand alone while the truck is used elsewhere. The rig can be crawler mounted for more difficult terrain, and transported between sites by truck and low bed trailer. Smaller rigs can be mounted on a wheeled trailer for towing from hole to hole, and between sites. For cold weather conditions, part of the rig can be enclosed in a container, or the complete rig, including the mast, can by covered by a tent. If vehicles cannot traverse the terrain to the drilling site and everything has to be carried by helicopter, the rig has to be both lightweight and easily disassembled.
A Christensen CS4001 surface core drilling rig mounted on crawler during on-site transportation.
or at least H, which are considered to be large diameters for core drilling. The feed force is transferred to the rotation unit by feed cylinders mounted in the mast, connected either directly to the rotation bed, or through a chain feed arrangement. Direct feed is preferable, since it requires less maintenance. A rod holder capable of handling the drill string is mounted at the bottom of the mast. If it can be brought to the side, even bigger casing dimensions can be used. The rod clamp/rod holder is closed with mechanical springs, or on modern rigs by gas springs, and opened hydraulically. The main hoist is used for hoisting the drill string, and its capacity heavily influences the capability of the rig. The diesel engine in the power pack of a modern surface drill complies with emission requirements in US and Europe. Separate oil coolers or over sized engines are options for drilling at very high altitudes, above 3 000 m ASL. Flush pumps capable of handling mud, and mud mixers, are also common options.
pressure, lifting force, and water flow. All rigs have a system that can compensate for the weight of the drill string. When drilling deeper holes, the weight of the drill string is greater than the feed force, and the rig has to apply a lifting force to relieve bit pressure.
Rod handling
In surface applications, 3 m drill rods are commonly used. The machines are capable of pulling 6 m or even 9 m rods, so only every second or third joint is broken when tripping/hoisting the drill string. Time is saved by pulling longer sections of drill string. It should be noted that a 6 m NO wireline rod weighs approximately 45 kg, and an H size rod around 70 kg. The drill pipes or sections of drill pipes are stored either in a rod rack in the mast or on a tray in front of the drill rig. Making and breaking of the rod joints is accomplished with the help of the rotation unit and the rod holder. A thread compensation system, or floating head, is needed in order not to damage the threads. Surface rigs seldom have synchronization between the rotation chuck and the rod holder. This feature is common on underground drill rigs, because they need the capacity to drill
Mechanical vs hydraulic rigs

With todays demands for high productivity, safer operations, and less work intensive, more versatile rigs, it is fair to say that the current transition from mechanical rigs to the more modern hydraulic rigs is a very stable trend, and will result in reducing numbers of mechanical rigs. For very special applications, such as operations in remote areas, specialized mechanical rigs will still have to be considered, but for the vast majority of ap-plications the hydraulic drill rig will take over.
lars gellerhed
Drilling
The driller has full control of the drill parameters such as rotation speed, feed
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keep the rig and business running

lifetime return on investment
Every business decision is based on the return on investment, regardless of whether the customer is purchasing a single machine or a whole fleet of drill rigs. The challenge is to maximize the return on investment in every decision made, day after day. Atlas Copco always recommends what is best for individual customers, based on years of experience striving to gain the most economic and efficient performance on thousands of rigs in the full range of environments, worldwide. Consistently we have found that rigs with Atlas Copco service contracts yield the highest return on investment, both in daily running costs and in residual value. There simply is no better service than that performed by a trained Atlas Copco Service technician.
increased revenue
There are two ways of increasing revenue on an exploration drill rig. Firstly, if availability is maximized, the opportunities to put core in the box are increased. The cost of lead time and breakdowns should always be taken into the availability calculation. Secondly, if service costs increase due to the age of the rig, profitability is decreased. The service cost is normally related to the age of the rig. For a new rig, the service costs are generally lower than for a comparable 10 year old rig, not only due to lifetime of components but also because operators tend to take better care of new equipment. The capital cost of a new rig is money well spent if the cost of service decreases dramatically compared with its predecessor. The most important part of the balance is to keep the total costs low. Monitoring service and maintenance in a more professional way, using a service program adjusted to the specific equipment, will result in lower costs. Of course, major factors in the equation are the level
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A Service engineer from Atlas Copco visits a drill site during a Christensen Care program to check the rig on a recommended interval.
of training of the operator, overall care of the equipment, and the owners attitude to maintenance.
Care program
A well adjusted service and preventive maintenance program will ensure that your equipment is looked after in the best possible way. The care program has been developed to match the high availability expectation of our customers. The program doesnt ensure a
certain percentage of rig availability, but the setup of the program will secure its maintenance and productivity. Care is the common name throughout the CMT business area for a tangible and simple service product for our capital equipment. It consists of three main pillars, but can be extended with more pillars depending on customer or product. The three main pillars are: scheduled services in which we visit the machine every 250 or 500 hours and change
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filters and oils; inspection protocols whereby we carry out inspections according to a standard list; and extended warranty where we offer extended warranty up to 5 000 hours, or three years, on selected parts. The extended warranty is for products up to one year old, or 1 000 hours. Of course, the care program can be used for older rigs, but without the extended warranty option. Other pillars in a care program can be: satellite monitoring system on surface rigs; application knowledge to optimize drilling with our Service technician evaluating the overall drilling operation; software upgrades. During the care program, Atlas Copco will visit the rig at the recommended intervals, increasing the mean time between failures on many parts. A complete and current service book also secures the resale value of the equipment, in much the same way as for private cars. When using our care program you will benefit from correct service and genuine spare parts. Timely delivery of the correct parts ensures quality and availability.
input data of rig

Financial Purchase price* Depreciation time (number of years) Residual value Interest Insurance/tax cost/year availability Total workdays/year Number of shifts (number/workday) Length of shifts (h) Standstill due to misc reasons** (days) Mechanical availability*** effective operational hours 220 2 8 20 85% 2400 2 000 000 7 300 000 5% 10 000
* Total price including rig, Power unit and Trido. ** Change of location, set-up time, lack of electricity, fuel, water or ITH. *** Standstills due to brake-downs or service. All costs in the tables (above and below) are specified in SEK.
Outdata without Care program

Fixed costs Depreciation Interest Insurance/tax Operating costs Energy Water Labour Bits ITH Spare parts PM/Service Unplanned service Total cost Metres per year income/metre core 60.00 25.00 125.00 50.00 95.69 33.33 30.00 60.83 528.90 7 200.00 600.00 Meter 33.73 13.89 1.39
Outdata with Care program

Fixed costs Depreciation Interest Insurance/tax Operating costs Energy Water Labour Bits ITH Spare parts PM/Service Unplanned service Total cost Metres per year income/metre core 60.00 25.00 125.00 50.00 84.90 33.33 30.00 18.38 469.90 8 160.00 600.00 Meter 29.76 12.25 1.23
Comparison between atlas Copco care program and normal/average in-house service
The calculation is based on experience from a number of customers during the last 5 years working in various kinds of environments.
Protecting the investment

Keeping the rig running is not only about having high availability and quality assured production. Atlas Copco Service will also protect your investment, with less downtime due to the better performance of genuine spare parts and the professional services of trained engineers and technicians. Atlas Copco will reduce your total cost of ownership, protecting your investment and your overall business.
Profit as % of income per meter
Profit as % of income per meter
anders Bjrk
Cost/meter core Profit/meter core
Cost/meter core Profit/meter core
Note: Figures serve as an example from existing customers and Atlas Copco can not be held responsible if the outcome is not according to the above figures. We can only act together with our customers with a goal to achieve the above, where the CARE program is the tool we use.
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luanShya, ZaMBia
Confirming the future of Zambian copper

new player
A recent addition to the ranks of Zambian deep drilling firms is Blu Rock Mining Services, formed in March, 2007 and already proud owners of five Atlas Copco core drilling rigs. After many years of depletion, drilling for replacement of copper ore reserves is essential to the long term future of the local mining industry, and is currently carrying a high priority. Offering technically-advanced equipment for drilling the accurate holes required for what are very carefully monitored geotechnical and exploration projects seems to have found a niche in the market on the Zambian Copperbelt, and business is booming for Blu Rock and its affiliates.
long experience
Based in Kitwe, the strategic hub of the Zambian mining industry, Blu Rock Mining Services has long and specific experience in the deep drilling sector. The founder, Polish-born Kris Jedrzejczyk, has worked in drilling and shaft sinking for nearly 30 years. Prior to starting Blu Rock, Kris worked for Mpelembe Drilling for 22 years, and was a member of the management buyout team that took over the operation from Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) in 1997. On contract drilling jobs, he adopted a hands-on approach, taking responsibility for project planning, contract proposal writing, and negotiations with clients at all the main Zambian mines, and monitoring the execution of the projects. Consequently, he got to know most of the countrys senior mining executives, engineers and experienced drill operators, earning their respect and trust.
Exploration drilling with a CS1000 core drill rig at Muliashi, Luanshya Mines.
equipment leasing
Through managing the Mpelembe drilling equipment fleet, and also as a
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director of the specialist underground diamond drilling company, Redrilza Ltd, Kris Jedrzejczyk established a constructive and professional relationship with Atlas Copco. This was a considerable help when he decided to plan the establishment of Blu Rock Mining Services, because Atlas Copco was in a position
to provide favourable credit and equipment leasing terms. This enabled the company to get up and running with five new Atlas Copco rigs. The chosen fleet comprised two Christensen CS14 core drilling rigs capable of drilling to 1 540 m with B size wireline, and three Christensen CS 1000
COnFiRMing The FuTuRe OF ZaMBian COPPeR
P4 rigs for conventional or wireline coring down to 1 030 m with B size wireline. The rigs were delivered and commissioned over a period from December, 2006 through to September, 2007. They are currently working under contract for two of the regions new generation of companies, Konkola Copper Mines (KCM) and Luanshya Copper Mines (LCM). The contracts involve exploration, geometallurgical and geotechnical drilling within two of the Copperbelts long-established mining areas, Chingola-Chililabombwe in the west, and Luanshya towards the eastern end.
long-term goal
KCM has employed one CS14 and two CS 1000 rigs in the Chingola area, where they had drilled a total of 10 000 m by the end of June, 2008, with the overall aim of confirming future copper and cobalt resources. The remaining two rigs, a CS14 and a CS 1000, are drilling for LCM on the Muliashi and Mashiba projects near Luanshya to provide information for the detailed design of new surface mining and processing facilities. The CS14, in particular, is working at the Fitwaola open pit to monitor the dip and grade of the orebody. The pit is in operation on a daily basis, and so, in order to avoid vibration damage to the drill string it is necessary to pull the rods each time production blasting is undertaken. The trailer mounted Christensen CS14 is equipped with a 3.5 m feed with main hoist capacity of 80 kN and 138 kN hydraulic feed cylinder. Power is supplied by a Tier 3 Cummins diesel engine rated at 153 kW, or 208 hp. At Kakosa, north of Chingola in the direction of Chililabombwe, a CS 1000 is exploration drilling to an average depth of 200 m to find a continuation of the Chingola orebody. The Christensen CS 1000 is a lightweight basic rig of simple design that can be flown to site. It has 40 kN hoist lifting capacity and 90 kN pull from the 1.83 m stroke feed system. Power is from a Cummins 4 cylinder 86.5 kW diesel engine. The third rig is drilling a limited number
Reviewing the progress: From left: Luciano Chikabo, Foreman, Blu Rock, John Kakumbi, Sales Manager, Atlas Copco and Kris Jedrzejczyk, Managing Director, Blu Rock.
of holes to assess lime resources that KCM might be able to use. This rig may start core drilling waste dumps in the area, to check for residual metal content, following up on a reverse circulation drilling programme that KCM has started. Using the new fleet of Atlas Copco rigs has paid off, as they drilled 2 000 m in the first two months of the contract, a much higher rate than previously achieved.
luanshya improvements
The LCM management team, headed by CEO Derek Webbstock, has already invested USD 50 million in upgrading both the Baluba mine and the concentrator, which can now process 10 000 t daily. Baluba has been mining 5 000 t/day, yielding 21 000 t/y of copper, and is expected to produce 24 000 t in 2007. Now LCM intends to invest a further USD 50 million at Baluba, in particular to modernize the hoisting shaft, and USD 354 million to develop a new open pit mine at Muliashi, initially extracting oxide ore reserves. Baluba should then be able to increase mine production to 6 000 t/day while Muliashi is presently expected to contribute 60 000 t/y copper and 1 500 t/y cobalt at full rate output. Phase 1 engineering has started at the Muliashi project, and is scheduled
for completion in the first quarter of 2009. LCM, which presently employs 2 400 people, expects to employ a further 1 000 people during construction, although only 400 will be required for the operational phase. Meanwhile, the company has started a feasibility study for mining the Mashiba sulphide orebody, which could add a further 6 000 t/y to LCM copper output. Blu Rocks rigs were contracted to drill a total of 15 000 m, of which 9 000 m had to be completed by April, 2008. The CS14 drilled holes ranging from 20-70 m for the Mashiba project, coring for process metallurgy test work needed for the feasibility study. Meantime, one of the CS1000 rigs was used to recover 48 mm core from a depth of 450 m to provide geometallurgical information for the mine planners and process engineers working on the Muliashi project. Other recently won contracts seem to confirm Blu Rocks winning formula.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is very grateful to Kris Jedrzejczyk and his company Blu Rock for assistance received in the preparation of this article, which first appeared in Atlas Copco Mining & Construction magazine 1-2008.
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WiTBank, SOuTh aFRiCa
atlas Copco exploration rigs prove reserves
CS 15000 in operation at Polokwane.
Powerfully efficient
The current range of exploration drill rigs from Atlas Copco Christensen offers great benefits to contractors in the industry. This is evident in South Africa, w h e re Z aa i ma n E x p lo ra tion Drilling is operating 35 rigs in mainly coal and platinum exploration. For Zaaiman, Christensen rigs are powerful, with enough torque to drill deep and with high productivity. Speeds range from low to high to handle diamond drilling, and long masts pull 6 m to 9 m rods. Importantly, complete units are supplied, including rig feed, control panel, main hoist and powerpack. As an added bonus all rigs are equipped to make and break the drill string with the rig, eliminating manual making/breaking with pipe wrenches, improving safety and productivity.
Five year plan

From its head office in Witbank, Zaaiman Exploration Drilling commenced a five-year plan in 2006 to replace all of their existing conventional type rigs with Christensen CS rigs. Currently Zaaiman Exploration Drilling operates 2 x CS 1500, 9 x CS14 and 4 x CS10 machines. On order are a further 2 x CT14 and 2 x CS 3001 that will be in operation by January, 2009. Directors Thinus and Rudi Zaaiman state that changing over to the CS machines has increased production substantially. Drilled metres increased on average from 800 to 1 200 m/machine/ month.
Platinum exploration
The trend in South Africa in platinum exploration is towards deeper holes,
resulting in more requests for bigger drills. For this reason Zaaiman ordered another two CS 3001 drills. In platinum, where the contractor drills BQ-size, bit life almost doubled, from an average of 130 m to 220 m. As a result of the efficiency of the Christensen CS rigs, as demonstrated in increased production and very little downtime, a recent large platinum exploration project in the Northern Province was finished six months ahead of schedule. The CS 3001 is built on a well-proven concept that is continuously upgraded. Designed for truck mounting, it is equipped with four hydraulic levelling jacks. With a main hoist single line pull of 139 kN and feed stroke of 3.35 m, it can drill B-size to 2 300 m and N-size to 1 830 m, handling 6 m rods with ease. Power is delivered from a 212 kW Cummins Tier 3 diesel engine with a
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CRaeliuS exPlORaTiOn RigS PROVe ReSeRVeS
large 950 litre fuel tank. The standard rig is equipped with hydraulic P-size rod clamp and hydraulic mud mixer.
Reduced maintenance
Atlas Copco Christensen rigs are built on the time-honoured concept of easy operation, simple and durable technology, and high capacity, and are much more in line with safety requirements and standards than their counterparts. Easy, timesaving setup, improved power, ergonomics and safety and increased productivity all contribute to the market acceptance of the new generation. The CS rigs have certainly proved their worth for Zaaiman Exploration, where maintenance costs dropped by two thirds because of less downtime and breakdowns compared to the old conventional type drills. This type of performance, along with its legendary Aftermarket support, have led Atlas Copco to its position as preferred supplier of all exploration drilling equipment and consumables to Zaaiman Exploration Drilling. This is a relationship of many years standing, and is certainly one that will continue in the future.
Coal benchmark
Because of the built-in safety features, the Christensen CS range of rigs are being used as the benchmark for production and safety standards in coal exploration in South Africa by major companies such as BHP Billiton, Anglo and Total Coal. With safety being such a big factor in the industry, the CS range has kept on developing, and now sets the trend for other to follow.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to Drill Africa and Kyran Casteel for their assistance with the production of this article.
One of the first CS 1500 machines drilling for platinum.
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ORkney, SOuTh aFRiCa
excore optimizes performance for Drillcorp

More for less
Core in the box determines exploration drilling company revenues and drillers wages. Not surprisingly, drillers are always looking for diamond drill bits with faster penetration rates and longer service life. The efficiency of the drilling tools is often a decisive factor in maintaining productivity and profitability, even when rock conditions change. To meet these demands, Atlas Copco developed Excore as the next generation of diamond drill bits, offering superior bit life and penetration rate. Prelaunch testing of Excore was rigorous, with thousands of metres drilled in six different countries under a wide range of conditions.
Challenging ground conditions

Drillcorp is a South African based drilling contractor, with operations in several countries in Southern Africa, as well as Brazil. The fleet includes more than 40 drill rigs, which are moved between sites after finished contracts. The operators and supervisors always have to ensure that contracts are finalized in time, as a new drill site is waiting for them somewhere else. Orkney is a small town 250 km west of Johannesburg, and is close to a goldfield with several mines. The goldfield Drillcorp operated on has a well known ore, with the first exploratory holes having been drilled as far back as the 1930s. The mine had been operated since 1991, but was closed during a change of ownership to explore and evaluate the prospects of further development. In 2009, Drillcorp was awarded a fivemonth contract for 20,000 m core drilling to define the ore values. To meet the timeline of the contract, Drillcorp had been running two drill rigs on separate locations to define the
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Drillcorp in South Africa was one of the contractors where the Excore bit was tested successfully.
values of the ore 400-500 m below surface datum. Some 46 holes were to be drilled, using mother holes drilled close to 500 m. At around 350-400 m depth wedges were placed, and deviated holes were drilled out in steps of approximately 10 cm from the mother hole to define the ore around the centre. Drillcorp deployed drill bits similar to those used at earlier drill sites, but soon discovered that the ground at the mine posed some challenges. The bits
did not cut the hard rock as expected and, when more pressure was applied it simply lifted the drill rig instead of cutting faster. In the toughest spots, the drill bits did not cut, but merely polished the bit. In addition, the ground was fractured, and complicated to drill without getting stuck. By the time that 10,000 m had been drilled, Drillcorp was managing about 30 m/shift with a bit life of 60-70 m. At that level of performance,
exCORe OPTiMiZeS PeRFORManCe FOR DRillCORP
more drill rigs were needed to close the contract on time.
excellent results
At this stage, the newly-developed Excore bit from Atlas Copco was introduced on the advice of engineers at Atlas Copco Exploration Products Africa. The results were astounding on the remaining 10,000 m of drilling, on which Excore returned an average bit life of 280-300 m at a production rate of 54 m/shift. This 80% higher penetration rate, coupled with a more than four-fold increase in bit life, added up to a significant productivity improvement! During the drilling operation, Drillcorp did not change any settings on the drill rigs, and used a variety of operators with differing levels of experience to get a fair result. They found that a single Excore bit type could handle all of the formations in the Orkney area, whereas Drillcorp had previously needed to stock six different bits on the shelf. This is not only important from an inventory perspective, but also operationally. As the rock conditions change, even for a few decimeters, the rods may have to be pulled to change bit type. The Excore bit could be used throughout the operation to cut through all formations. After closing the contract, Drillcorp moved on to another drill site in the same region, where they knew that the rock conditions were not as challenging. They intend to try Excore again at this new site. They reason, that Excore is simpler and more flexible, and drilling will be easier.
Design and metallurgy in harmony

The Excore drill bit technology is anything but a result by chance. The experiences from the preceding diamond bit ranges were substantial, and a global team of experts put their heads together to re engineer the bit from basics. The previously most successful bit designs were taken one step further, with changes in design specifications. Improved crown designs complimented
Drillcorp had a contract of 20 000 meters core samples, of which the last half was drilled with Excore.
by new matrices achieves an optimized balance between design and metallurgy. The design and composition of the Excore bit line offers the worlds exploration drillers new levels of productivity in terms of longer bit life and higher penetration rates. With a longer bit life, less frequent bit changes and rod pulling are required, allowing for more time to be spent on drilling.
The higher penetration rate means a lot more to the driller than mere productivity. When ground is difficult, and there is a risk for hole deviation or lower core sample recovery, it is possible to lower the weight on bit (WOB) and still hold a penetration rate equal or better than with other bits. With less pressure on the bit, it is easier to achieve straight holes and higher core sample recovery, while wear on the drill string is reduced. This gives a better result for the same
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Caption?
The Excore diamond bits set a new standard for production rate and bit life as it was released to the market.
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operating parameters. On the other hand, when rock conditions allow the driller to push for maximum speed, Excore bits optimize the drilling rate vs WOB. The bottom line is that Excore gives better results in a wide range of drilling conditions.
Table 1: a calculation shows that for a mother hole of 500 meters, time saving was:
Previous bit used Bit life No. of bits needed No. of pulls to replace bit Time to pull rods Capacity Total time to drill Total time per hole 65 m 8 bits 7 pulls 14 hrs 30 m/shift 118 hrs 132 hrs Excore 290 m 2 bits 1 pull 2 hrs 54 m/shift 74 hrs 76 hrs
More performance with fewer bits

Excore is not only a bit of performance. It is also a bit of simplicity. Normally a variety of bits has to be stocked at site to cover all expected rock formations. Excores unique metallurgy and design ensures each bit type will cover a wider range of rock conditions, meaning that fewer bit types will be needed. With fewer choices, selecting the right bit is simpler. The driller does not need to have experience and knowledge of the rock conditions hundreds of metres below surface, because the Excore bits will help him in his judgment. And the logistics manager will benefit with less overall inventory. The Excore bit range is divided into three application segments: Soft to medium hard, very abrasive to slightly abrasive and very fractured to slightly broken formations (Matrix series 1-4); Medium hard to hard, abrasive to slightly abrasive, moderately fractured to competent formations (Matrix series 5-8); and Very hard to extremely hard, slightly abrasive to non abrasive, very competent formations (Matrix series 9-10). Each Excore type is available in various crown designs like the ECF (Extended Channel Flush) for broken to competent formations, the JET profile for fast cutting in competent formations, and Face Discharge design for extremely broken and triple tube applications. Combining these features with different available crown heights, from 10-16 mm, there is an Excore bit for every formation.
This results in a time saving of 40% to drill a 500 m hole.
Bit for purpose

Willie Smit is Drillcorps site manager, with 17 years of experience of core drilling. His background, performance and attitude have earned him the title of supervisor of the year at Drillcorp in each of the past two years, emphasizing the fact that he has great pride in his worksite and equipment. Willie and his drilling crews were not satisfied when it became clear that the drilling contract could not be fulfilled in time because of inadequate bit performance. A solution using the newly-developed Excore bit was suggested by Jimmy Erasmus, sales engineer from Atlas Copco Exploration Products Africa. As the Excore bit had not yet been released to the market, Drillcorp was offered a bit that had been part of the test program. This bit was introduced into a partly drilled hole which had 250 m left to drill. Drillcorp normally would expect to change bit at least three more times for that hole, needing at least six hours to pull rods. However, the new Excore bit, completed the hole without need for replacement. Indeed, the bit still had some life left, and drilled another 52 m in the next hole. The first test showed 302 m bit life compared to the normal 60-70 m using the previous bits! After the trial, Drillcorp ordered 20 additional Excore bits to enable the contract to be finalized on time, a great result for the company and for Willie and his team. This is an excellent bit, and I would recommend it to anyone, comments Willie, adding especially for the ground conditions we have experienced.
Statements:
The new bit replaces six other bits needed in stock, confirms Charl Sommers, Store supervisor and buyer for Drillcorp. This makes our operation much more efficient. We need bits for hard and soft rock, we dont know which until we are in the formation. Says Willie Smit, site manager. If we need to pull rods to change the bit it may be for only a few decimeters. It saves us a lot on not needing to do this.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to the management and engineers of Drillcorp South Africa for the contribution to this article.
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guiZhOu, China
new record depth for CS14 core drilling rig
Close-up of CS14 core drilling rig at work.
Mining prosperity
The mining industry in China is growing rapidly to fulfil huge demand for iron ore, coal, gold, silver and other metals. The country is already a major mineral producer, and is both a consumer and a world trader of its mining products. In Guizhou province, which is rich in gold resources, extensive mineral exploration drilling is underway using Atlas Copco CS14 rigs, one of which recently set a new record depth for a core drilling rig.
Better technology
In 2007, global production of mineral gold exceeded 2 447 t, of which more
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than 10% came from China. The combination of high price and demand in domestic and international markets has resulted in heightened interest in gold exploration. As always, speed is of the essence, and higher productivity is required, driven by improvement of drilling technology and equipment. Recently, Guizhou Geo-mining Exploration Bureau (Guizhou Bureau) employed the latest exploration drilling technology at Shuiyindong gold mine at Zhenfeng, Guizhou, where an Atlas Copco CS14 core drilling rig drilling NQ (75 mm) reached a depth of 1,411 m, record that exceeds the drills maximum rated depth of 1 200 m. The 176 000 sq km Guizhou province is in a plateau area comprising typical karst topography, where the basic
geologic exploration is the responsibility of the Guizhou Bureau.
Shuiyindong mine
A pair of Atlas Copco Christensen CS14 core drilling rigs are operating at Nayang section of Shuiyindong gold mine. The mine is located at the town of Zhexiang in Zhenfeng County, about 260 km away from the provincial capital Guiyang. The rigs were bought in January, 2007 by No 112 Geo-Survey Team Exploration Company of Guizhou Bureau (Team 112) which has been responsible since 2002 for exploring the Zhexiang section. The two rigs have been generally employed on exploration drilling to depths of 700-1 400 m, and in their first year of
neW ReCORD DePTh FOR CS14 CORe DRilling Rig
operation drilled a total of 17 holes, amounting to 15 100 m. The orebodies in the Zhexiang section are usually at the bottom of the strata and explored using the wireline core drilling. Wireline coring is a relatively mature method of exploration in China, with high penetration rate and low labour input. At Zhexiang section, Team 112 is using three drill rigs, of which two are Atlas Copco CS14 core drills and the third is a locally-designed XY-2000 drill. The CS14 displays superior speed and stability to that of the XY-2000 rig, and achieves higher productivity through proper selection of penetration parameters and techniques for deep hole drilling.
improved productivity
During the initial trial operation, both CS14 core drills achieved a maximum penetration rate of 18 m/h in HQ (95 mm) hole sections, which is 5.24 times that of the XY-2000. Their average penetration rate is a stunning 6.33 times greater! During their first year of operation, the two CS14 drills achieved maximum monthly productivity respectively of 1 618 m and 1 705 m, while that of the XY-2000 drills was only 694 m. Their average monthly productivity was 1 074 m and 757 m, equating to 2.3 times and 1.6 times that of the XY-2000. Their average hourly productivity in the year was respectively 4.5 m/h and 4.9 m/h, 2.56 times and 2.83 times that of the XY-2000. The distribution of exploration boreholes in the mine is on a square grid measuring 160 m x 160 m, and hole quality is under strict control. The allowable tolerance of borehole zenith angle is 2 degrees for 0-100 m and 4 degrees for 100-200 m. The rock core extraction in a hole exceeds 85%. Rectification is a must for every 100 m, and the error must not exceed one thousandth. The two CS14 drills reached their record maximum depth of 1411 m in 42 days, operating 24 h/day, recording maximum penetration of 70 m in a single 12 h shift. So far, no cores have been discarded, and there has been a very high rate of successful drilling,
Collecting core samples from the inner tube.
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Core washing at the rig shows perfect recovery.
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with deviation controlled within the allowable tolerance. By the end of March, 2008 CS14 No 1 had achieved a total penetration of 8 446 m and No 2 had drilled 6 432 m to average depths of 770 m and 716 m. The diameter of hole opening is 130 mm using locally produced drill pipes, the diameter of the finished hole is 75 mm, and the diameter of the rock core is over 40 mm. The CS14 uses imported Atlas Copco drill strings, whose average service life is 8 000-9 000 m. XY-2000 drill uses home made drill strings, whose average service life is around 3 000 m. When unstable rock or stratum conditions are encountered during the drilling operation, slurry or pipes are usually used to protect the hole. Any burial of the drill bit will be immediately handled using a reverse thread drill string.
Typical CS14 core drilling site in the Guizhou region.
Safety and training

A project office has been set up at the Zhexiang section, managing three drilling groups with one drill rig apiece. Each group comprises 12 personnel working in shifts of three people. The drill operators have a high level of enthusiasm, and are quick in installation and relocation of drill rigs. The site follows standard operation procedures, with the CS14 rigs being maintained by specially assigned people. Installation, operation and maintenance training has been provided by Atlas Copco to teach the operators about the drill functions, and how to improve productivity. The CS14 rig does not require derrick installation, which is a great time saver. As a safety precaution, the machine is fitted with emergency stop buttons, which stop the drill immediately.
spares in order to shorten the supply cycle. Guizhou Bureau investigates all options before importing technically advanced drill rigs, and ordered ancillary equipment such as drill strings and drill tools along with the CS14. The proven performance of Atlas Copco products and aftermarket service were big influences on the purchase decision, along with low noise, good hydraulic system tightness, high degree of safety, quick installation, and compactness of the CS14, being a third smaller than traditional drills. In 2007, the two Atlas Copco CS14 rigs drilled a total of over 14 000 m. The target for 2008 is 20 000 m. Atlas Copco is now a major world supplier of ISO certified exploration drill equipment and tools, providing a complete range of conventional and thin-wall wireline core drill strings along with traditional steel and aluminium core drill strings. Localized production and supply in China means quicker deliveries, and increases customer confidence in Atlas Copco products.
Deep impression
The CS14 has many merits including high penetration speed, good borehole quality, and a first class safety record. The bureau is satisfied with the aftermarket service of Atlas Copco, and praises the prompt response to problems. Spare part supply is difficult to arrange in such a remote location, so it is necessary to carry an inventory of
exploration bureau
Founded in 1957, Guizhou Geo-mining Exploration Bureau is a government institution at the provincial department level with comprehensive functions including: basic geological survey and research; mineral exploration and development; hydrological engineering; geological environment survey and evaluation; geological disaster survey and
prevention; and mineral rock identification and testing. In the last 50 years, the Bureau has accomplished a total mechanical core drilling of 6.6 million m and a total pit excavation of 280 000 m. It completed comprehensive survey of 180 000 sq km of land in the whole Guizhou Province and part of Tibet, and submitted many reports on mineral reserves including gold, aluminium, phosphor, lead and zinc, manganese, coal, mercury, iron, and barite. In 2000, the Bureau established its business pattern: basic geology survey and research; mineral exploration and development; and geological engineering. The Bureau has made breakthroughs in exploration of minerals like gold, lead and zinc, manganese and copper, and carries out vigorous cooperation with domestic and foreign mining companies such as Aohua Mining from Australia, APC Mining from Canada, and Zijin Mining in Fujian. The Bureau also takes an active part in some infrastructure projects including coal exploration to enable power transmission from west to east, and geological disaster prevention for Three Gorges.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to the management and engineers at Guizhou Bureau who contributed to this article, and to Caroline He of Atlas Copco (Shanghai) Trading Co for collation of the performance data.
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keMi, FinlanD
grade control at kemi mine

Kemi mine is a crucial part of the Outokumpu stainless steel making operation at Tornio in Finland, now known as the Outokumpu Tornio Works (OTW). Equally, accurate grade control is crucial for the economic operation of the Kemi mining and processing system. For the grade control drilling function, the mine relies on an Atlas Copco Diamec U6 APC core drilling rig, which is drilling up to 12 km every year.
Black rocks
The main event that led to the creation of the integrated stainless steel operation is something of a legend. During the summer of 1959, somebody reported finding strange black rocks in Kemi parish on the northernmost shore of the Gulf of Bothnia in Finland. These were identified as lumpy chromite, and traced back to a large stratiform deposit north of Kemi town. However, the mineralization had a Cr2O3 content of about 26 % and a chromium to iron ratio of 1.5 to 1, both properties being substantially lower than those of any chromite ore then in use for making ferrochrome. Even so, Outokumpu, which at that time was primarily a base metals mining and smelting company, was interested. The company had already embarked on nickel production as the basis for making stainless steel, and decided to try to develop a processing system to upgrade the ore. A pilot plant was set up at Kemi in 1966 to prove the feasibility of upgrading the Cr2O3 content sufficiently. Both mining at Kemi, and ferrochrome production at Tornio using hydroelectric power, started in 1968. At that time Outokumpu intended to improve the chromium to iron ratio as part of the ferrochrome smelting process, but this plan was effectively overtaken by the development in the United States of the argon-oxygen-decarburizing process for making stainless steel which can utilize low chromium to iron ferrochrome.
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The Diamec U6 APC mounted on a crawler chassi, ready for operation.
Outokumpu was thus able to enter the stainless steel business, which it subsequently expanded several times, often introducing new proprietary technology that has been sold by Outokumpu Technology, and now Outotec, to other producers. The operation gained ISO 9002 quality certification in 2000. Eventually, at the start of the 21st century, OTW became the companys primary focus, and Kemi is now the only mine owned by Outokumpu. It now comprises the mine, ferrochrome works, steel melting shop, hot rolling mill and cold rolling plants and employs approximately 2 300 people, of whom 130 work at Kemi, assisted by about 100 contractor personnel. The ore grade at Kemi still demands very careful mining and grade control to ensure the mineral processing plant can deliver competitive, cost-effective feed to the ferrochrome smelter. Hence there has always been a need for rather precise grade control.
Moving underground
Mine production started in 1968 on an open pit mineable part of the chromite deposit that comprised 11 ore bodies within a 4.5 km-long zone and varied from 5 m to 105 m in thickness, the average being 40 m. The need to keep mining costs as low as possible, in what has been a high wage economy, has resulted in Kemi utilizing advanced mining technologies for chromite extraction, probably to a greater extent than most other producers. The first main pit to be developed continued until open pit mining ceased, but satellite pits immediately east and west of the main pit were developed and mined out in the intervening period. Open pit output reached a maximum of about 1.2 million t/y ROM ore. Three main ore types corresponding to mill products were mined. These were fine concentrate (12-100 pm particles), upgraded lumpy type (34-36% Cr2O3)
gRaDe COnTROl aT keMi Mine
The Diamec U6 APC set up for horisontal drilling.
and super upgraded lumpy (+36% Cr 2O3), from which the processing plant made (and still makes) 220 000 t/y lumpy concentrate (36% Cr2O3) and 420 000 t/y metallurgical grade concentrate at 44% Cr2O3. Physical separation techniques are used to produce the lumpy ore and metallurgical grade fines. Ore grade control in the open pit involved wireline diamond core drilling to determine boundaries and qualities of specific ore types. In addition, all blastholes were sampled, and only one type was produced from a specific working area because the initial process step will not work effectively with mixed ore types. In the 1990s Outokumpu planned a switch to underground mining, which involved developing the underground mine from the side of the open pit while production continued in the pit. As the output rate from the underground mine grew from 150 000 t/y in 2003, so the open pit mine was able to build
up stocks of the feed types. These were used after open pit mining ceased in December, 2005 and until underground output reached the 1.2 million t/y rate required to feed the ferrochrome smelter early in 2008. The open pits had yielded a total of 31.15 million t of chromite ore when mining stopped.
grade control
Grade control and mineability were key factors considered in detailed underground mine planning for Kemi. To continue providing the data necessary for grade control from the underground operation, as well as the equally important broader array of management information needed to maximize mine efficiency, Outokumpu developed an Intelligent Mine Information Technology programme. To obtain the geological data, a Diamec 264 rig for grade control and other core drilling was
deployed in 1996 for inventory drilling. The Intelligent Mine Programme provided the mine and process plant with an advanced communications system to access and complement the information on Kemis master database. This system has been extended and upgraded more or less continuously. Five ore bodies with a dip of 70 degrees NW make up the 1.5 km-long ore zone that is now being mined below the main open pit. Their geometallurgical and rock mechanical characteristics vary quite widely, so planning the stoping schedule to achieve the required feed grades needs very careful attention. The primary mining method is bench cut-and-fill, with some sublevel caving possible in parts of the mine where the blasted ore can be trucked out directly to the surface crushers. Sublevel caving provides a fall back option for maintaining the delivery of ore to the plant if the main mining operation is interrupted, for instance if
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separate the ores for heavy medium separation and for milling between the two silos. Basic mineralogical data and process results for each ore stope are logged on a daily basis, and can be compared with daily and blast-specific production histories from the database.
Diamec u6 aPC
In August, 2006 the mine geology team decided to acquire a new core drilling rig. The choice, on price and availability, was a new Diamec U6 APC Automatic Performance Control rig, rather than the equivalent U4 model. The specification selected included: the standard 1 800 mm feed frame; PU55E electric power unit with 55 kW motor and two hydraulic pumps; the AN rotation unit with a 60 cc hydraulic motor, the optimal choice when ITH drilling at AQ size; Trido 80H hydraulic flushing water pump with a capacity of approximately 80 lit/min; 1 300 m wire line winch, mounted on the positioner arm; and APC panel. These standard components are mounted on the tracked crawler unit option, which trams with diesel power rather than the alternative skid mounting, and has an extra working platform with seat for using the APC unit. The Kemi machine also has extra working lights. In addition to this set up delivered by Atlas Copco in February, 2007, Kemi has added a cable drum at the back, has installed an internal water tank and retrofitted Atlas Copcos RCS remote control system. The RCS system works very well with Kemis W-LAN based communication system, and most of the mines Atlas Copco units have it fitted. The new machine augmented the Diamec 264 until the older rig was sold to Suomen Malmi Oy (Smoy), a major Finnish exploration drilling contractor. The choice of the crawler platform rather than a skid reflects the main use that Kemi makes of the Diamec, drilling relatively short holes from a stope drive to determine the ore boundaries, and then moving to another stope drive. The rig can tram at 2-3 km/h, but for long moves uses a special carrier. The crawler platform has the advantage that no disassembly is required before it moves,
The driller in action handling the drill rods.
The powerful rotation unit of the Diamec U6 APC.
the hoist is out of operation. As in the open pit, the five ore bodies can still be differentiated along the ore body, which has average width of 40 m and can yield reasonably consistent ore types. However, whereas each 60 000 t ore blast in the open pit provided sufficient tonnage to be treated selectively at the concentrator, minimizing feed variation and maximizing process stability, this is not possible with bench cut-and-fill. Designed to cope with weak hanging wall rock and very variable
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fragmentation, this technique typically yields only 7 000 t/blast. Kemis mine production objective is to obtain the best possible mix for the process plant that mine planning, together with historical processing data and current drilling data, can provide. Typically, four or five stopes in the five ore zones are mined at any one time, and 40-45 in a year, in order to yield appropriate feed tonnages for lumpy ore and metallurgical grade concentrate processing. The process team tries to
whereas the power components must be disconnected from a skid-mounted feed frame, risking the entry of damaging particles into the equipment. The skid mount is more cost-effective for drilling long exploratory holes up to 1 000 m, which can take at least a month, so moves are infrequent.
Fast rotation
Kemi selected a fast rotation unit because the rig is drilling for narrow core. However, selection of the Diamec U6 did take into account the possibility of drilling very long holes when necessary, and Smoy has already carried out a core drilling programme at the -475 m level, using the new machine with Kemi operators to drill 2 in holes intended to yield geomechanical information. The deepest core drilling to date has reached the -650 m level. Since the orebody is normally 40 mwide, the Diamec usually drills three to five holes 4070 m-long holes sideways from the stope drive wall through to the other side of the orebody. In a few places faulting has made the ore wider, to over 100 m in some cases. Some drilling upwards into new mining levels is also underway. Kemis Diamec has a 1.8 m feed and uses 3 m rods behind the core barrel. The core barrel is 48 mm-diameter, accommodating 30-32 m-diameter core. All core is analyzed by OMS-logg downhole logging, and automated microscope image analysis is used for establishing grain size distribution. Additional sludge colour information is obtained from blasthole drilling.
Atlas Copco colleague, Carl Hansen, in dialogue with a Kemi operator.
automatic Performance Control

Kemi chose the APC hydraulic control system rather than the Pilot Hydraulic Control PHC option for a number of reasons. APC gives the driller freedom to empty core while the Diamec is drilling on automatic, which means the rig can be operated by only one person, rather than the usual two. It can also be used for remote control for operator safety. The Kemi operators, who previously worked with the Diamec 264 and are therefore used to the APC system,
particularly like the joystick control. However, Kemi does not presently use the performance data downloading facility because the ore is too variable for the data to be of use in subsequent operations. Not surprisingly given the ore variability, penetration rate varies from as low as 20 cm per minute but is typically 30-35 cm/min, at the high end of the performance range for Diamec U6 machines. The APC is very easy for inexperienced drillers to use, but only an experienced driller can set the system parameters. The sensitivity of the APC control contributes to the excellent bit life at Kemi, which is 600-700 m with a recorded high of 900 m. Rod life has been enhanced by fitting the bits with a reaming facility to bore an annulus around the rods, mitigating the grinding effect of the extremely hard chromite. The Diamec is maintained by Kemi personnel, assisted by the Atlas Copco technician on site if necessary. The mine is drilling 900-1 000 m/month in this application, a very large amount by any standard.
Mining expansion
Kemi chose the APC hydraulic control system rather than the Pilot Hydraulic Control PHC option for a number of reasons. APC gives the driller freedom to empty core while the Diamec is drilling on automatic, which means the rig can be operated by only one person, rather than the usual two. It can also be used for remote control for operator safety. The Kemi operators, who previously
worked with the Diamec 264 and are therefore used to the APC system, particularly like the joystick control. However, Kemi does not presently use the performance data downloading facility because the ore is too variable for the data to be of use in subsequent operations. Not surprisingly given the ore variability, penetration rate varies from as low as 20 cm per minute but is typically 30-35 cm/min, at the high end of the performance range for Diamec U6 machines. The APC is very easy for inexperienced drillers to use, but only an experienced driller can set the system parameters. The sensitivity of the APC control contributes to the excellent bit life at Kemi, which is 600-700 m with a recorded high of 900 m. Rod life has been enhanced by fitting the bits with a reaming facility to bore an annulus around the rods, mitigating the grinding effect of the extremely hard chromite. The Diamec is maintained by Kemi personnel, assisted by the Atlas Copco technician on site if necessary. The mine is drilling 900-1 000 m/month in this application, a very large amount by any standard.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to the management and staff at Kemi for their helpful inputs to this article. Particular mention goes to Jyrki Salmi, managermining, Timo Huhtelin, chief geologist, and Jukka Pitkjrvi, who is now at Talvivaara.
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PeRTh, WeSTeRn auSTRalia
Reverse circulation drilling in australia

expectations satisfied
The technique of reverse circulation (RC) drilling is rapidly gaining ground as the method of choice for obtaining consistently high quality rock samples with speed and efficiency. Until recently, drillers have had to modify existing rigs for RC drilling of deep exploration holes. Now, Atlas Copco has developed a completely new concept in its Explorac 220RC reverse circulation rig, providing exploration drillers with the only RC drill rig on the market that is truly tailor made for the job.
Collaborative design
The new rig was designed by Atlas Copco in conjunction with Metzke Engineering in Australia. Sheldon Burt, head of SBD Drilling, describes the Explorac 220RC reverse circulation rig as a world class rig that takes reverse circulation drilling to the next level. Among the key health and safety features on the rig are noise suppression to 82 dB(A) at 7 m distance, a remote drillers console, a KL rod handler, SDS Ausminco fire suppression system, and high-pressure plumbing mounted under the deck. The Explorac 220RC has a full length underbody hydrocarbons spillage tray and Euro 3 emissions level rated deck engine.
Explorac 220RC reverse circulation rig mounted on crawler with 50 pipes rack. Exploring for iron ore in West Africa down to 350-400 meters.
Right equipment
RC is a method known for its advantageous cost structure, metre rate drilled, speed, maintained accuracy and sampling efficiency. There are several critical factors in the design and use of the Explorac 220RC that combine to make this equipment efficient and profitable for the RC contractor.
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Downhole gear that has been optimized to match the rig air and hydraulics is important in order to maintain low drilling costs. Fast hydraulics, with userfriendly controls and hands-free handling of most downhole gear, means faster rod pulls and less time spent on other non-productive tasks. The variable position sliding dumping mast on
the Explorac 220RC can be positioned at any angle from 45 to 90 degrees, and the slips table height can be adjusted up to 1m to allow easy access to the drill hole collar. In addition, an integrated cyclone and sample collection system allows continuous, dust-free sampling with little or no pause in the drilling process.
ReVeRSe CiRCulaTiOn DRilling in auSTRalia
Performance with safety

Because the Explorac 220RC is designed specifically for the job, it has quickly become the mining industry benchmark unit for safety and performance. With its high on board air capacity of 519 lit/s at 31 bar (1 100 cfm at 450 psi), the rig can drill to greater depths than conventional RC rigs, without the need for boosters and auxiliary power units. However, if backup air is required, it can be made available in the form of a Hurricane 6T booster rated to more than 1 133 lit/s at 69 bar (2 400 cfm at 1 000 psi), and an Atlas Copco XRVS 466 auxiliary compressor rated to 453 lit/s at 25 bar (950 cfm at 365 psi). The onboard Atlas Copco XRX 12 compressor is a new, 30 bar pressure, two stage rotary screw compressor. Compact and lightweight, it is ideally rated for RC drilling and requires low engine power leading to significant fuel savings. Multiple connection points are provided for safe positioning of an auxiliary compressor and/or booster compressor. All air lines are steel and designed for 70 bar (1 015 psi).
Convenient controls
The unique control panel is portable and rugged. It can be positioned up to 10 m from the rig, providing unequalled operator safety and maximum visibility of the drilling and tool handling processes. The ergonomically designed, adjustable panel gives comfortable and precise control over all drilling, rod handling, sampling and rig management functions. The integrated display screen is clearly read in any conditions and shows all drilling information, parameters and warnings. It also monitors and displays all engine, compressor and hydraulic system information and service data. Troubleshooting is simplified because the electronic control unit manages all functions The Explorac 220RC is powered by the latest generation electronic Caterpillar C18 engine which exceeds Euro 3 emission standards. An intelligent engine management package linked with all other systems on the rig can adjust critical functions to provide optimum performance, reliability and fuel efficiency.
Explorac 220RC reverse circulation rig mounted on truck, RC drilling for gold deposits in Western Australia, using 4 OD RC dual wall pipes.
easy drilling
The KL rod handler on the Explorac 220RC is a proven and versatile component. It provides hands-free loading, unloading and stacking of drill pipes, both from the rig and from a rod truck or from racks that can be positioned anywhere within a 210 degree arc to the side or rear of the rig. It is operated by remote control, either by the driller or off-siders. This hands-free loading, unloading and stacking of drill pipes makes the job easier and safer. The rotation head is a proven, robust unit that has two high torque variable speed hydraulic motors driving through a single reduction. The integrated abovehead RC air and mud swivel is compact, reliable and easy to maintain. Adjustment, alignment and maintenance are simplified with a unique mounting system, which also allows the head to be
easily removed from the mast without disconnecting the feed chains. The fully hydraulic breakout table is extremely versatile. The front opens to 310 mm and not only guides the drill string, but also clamps and holds any downhole gear or casing when breaking out. A hydraulic sliding key/spanner retains the drill rods in normal operation, and the hands-free hydraulic wrench performs all breakout functions safely.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to Metzke Engineering and Sheldon Burt for their assistance with the production of this article, a version of which first appeared in Atlas Copco Australia house magazines.
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COunTRyWiDe, auSTRalia
Diamec MCR in australia
Diamec U6 MCR underground core drilling rig.
Saving time and effort

The Diamec MCR (Mobile Carrier Rig) was developed to improve rig flexibility and mobility. The first standard product was based on a Diamec U6 PHC or APC carrier, both of which are well proven components. The Diamec MCR has more flexibility, and reaches further in wider angles. Setup and moving of the rig is much shorter, taking only 25% of the time when compared to a traditional Diamec rig. As the Diamec MCR moves by itself, the drilling contractor does not have to rely on mining operations equipment for moving the unit, and as all components such as power unit and control unit are fixed on the rig, no disassembly is required.
Diamec u6 MCR
Key features of the Diamec U6 MCR are safety, strength, and a well-proven solution with a high level of engineering. As core drilling is heavy drilling, there is a need for a robust carrier. Also, the 1.8 m feed frame enables higher productivity. These features particularly suit the drilling of shorter holes in underground operations. Ore definition drilling, where the rig needs to be moved more often, benefits by a reduction of one working shift per move. A major strength of the Diamec U6 MCR is that a single manufacturer supplies carrier, boom and drill unit, making aftermarket support much simpler. Both the Simba 1257 carrier and the Diamec U6 drill unit are robust, well proven components. Computer assistance, APC, is available as an option.
The greater mobility and ease of transport makes the rig independent from other mining production equipment. The main markets for the MCR rig are Australia, Canada and Scandinavia, plus Chile and Mexico.
Barminco experience
Customers for the Diamec U6 MCR are typically underground contractors and in house contractor teams in larger mining companies. For 20 years, Barminco has been one of Australias leading underground mining contractors, initially providing services to the mines in Western Australia, and latterly expanding to other Australian states. The contractor has a range of experience with most underground mining methods from narrow vein small deposits to large scale sub-level caving
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DiaMeC MCR in auSTRalia
operations, and has gained a high regard for safe and efficient performance. Barminco are using Diamec U6 MCR models in the Australian underground operations, and now have three at work at different sites. They are finding that, while the drilling rates are comparable with other rigs, they are achieving the expected savings in rig moving time. One major advantage reported by the company is that, by moving all of the drilling components as one piece from site to site, they are seeing a reduction in heavy manual labour when lifting gear onto the utility truck or trailer. The chance of contaminants entering the hydraulic system is reduced by not having to de-hose when moving site, and there is no need for jacking up the rig and power pack to fit wheels and tow bars. By using stingers for short holes, pinning of the rig base and the faceplate is also reduced. Safety advantages include a reduced need to work at height when pinning the rig on up-holes, and a reduction in the trip hazards in the vicinity of the drill rig. The moving time of the drill rig has reduced greatly, creating more drilling time and increasing drilling output.
Summary
The Diamec U6 MCR is aimed at the main exploration markets in Australia, Canada, USA, and Scandinavia. Secondary markets are in South America. All of these regions have mines where ore definition drilling is a necessity, and where the MCR can reduce costs by increased availability to drill. The robust carrier and drill unit are designed for mobility and heavy usage in the underground situation.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to David Miitel, General Manager Diamond Drilling with Barminco Limited, for his inputs and assistance with reviewing this article.
The Diamec MCR in operation in Wiluna Mine, in Western Australia.
69
gOiaS, BRaZil
Reverse circulation technology wins in Brazil

Complex task
The prolonged run of high prices for nickel and its by-produc t cobalt on the London Metal Exchange (LME) has sparked a worldwide revolution in the nickel sector. New mining projects are being started, and existing operations expanded, to supply heavy demands from emerging markets such as China and India. In Brazil, the portfolio of nickel-related projects is valued at US$4 billion and will add more than 240 000 t/y of the metal to the existing production of 37 000 t/y as concentrate, metallic, matte and Fe-Ni alloys. To identify and define new reserves, and then to extract the nickel ore, is a complex task for which the start point is generally an exploration drilling project. Reverse circulation (RC) drilling using Atlas Copco Explorac R50 technology has been introduced at Votorantim Metais to speed things up.
Changing times
Until two years ago, exploration for nonferrous metal in Brazil was carried out by conventional diamond core drilling, following Canadian models which have been adopted as the parameter by virtually all Brazilian mines, irrespective of the ore being prospected. The times, however, are changing and new technologies are being introduced. In the case of nickel ore exploration, conventional core drilling is giving way to reverse circulation (RC), mainly due to the excellent results obtained with this method by Australian miners. The prime example of this change of methods is at Votorantim Metais (VMetais), the biggest local producer of metallic nickel in South America. Since 1957, the company has exploited the nickel ore in the district of Niquelndia, Gois State, and processes it to the metallic product in the district of So Miguel Paulista, So Paulo State.
70
The team members of V Metais standing in front of the Explorac R50 Reverse circulation rig.
Motivated by the continuing high international demand for nickel and its derivatives, VMetais has decided to increase capacity with a new project for Fe-Ni alloy production. This is being built alongside the existing mine and processing plant in Niquelndia, to produce 10 600 t/y of contained nickel by the pyrometallurgical process, or 42 400 t/y of Fe-Ni alloy. The latter is widely employed in stainless steel production, where annual world demand is growing by 4% to 6%.
new reserves
To support this new industrial project, the company needed to identify and to measure a new reserve of nickel ore. The new mine is located alongside the mineral bed being mined by the Caron
unit, producer of nickel carbonate, which is the main input for production of metallic nickel in So Miguel Paulista. The new reserve is distributed along the dunitic unit of the mafic-ultramafic complex of Niquelndia, occurring along a strike of 20 km in the NNESSW direction. It is of the saprolitic type, with an average thickness of 5 m, and contains total resources of up to 35 million t with a content of 1.3% nickel. Rotary core drilling was employed as the sole method when dimensioning the original mineral bed to be exploited in Niquelndia for the Caron process. However, the volume of drilling required for the new reserve warranted a faster system, so RC drilling was introduced by VMetais to supplement their core drilling effort.
ReVeRSe CiRCulaTiOn TeChnOlOgy WinS in BRaZil
Defining resources
To identify the new ore body for the Fe-Ni project, some 38 000 m of core drilling on a pattern of 62 m x 50 m was undertaken between 2004 and 2007. Detailed research was initiated in 2007 with a pattern of 25 m x 31 m to define the resources of the ore body in the category of measured reserves. To meet the target, approximately 13 000 m were drilled by diamond core drilling, and 8 000 m performed by reverse circulation process using rotary percussive equipment. In 2008, diamond core drilling was abandoned in favour of the RC method, and a total of 18 000 m of exploration drilling was undertaken using the new method. Significantly, the company decided that all future exploration drilling will use the rotary percussive method with reverse circulation, because of the better overall quality of the job, improved drilling speed, easier transportation flexibility of the equipment and its operation, and higher quality of the samples obtained. For 2009, VMetais plans to continue using RC drilling to define the resources in the ore body.
This proved to be the most important function of the low productivity of the core drills. Using RC drilling with the Explorac R50, production delays were minimized, and dimensioning of the mineral reserves for the Fe-Ni project was spee ded up.
Comparative testing
Tests were initiated in August, 2007 and, after a comparison of the results from the chemical analyses involving the two drilling methods, RC was quickly integrated into the company plans. The comparative test involved drilling of a hole with the Explorac R50 at a 2 m distance from an existing core drilled hole. The speed and mobility of the rig was monitored in steep and wet terrain, along with the volume of recovered samples and their chemical analyses. The Explorac R50 moved very well over differing terrain, was faster, and presented high recovery. The rig returned above 90% of each drilled metre, whether drilling through loose material or solid rock. The chemical results were very similar to those obtained by rotary diamond drilling, and the drilling speed in dry material was superior. In 2007, some 18 conventional rigs were needed to achieve 13 000 m of drilling, while the two RC rigs drilled 8 000 m. The result of the chemical analyses varied only at the ore to waste rock transitions, where study of the lithologic contact was better than metre-by-metre sampling. However, this does not affect the final result, so is inconsequential in this situation.
Rod handling.
high mobility
The RC drilling method was first utilized by VMetais in another nickel ore project, Montes Claros in Gois State. Because the rate of rotary diamond core drilling could not keep up with the required schedule at Niquelndia, an Atlas Copco Explorac R50 was introduced. This was the first such unit to arrive in Brazil, and was used as a test bed to establish the recovery and quality of samples using RC drilling. The holes in the exploration area were shallow, and ideally suited to the mobility of the Explorac R50, because the rig needed to move many times each day. Because the rig is equipped with crawlers, it can move easily in the difficult terrain of the drilling sites in Niquelndia. By comparison, the diamond core drill must be disassembled for transport and reassembled at each new workplace, or at least be towed by a tractor on an improvized skid or crawler track.
Shallow holes
Due to the fact the holes are very shallow, some only 8 m deep, with diameters from 5 in to 5.125 in, RC production is as much as 10 times that of the conventional method, in plain and dry areas. In reality, VMetais drills up to 150 m/ day of shallow holes that are close to each other, compared to a maximum of 45 m/day obtained by the rotary diamond core drilling system, or 10 to 15 m/shift. In more steep topographies, it is necessary to have a compressor towed by
a tractor to allow the operation of the drill, and this makes the machines mobilization more difficult. Even so, the Explorac R50 produces five times more than the conventional method. After comprehensive comparisons between core drilling and RC, the company now employs the RC method using equipment supplied by Atlas Copco in all three lateritic nickel projects: Montes Claros; Fe-Ni; and the existing Caron. VMetais are well satisfied with the drilling system and its productivity, and appreciate the support given by Atlas Copco, which, they say, is always very rapid, of optimum quality, and with problems promptly attended to and solutions found. The Atlas Copco technical team has made many visits following startup of the Explorac R50 to help with maintenance and to advise on operation of the drilling system.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to the management at VMetais for their inputs to this article and for permission to publish.
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ManiTOBa, CanaDa
Thin wall core barrels improve productivity

lighter means faster
Vale Incos ore body exploration in the T-1 shaft at its Thompson minesite in Manitoba, Canada is a situation where Atlas Copco has been quick to respond to the customers need for innovative products and after market services for exploration in extreme conditions. To satisfy the rigorous demands of this project, Atlas Copco supplied a capital, consumable, and total care solution. Highly productive double tube thin wall core barrels with light weight wireline drill rods, complemented by high performance diamond bits, were chosen to optimize the mobility and ergonomics of the Diamec U6 core drilling rig design features and realize the full productivity efficiencies of the complete package.
unique challenges
Developed in 1957, and located in the Canadian province of Manitoba, the Thompson T-1 shaft first began production in 1959 and to date has produced more than 70.7 million metric tons of ore, for a total of 1.95 million kg of nickel. It is currently at a depth of 1 341 m. Exploration is now being conducted at the 2800 ft level (850 m), where unique challenges had Vale Incos Manitoba Operations seeking innovative and efficient solutions. They needed to commission a new drill for the exploration project and, based on past experience, their first call was to the Atlas Copco office in the provincial capital of Winnipeg. Until this point, they had been using a skid-mounted Diamec 252 core drilling rig, which had given consistently good performance. However, moving the rig to different drilling locations in a single operator environment made it an impractical proposition. In addition, Vale Inco needed a rig that would work on multiple levels in the same
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Drilling with BOTW Thin wall core barrels in underground application.
mine, including older areas with spacerestricted access and different electrical requirements. It needed to be portable enough to be moved from station to station, narrow enough to fit in the cage, and safe enough for one-man operation.
Diamec u6
The compact design and flexible positioner allows a single operator, working alone, to set the feed frame in any vertical position from +90 to -90 degrees without moving the wireline hoist. In addition, the turntable option enables the drill to quickly be positioned in the horizontal plane. The improved control panel on the Diamec U6 enables full control over drilling, giving the driller more time for emptying core barrels and preparing equipment. Most drills run as a two-man operation because, at a 850 m hole depth (2789') it is hard to hold the tube,
drain the water and get the overshot off. With the Diamec U6, a helper is not required and, because it is an integrated unit, it is much faster to move around to different set-ups. The mine is also impressed with the drills design, mechanical availability and durability, noting improvements over what they have used in the past. Vale Inco Manitoba Operations is using exclusively Atlas Copco ITH products for this project, and Atlas Copco impregnated diamond core bits. Im very pleased with both the ease of use, manoeuvrability and overall production. I would absolutely recommend this unit to my drilling colleagues. Gerald Carrier D1 Diamond Driller and Supervisor
exPlORaTiOn PaCkage SOluTiOn iMPROVeS PRODuCTiViTy in ManiTOBa
Thin wall
The project is taking full advantage of the AOTW and BOTW double tube thin wall core barrel designs. Thin wall systems are built around speciality application tubing having thinner cross sections, which translates into lighter weight drill rods and thinner diamond bits. For drill rods, the weight reduction is a benefit for Vale Inco operators, and effectively extends the depth capacity of their drill. Complementary diamond bits, having to cut less rock surface area, require less feed force and yield higher penetration rates. Ruggedly built by design, thin wall core barrels are used in all borehole orientations at Vale Inco, and are often extended to increase the total amount of productive drilling time by reducing tripping of the tools in deeper holes. Vale Inco extract a more representative sample volume and increase measurable core recovery with a larger diameter core sample, without any increase to nominal borehole diameter. Some calculated trial and error is employed when finding the perfect combination of In-The-Hole tools for this type of underground project. Atlas Copco staff are experts on what the bits and core barrels have been designed for, supplying a range of products, testing them with the operator, checking the operating parameters against productivity and figuring out which product combinations work best under each specific condition. Were averaging between 24 and 37 meters (80 to 100 feet) per shift. These are a little larger barrel, ( core diameter ) but theyre a lot more durable for the conditions and depths were dealing with here. Bradley Woytkiw Driller
Diamec U6 core drilling rig using a Thin wall drilling package.
Customer communication
The commitment to superior productivity through dependable and innovative quality In-The-Hole products is a two way street. Like many other end users, Vale Inco Manitoba Operations uses
the full Atlas Copco line of exploration products and services, from the drilling rig to the bit, and all the tools in between. The Winnipeg location makes getting tools, parts and service to the operator much more streamlined. Atlas Copco uses their Net Promoter Score (NPS), a customer-centric feedback survey, which assists them in product development and actively triggers improved service and communication with customers such as Vale Inco. The NPS survey involves the entire Atlas Copco organization and considers transactional surveys, such as when drills are delivered and when on-site
maintenance and technical services are performed. Atlas Copco and Vale Inco are taking their relationship to the next level by working together to develop an in-house drilling programme at the Thompson mine.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco is grateful to the management of Vale Inco, Canada and Bradley Woytkiw, driller and Gerald Carrier, D1 diamond driller and supervisor, for their contributions to this article and permission to publish.
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QueBeC, CanaDa
groundbreaking technology in the Valley of gold
Forage Mercier crew at Val DOr.
Cadillac fault
During the early part of the 20th century, major discoveries in precious metals were made in the Abitibi-Tmiscamingue region of Qubec. These included coppergold at Rouyn-Noranda in 1922 and gold at Val DOr in 1925. Subsequently, many mines were developed in ore bodies discovered near these communities, all of them located along what is known as the Cadillac fault, part of the upthrust that created the Canadian Shield billions of years ago. However, exploration drilling conditions have always been difficult, testing contractors and equipment to the limit. The introduction by Atlas Copco of its BT rods, with a rated depth capacity of 2 600 m, has produced a marked improvement in results.
Major investment
The Cadillac fault is a major structural feature of the geology of the area, covering a stretch of ground approximately 400 km-long and 5 km-wide. It is a break in the earths crust that extends from Timmins in the west to Val DOr in the east, formed when the Canadian Shield broke over 3 billion years ago. During the upthrust, magma, or molten rock, rose and solidified within the fracture. The magma carried with it precious metals such as gold and silver, as well as copper and zinc. Because of its economic importance, some 80% of all the investments in Quebecs mineral exploration and ore deposit development are currently made in the Abitibi-Temiscamingue and Nord-du-Quebec regions, directly along the fault. Since the first discovery of gold in the 1920s, the ability to
explore at any significant depth along the Cadillac fault has been tested again and again, but with limited success.
uncommon ground
While core drilling technology has advanced steadily since the 19th century, there are still several basic, limiting factors that will determine the depth to which a borehole can be drilled. Drilling to depths of 1 200 m to 1 800 m is common where the ground is mainly hard rock. In Val DOr and other regions along the Fault, geological challenges demand not only superior product technology and performance, but also superior contractor competence. Drilling contractors have to put their skills and experience to the test on every hole. Jean-Claude Gendron, Vice-President of Operations for Forage Mercier Inc., a
74
gROunDBReaking TeChnOlOgy in The Valley OF gOlD
company specializing in surface exploration diamond drilling in Val DOr, has been doing mineral exploration along the Cadillac fault for over 43 years. He is involved in gold exploration for a Val DOr-based client where the prospect straddles the fault, and has presented his team with unique geological challenges. They are drilling through layers of abrasive ground, sand, mud, and very hard and broken rock in which, to maintain the integrity of each hole, considerable cementing and wedging is required. The entire procedure involved in positioning a wedge in a drill hole to achieve a required deviation can often take up to two shifts. This is due primarily to the fact that there is a wait of at least eight hours between grouting to allow for drying. Once the wedge is placed and the deviation of the hole has been achieved, the corebarrel is re-inserted on the drill string and normal drilling resumes. In the event additional deviation is required, another wedge is installed after 60 m and the process is repeated. It is a time-consuming process and can be hard on the drilling rigs and in-the-hole tools.
From the left to the right: Jean-Claude Gendron, Vice-President, Forage Mercier and Christian Bergeron, Sales representative, Atlas Copco.
Tougher threads
In April, 2008, on the recommendation of his representative from Atlas Copco, Gendron replaced the BO drill rods he had been using with BT rods, which are exclusive to Atlas Copco. He reports that the new rods work very well in the broken ground, where previously the O-threads were experiencing a lot of strain. Gendron says the BT threads are tougher, and allow more torque to be used without danger of damage or galling, all of which is important for the drillers and conditions at the Cadillac fault. Wearing metal against metal in abrasive cemented and wedged ground is known to be extremely hard on the rod joints and overall rod life expectancy, commonly reducing the life of the rod string by about 20%, meaning replacements can be required every 16 000 m, or 50 000 ft. At one location, the drillers went through some very bad ground and had to cement more than
ten times, plus a couple of wedges. This would have been very hard on the threads prior to the change, but not with BT rods. As a result, the company now spends more time drilling with the string, and less time pulling and replacing rods. Furthermore the Tuff Rod allowed the Forage Mercier team to reach a record depth of 2 378 m, or 7 800 ft, exceeding their expectations not only for depth, but also for overall integrity and life of the rod threads.
Straighter holes
More than depth, the goal of this project is to drill a straighter hole. The Forage Mercier team is using an upgraded Atlas Copco B15 drilling rig, which, along with the BT rods, has given them excellent results in the field. Because of the stronger threads, operators have noted that the drill string doesnt bend at the joints due to worn threads. The standard setup is for drilling at 85 to 87 degrees, which is fairly steep. Normally, readjustment would be required frequently because of worn
threads shifting the rods off angle. However, this is no longer the case, so they feel this is really a superior product across the board. Forage Mercier has been relying on Atlas Copco inthe-hole tools, including drill rods and diamond bits, for over 20 years, during which time Gendron and his team have developed a strong relationship with the staff at the Atlas Copco office in Val DOr. When Atlas Copco technical personnel visit the job sites they work with the drillers, giving them the information to solve specific problems. Forage Mercier observes that the resolution of the difficulties with the rods at Cadillac fault is typical of the way in which Atlas Copco supports its clients, as part of their own project team.
acknowledgements
Atlas Copco would like to thank Forage Mercier, and in particular Jean-Claude Gendron, for their assistance with this article and permission to publish.
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anCaSh, PeRu
Christensen CS3001 works well in extreme conditions
Discussions about the performance and design of a Christensen CS3001 surface core drilling rig at 4800 m above sea level.
Problems and challenges

When long-standing Atlas Copco customer Lucho Rodriguez from Geotec in Peru needed to get big drilling performance on his Hilarion contrac t in the high Andes, the choice was easy. The Christensen CS3001 surface core drilling rig has the mobility, the drilling capacity, and the power to operate under extreme conditions of altitude and weather, with only minor modifications.
location of the project

The Hilarion project is located 50 km south of Antamina, the world class Cu-Zn reserve, and 13 km south of Mitsuis Huanzal mine, in the department of Ancash, Per. The prospecting licence area covers some 8 512 hectares of a skarn type polymetallic reserve of ZnAg-Pb. The local climate suffers extreme weather conditions due to 4 200-5 000 m altitude and temperatures as low as -15 degrees C. The campaign demanded 85 000 drilled metres to 1 000 m depth using NQ pipe in limestone with presence of silica. The total number of
drilling rigs engaged on the project is 16, three of these are Christensen 3001 core drilling rigs.
Christensen CS3001 selection

The Christensen CS3001 was chosen for this project mainly due to the capacity of the equipment and the good results obtained in similar campaigns where deep drill holes of 1 000 m in NQ were required at up to 45 degrees inclination. The threading and unthreading operations on the Christensen CS3001 were
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ChRiSTenSen CS3001 WORkS Well in exTReMe COnDiTiOnS
known to be much safer and more efficient in similar long hole drilling projects, where the previously accepted risks of accidents and breakdown were replaced by safety and speed. The drilling rate achieved by the Christensen CS3001 at Hilarion is 3.5 m/ hour at 87% availability. Two shifts every day are spent on drilling operations, requiring one driller and two helpers. One shift/day comprising three mechanics and two foremen is spent on maintenance of the fleet of rigs. Some problems were experienced initially with the Christensen CS3001 drill head when water and mud entered the unit, contaminating the oil. These were resolved by replacing the excluder seal on top of the head by two oil seals.
Christensen CS3001 specification

The Christensen CS3001 is a field proven concept that has become exceedingly popular amongst contractors looking for a tough medium- to deep-hole exploration drilling rig. Rated at a drilling capacity of 1 830 m, this truck mounted model features a hydraulic slide mounted control panel with all drilling and engine controls in one location. This provides fingertip control of all functions and facilitates a good view of the worksite and, in particular, improved visibility of main and wireline hoists. As this type of drilling rig may find its way into high terrain, the Christensen CS3001 is equipped with a high altitude kit to ensure operation in situations where the air is much thinner than normal. The rigs main features are a Cummins 6 CTA 8.3L turbocharged aftercooled diesel engine, and a drillhead with P size 117 mm spindle, maximum 1 300 rev/min, maximum torque 4 800 Nm, and fourspeed transmission. The main hoist capacity is 133 kN, and lift capacity of the feed is 155 kN. Feed length is 3.35 m, and rod pull length is 6 m.
One of the three Christensen CS3001 surface core drilling rigs at the Hilarion project runned by Geotec.
The worksite is located at extreme altitudes in the Andes.
acknowledgements
We thank Lucho Rodriguez, Service Manager at Geotec in Peru for his contributions to this article and permission to publish.
Maintenance and service talks between Lucho Rodriguez and members of the drill crew.
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CORe DRilling RigS
Diamec 232
Diamec 232 is an all-hydraulic drilling rig, ideal for coring in narrow tunnels or galleries as well as in other cramped spaces underground and for grout hole drilling. The rig is equally efficient for surface drilling operations. Compact design and light weight, makes the Diamec 232 easy and fast to set-up for c drilling. This in turn offers quicker moves between drill sites, without disturbing normal production routines in the mine, or grouting sequences in dam galleries. The Diamec 232 is also aluminium-free for use in coal mines. Combined with a special designed power unit, this machine can be used with HFC (water/glycol) flameproof liquids in the hydraulic circuit, thereby complying with another statutory requirement in underground coal mines.
Features
All hydraulic operation Mechanized rod handling Hinge mounted rod holder and rotation unit Low weight and compact design for easy to move around Impressive rod running speed Variable hydraulic motor on rotation unit for step less regulation of spindle speed keeping max. power output
Main optional equipment
Electric or diesel driven power unit with a basic design and with a double hydraulic pump set-up for optimal operation Column mounting
Main specifications Diamec 232

Basic data Max depth Diameter Max speed Max torque Feed force Feed length Modules Flush pump Power unit* 120 m (A) 50 mm 2 200 rpm 250 Nm 20 kN 850 mm Trido 45 PU 20E or PU 20D 400 ft (A) 2" 180 lbf ft 4 500 lbf 33 1/2"
500 230
151
* Electric (E) or diesel (D)

1400
Visit www.atlascopco.com 78 exploration drilling
DIA ME
C2
32
CORe DRilling RigS
Diamec u4
Diamec U4 is a compact and powerful core drilling rig for its size and easy to set up. Ideal for both underground and surface drilling, it can be equipped with a long or short feed frame and wire line equipment. The push-equals-pull feed cylinder also allows for maximum capacity uphole and downhole exploration drilling. Diamec U4 is ideal for both conventional and wire line drilling. There is also a wide choice of equipment available for the Diamec U4, including two feed frames, two rotation units, two chassis models and two types of control systems. In combination with the optional control system, APC the Diamec U4 is the most modern, user-friendly and productive core drilling rig in it's size available on the market today.
Features
A versatile, easy-to-use positioner, for setting up the rig -90 to + 90 Robust feed frame with a telescopic feed cylinder Equal pull and push capacity, for optimal underground drilling All new rod holder with the latest gas spring technology State-of-the-art hydraulic system Turn table mounted on skid for easy to set up in horizontal plan Impressive rod running speed
Two options for control system: PHC Pilot Hydraulic Control and APC Automatic Performance Control WL hoist (500 m) mounted on the positioner arm Electric or diesel driven power unit with a basic design and with a double hydraulic pump set-up for optimal operation
Main specifications Diamec U4

Basic data Max depth Diameter Max speed* Max torque* Feed force Feed length Modules Flush pump Power unit** 500 m (A) 78 mm 1 800 rpm 660 Nm 52 kN 850 mm or 1 800 mm Trido 80 PU 45E or PU 40DT 1 650 ft (A) 3 1/16" 490 lbf ft 11 700 lbf 33 1/2" or 70"
62 0
35 5
* Also available as high torque ** Electric (E) or diesel (D)

DIAMEC U4
28 20
2260
Visit www.atlascopco.com exploration drilling 79
CORe DRilling RigS
Diamec u6 and u6Dh
Diamec U6 and Diamec U6 Deep hole (DH) core drilling rigs are truly flexible exploration core drilling rigs. They are both at home in underground and surface exploration. Theres also a wide choice of equipment available, including two feed frames, four rotation units, two chassis models and two types of control systems. This powerful and compact rig has become very popular amongst those wanting to drill deep and large holes. The unique positioner allows you to move the feed frame through 180.
Features
A versatile, easy-to-use positioner, for setting up the rig -90 to + 90 Robust feed frame with a telescopic feed cylinder Equal pull and push capacity, for optimal underground drilling All new rod holder with the latest gas spring technology State-of-the-art hydraulic system Turn table mounted on skid for easy to set up in horizontal plan WL hoist (1 300 m) mounted on the positioner arm Impressive rod running speed
Two options for control system: PHC Pilot Hydraulic Control and APC Automatic Performance Control Electric or diesel driven power unit with a basic design and with a double hydraulic pump set-up for optimal operation Feed extention for optimal surface operation
Main specifications Diamec U6 and U6DH
Basic data Max depth Diameter Max speed* Max torque* Feed force Feed length Modules Flush pump Power unit** U6 1 000 m (A) 3 300 ft (A) 78 mm 3 1/16" 1 800 rpm 700 Nm 515 lbf ft 65 kN 14 600 lbf 850 mm or 33 1/2" or 1 800 mm 70" U6 Trido 80 PU 55E or PU 100DT U6DH 1 000 m (B) 100 mm 1 400 rpm 1 375 Nm 89 kN 1 800 mm
40 0
3 300 ft (B) 4" 1 020 lbf ft 20 000 lbf 70"
0 70
29
00
U6DH Trido 140 PU 75E or PU 100DT

2645
* Also available as high torque ** Electric (E) or diesel (DT)
CORe DRilling RigS
Diamec u8
Diamec U8 is a true deep hole core drilling rig. Its quite simply the most powerful exploration rig for its size on the market today. At home both above and below ground. Often operating for weeks working the same bore hole, its imperative that the rig keeps running efficiently. Ergonomics and safety are also a consideration in the design, providing for safe and comfortable operation and improved rod handling. As a trend in the exploration segment, to drill deeper, the Diamec U8 is and will be an important rig to meet the needs both underground and on surface. With userfriendliness and safety as highest priority the Diamec U8 will be a state of the art rig for many years to come.
Features
Robust feed frame with a telescopic feed cylinder Equal pull and push capacity, for optimal underground drilling All new rod holder with the latest gas spring technology State-of-the-art hydraulic system Impressive rod running speed
Available in two different versions; Underground version (compact, and with a WL-hoist (1 300 m) and Surface version (long mast extension to handle 6 m rods, WL-hoist with high capacity (2 000m) Two options for control system: PHC Pilot Hydraulic Control and APC Automatic Performance Control Electric or diesel driven power unit with a basic design and with a triple hydraulic pump set-up for optimal operation.
Main specifications Diamec U8

Basic data Max depth Diameter Max speed Max torque Feed force Feed length Modules Flush pump Power unit*
5 45
2 000 m (B) 100 mm 1 200 rpm 2 300 Nm 133 kN 1 800 mm Trido 140 PU 110E or PU 160DT
6 600 ft (B) 4" 1 630 lbf ft 29 000 lbf 70"

31 00
77 0
* Electric (E) or diesel (DT)

2320
D IA M
EC
U 8
CORe DRilling RigS
Diamec u6 MCR
The Diamec Mobile Carrier Rig (MCR) combines the best of two worlds: the high productivity and accuracy in core drilling of a Diamec core drilling rig, with the robustness and mobility of a Simba carrier! This combination provides the exploration driller with unmatched productivity in underground mining The Diamec MCR is completely self sufficient and can swiftly move from one drill spot to another. The time saving can be more than 50% depending on distance etc! Less people and equipment needs to be involved, and the entire core drilling equipment is moved in one piece. Setting up for next drill hole is done within minutes. Less setting up time of course means higher productivity. This is also the case for the Diamec U6 MCR, the idea is that when moving move it fast, when drilling drill fast!
Features
Robust feed frame with a telescopic feed cylinder Equal pull and push capacity, for optimal underground drilling WL hoist (1 300 m) mounted on the boom arm For drilling an electric driven power unit is used with a double hydraulic pump set-up for optimal operation. Everything needed for optimal core drilling installed on the carrier (drill unit, hydraulic power pack, water pump, power cable etc) Flexible boom system for variety of drill angles Self-sufficient and gives a safe transport between drill locations
Two options for control system: PHC Pilot Hydraulic Control and APC Automatic Performance Control Support jacks
Main specifications Diamec MCR

Basic data Max depth Diameter Max speed Max torque Feed force Feed length Modules Flush pump Electric power unit 1 000 m (A) 78 mm 1 800 rpm 700 Nm 65 kN 1 800 mm 3 300 ft (A) 3 1/16" 515 lbf ft 14 600 lbf 70"
DIAMEC MCR U6
8700-11000
Trido 80 PU 75E (To be used when drilling)
width=3100
CORe DRilling RigS
Christensen CS10
Christensen CS10 is the smallest core drilling rig in the range. Sharing many of the components with Christensen CS14, this trailer-mounted drilling rig has a robust long mast that is split-able into three sections. Even though it is a small drill it is equipped with all the common standard safety and operation features a modern drill rig should have such as making and breaking including thread compensation. With a drill capacity of 800 m (NO), this flexible drilling rig can pull a 6 m core barrel without disconnection the over shot. CS10 is a small yet highly productive core drilling perfect when small to medium depth capacity is needed.
Features
Hydraulic P-size rod holder Mast in three sections Hydraulic mast raise Wear lines on lower mast Safety guards Large crown sheave wheel 4 hydraulic levelling jacks Making and breaking including hydraulic tread compensation High quality fuel filters and water separator
Main Optional equipment

Water/mud pump, Trido 140 Water flow and RPM meter kit High altitude version (for operations higher than 3 000 above sea level) Hydraulic mud mixer
Main specifications CS10

Basic data Depth capacity (NO) Drill rod size, wire line Main hoist Lift capacity, feed Feed length Rod pull length Engine (up to 3000m a.s.l.) Engine power at 1800 rpm Weight (including Trido 140) 800 m 2 625 ft B-P 53.5 kN 12 000 lb 90 kN 20 200 lb 1.83 m 6 ft 6m 20 ft Cummins QSB4.5, 4 cyl Tier III 111 kW 148 hp 5 000 kg 10 200 lb
11100
CHRISTENSEN CS10
Width = 2200
5900
CORe DRilling RigS
Christensen CS14
Christensen CS14 represents one of the most flexible drilling rig sizes in the Christensen range with a drilling capacity of 1200 m. With its relatively small dimensions and the built in power and safety this rigs is capable of taking on the vast majority of core drill projects. Christensen CS14 is a trailer mounted medium sized core drill rig for surface exploration applications. CS14 is built on the well proven Christensen concept meaning easy operation, simple technology, high capacity and reliable performance. In addition the rig is equipped with many features that ensure easy, safe and high productive operation. This model is operation in all markets around the world, why it is safe to say that this is the work horse of the Christensen range.
Hydraulic mast dump Foldable mast in two sections Large crown sheave wheel Hydraulic mast dump 4 hydraulic levelling jacks Wear lines on lower mast Safety guards Making and breaking including hydraulic tread compensation Hydraulic P-size rod holder Towing package High quality fuel filters and water separator
Features

Water/mud pump, Trido 140 Water flow and RPM meter kit High altitude version (for operations higher than 3000 above sea level) Hydraulic mud mixer
Basic data Depth capacity (NO) Drill rod size, wire line Main hoist Lift capacity, feed Feed length Rod pull length Engine Engine power at 1800 rpm Weight 1 200 m 4 042 ft B-P 80 kN 18 000 lb 138 kN 31 020 lb 3.5 m 11.5 ft 6m 20 ft Cummins QSB6.7, 6 cyl Tier III 153 kW 208 hp 7 000 kg 15 430 lb
9970
CHRISTENSEN CS14
Width = 2200
6127
CORe DRilling RigS
Christensen CT14
CT14 is the smallest truck-mounted drilling rig, has all the equipment required mounted onto the rig chassis. A truck mounted rig offers great flexibility, capable of accessing terrain as well as offering easy transportation between different drill areas. The large platform provides a very stable drill set up. The Christensen CT14 is a powerful, safe and ergonomic surface core drilling rig. With its depth capacity of 1200 m (NO) this rig will suit the majority of core drill projects. With the extendable control panel the driller can get a good view of the drill operation regardless of drill angle. The main control panel offers the driller access to all drill controls, placed in a logical grouping in order for the driller to have full attention to the drill operation/helper.
Features
Hydraulic mast dump Making and breaking including hydraulic tread compensation Large crown sheave wheel Hydraulic oil reservoir with fill pump and filtration Mast lightening kit Rod kicker hydraulically operated Water flow and RPM meter kit Hydraulic mast raise Extendable control panel (for drilling angle holes) 4 hydraulic levelling jacks Wear lines on lower mast High quality fuel filters and water separator Water/mud pump, Trido 140

High altitude version (for operations higher than 3000 above sea level) Rod rack including ladder and helpers platform
Main specifications CT14
Basic data Depth capacity (NO) Drill rod size, wire line Main hoist Lift capacity, feed Feed length Rod pull length Engine Engine power at 1800 rpm Weight 1 200 m 4 042 ft B-P 80 kN 18 000 lb 138 kN 31 020 lb 3.5 m 11.5 ft 6m 20 ft Cummins QSB6.7, 6 cyl Tier III 153 kW 208 hp 9 000 kg 19 840 lb
CHRISTENSEN CT14
10243
Width = 2280
6767
CORe DRilling RigS
Christensen CS3001
The Christensen CS3001 is a field-proven concept that has become exceedingly popular amongst contractors looking for a tough medium to deep hole exploration drilling rig. Rated at a drilling capacity of 1830 m, this truck-mounted model features a hydraulic slide mounted control panel. This facilitates a good view of the worksite and full control of the operation. As this type of drilling rig may find its way into high terrain, the Christensen CS3001 is equipped with a high altitude kit to ensures smooth operation up to 5000 m (16 400 ft) above sea level. The truck mount offers great mobility, both when transporting the rig and while going from hole to hole at the drill site. The current version of CS3001 is the third why it is safe to say that a lot of drilling experience has been designed in to the current model. All models have achieved great results even where the drilling conditions have been really difficult the CS3001 will get the job done.
Features
Making and breaking including hydraulic tread compensation Four hydraulic jacks 610 mm (24 in) stroke Hydraulic P-size holding clamp Control panel hydraulic slide High altitude version (for operations higher than 3000 above sea level) Hydraulic mud mixer Fuel tank 950 l (250 gal) Hydraulic swing out of the rotation unit Rod centralizer Water/mud pump, Trido 140

Rod rack and helpers platform Rod spinner tool Rope tentioner

Basic data Depth capacity (NO) Drill rod size, wire line Main hoist Lift capacity, feed Feed length Rod pull length Engine Engine power at 2000 rpm Weight 1 830 m 6 000 ft B-P 133 kN 30 000 lb 155 kN 35 000 lb 3.35 m 11 ft 6m 20 ft Cummins QSC8.3, 6 cyl Tier III 212 kW 285 hp 12 810 kg 28 240 lb
11483
Width = 2438
6071
CORe DRilling RigS
Christensen CS4002
This truck-mounted drilling rig is the most powerful Christensen unit ever built, capable of drill down to 2450 m (NO). This rig is a stronger version of the well proven CS3001 incorporating all the design features of that rig. A foldable mast extension is available as an option, then offering a 9 m (30 ft) rod pull capacity. Together with the rod rack this offers excellent productivity when rod tripping in deep hole drilling. Having inherited all the design features of the very well proven CS3001 the strongest Christensen rig will offer unsurpassed productivity for really deep applications. The well proven design also leads to minimizing down time as well as keeping the maintenance cost to a minimum.
Features
Making and breaking including hydraulic tread compensation Four hydraulic jacks 610 mm (24 in) stroke Hydraulic P-size holding clamp Control panel hydraulic slide Hydraulic slide on the rotation unit Rod centraliser High altitude version (for operations higher than 3000 above sea level) Hydraulic mud mixer Fuel tank 950 l (250 gal) Water/mud pump, Trido 140

Folding mast extension for 9.1 M (30 ft) pull Rod rack and helpers platform for 9.1 m pull mast Rod spinner tool Rope tentioner
Basic data Depth capacity (NO) Drill rod size, wire line Main hoist Lift capacity, feed Feed length Rod pull length Engine Engine power at 2000 rpm Weight 2 450 m 8 030 ft B-P 178 kN 40 000 lb 200 kN 45 000 lb 3.35 m 11 ft 9m 30 ft Cummins QSC8.3, 6 cyl Tier III 212 kW 285 hp 13 864 kg 30 500 lb
13835
Width = 2438
6071
ReVeRSe CiRCulaTiOn RigS
explorac 220RC
With safety and ergonomics as key issues together with latest tehnology the Explorac 220RC is made the safest and most user friendly rig of its type. The Explorac 220RC rigs can be used for RC drilling as well as water well drilling with just a few adjustments. The Explorac 220RC takes over much of the physical effort required from the driller. With the standard 1.5 ton winch, which positions directly over the hole, with a slewing boom, Explorac 220RC handles all heavy lifting requirements. In addition, hands-free breakout and rod handling systems ensure rapid and safe handling of all drill string components. A special casing handling tool attached to the rotation head gives full safety and control.
Features
Feed beam with hydraulic rams and guide chain for hydraulic hoses Single reduction gearbox fitted with two 630 cm3 hydraulic geroler motors Spindel adaptor thread 4 IF. Integrated air swivel with blow down valve Slipstable max. opening 12 in. 305mm Hydraulically activated slips with integrated holding clamp Hydraulically operated sliding key Hydraulically operated handsfree breakout system Noise level of 82 dB(A) at 7 m distance
Splitter Wireline hoist Rod handler Fire suppression

Main specifications Explorac 220RC
Basic data Pullback Engine Engine power Rotation head, max torque Rotation head, max rpm Foam/water pump Handling hoist Compressor Cyclone Line oiler Total weight without truck Total weight with truck 220 kN CAT C-18, Tier III 522 kW 14 000 Nm 101 rpm 75 lit/min, 90 bar 15 kN 510 lit/sec, 30 bar 850 lit/sec 0.4-2.0 lit/hour 21 300 kg 33 090 kg 49 438 lbf 700 hp 10 294 lbf ft 2.6 cfm, 1 300 psi 3 370 lbf 1 080 cfm, 435 bar 1 800 cfm 0.014-0.071 cfh 47 000 lb 73 000 lb
4280
12100
4200
ReVeRSe CiRCulaTiOn RigS
explorac R50
The Explorac R50 is a robust and reliable drill unit ideal for remote areas. It is designed to perform as an versatile base platform for down-the-hole percussion drilling, reverse circulation drilling and rotary drilling. The explorac R50 is an extremely well proven workhorse with simple design. The high accessibility and reliability makes it particularly interesting for drillers operating in remote areas. Separate drill rig subframe design permits stable mounting on various standard trucks as well as special vehicles or on crawlers depending on which terrain the rig will be used in. The proven technology and the ease of maintenance provides the driller more efficient working hours, and less downtime. This is of course of great use and interest, especially when operating in remote areas.
Features
Platform, including mast support Four hydraulic jacks Mast complete with 4.4 m stroke length, hold-back 60 kN Hold-back control scale Break out table max opening 310 mm Hydraulic break-out tong type Ridgid 48 Rotary head powered by two hydraulic motors OMT 250 Operators folding platform
Gardner Denver mud pump 5 x 6 hydraulic driven Mast for 6 m drillpipe length Welder/generator powered by diesel engine Rotation unit hydraulic motor alternatives
Main specifications Explorac R50

Basic data Pulldown Hold back/lift Engine Engine power at 2150 rpm Rotation head Speed Torque, max Feed travel length Drill pipe length Total weight without carrier 48.8 kN 11.0 k lbf 80.9 kN 18.2 k lbf Deutz BF4L914, 4 cyl 68 kW 91 hp OMT 250 0-97 rpm 5 750 Nm 4 240 lbf ft 4.4 m 14.4 ft 3.0 m 9.8 ft 5 400 kg 11 900 lb
6580
R A
E X
3510
2550 4000
R50
CORe DRilling TOOlS
excore core drilling tools

Excore diamond bits are the culmination of decades of diamond drilling experience in combination with the latest in metallurgical and manufacturing technologies. The Excore, is a series of diamond drill bits that sets the standard for the mineral exploration industry. The operating range of each diamond bit has been substantially increased, which results in fewer bits required on the job site by the drilling contractor to cover a wide range of drilling conditions and simplifies bit selection for the driller. The Excore bits are engineered with new matrices and optimized crown profiles that provide bits with exceptional penetration rates as well as extended service lives in the toughest of drilling conditions. This means a contractor can drill both faster and deeper without changing drill bits. The Excore bits are available in different profiles ECF (Extended Crown Profile) for slightly broken to broken
abrasive formations, patented Jet and Torpedo V profile for fast cutting in competent formations, face discharge and sand discharge for extremely broken and triple tube applications.
DCDMA design Size

A
Design
Q** GM.OTW** QTK** 48 JKT 48 LTK 48 TT Q3** Q** QTK** GM. OTW. B2** 60 LTK Q3** 3/50** Q** Q2** GM** Q3** Q** Q.G** G3/Q3**
Hole diameter mm in
48 1.89
Core diameter mm in
26.9 30.3 30.5 35.3 35.3 35.3 33.5 36.4 40.7 42.0 44.0 45.1 50.2 47.6 50.7 56.1 61.1 63.5 85.0 83.0 1.06 1.19 1.20 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.31 1.43 1.60 1. 66 1.73 1.77 1.97 1.88 2.0 2.21 2.41 2.5 3.34 3.26
Hole area in2 cm2

18.1 2.81
Core area cm2 in2

5.7 7.3 7.3 9.8 9.8 9.8 8.8 15.8 13.0 13.9 15.2 15.9 19.8 17.8 20.1 24.8 29.3 31.7 56.7 54.1 0.88 1.13 1.13 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.36 2.45 2.02 2.17 2.35 2.47 3.0 2.76 3.12 3.86 4.5 4.91 8.76 8.38
Cutting area % of hole area

68.5 59.0 59.6 45.9 45.9 45.9 68.7 44.0 54.1 50.2 46.3 64.6 56.0 60.4 55.3 44.4 59.7 56.5 51.6 53.8
60.0
2.36
28.3
4.37
75.6
2.98
45.0
6.96
H P
96.1 122.7 122.7
3.78 4.81 4.81
72.8 117.2
11.29 18.24
* Hole diameter with pilot bit ** Wire line core barrel system
Metric design Size

46 56
Design
TT TT
Hole diameter mm in
46.5 56.5 1.82 2.22
Core diameter mm in
35.3 45.2 1.39 1.78
Hole area cm2 in2

16.8 24.9 2.6 3.86
Core area cm2 in2

9.8 16.0 1.52 2.48
Cutting area % of hole area

41.7 35.7
90
CORe DRilling TOOlS
Bit selection chart
To simplify bit selection for the driller rock formations have been categorized into three applications. Each application has a series of matrices designed specifically for that type of drilling condition which will provide optimum performance. Application 1 (Green) Soft to medium hard, very abrasive to slightly abrasive and very fractured to slightly broken formation. Rock group Rock characteristics
Soft to medium hard Very abrasive to slightly abrasive Very fractured to slightly broken Medium hard Abrasive Moderately fractured to slightly broken Medium hard Moderately abrasive Moderately fractured to slightly broken Medium hard - hard Moderately abrasive Slightly fractured to competent Hard Slightly abrasive Competent Very hard Slightly abrasive Very competent Extremely hard Non-abrasive, fine grained Very competent
Application 2 (Blue) Medium hard to hard, abrasive to slightly abrasive, moderately fractured to competent formations. Application 3 (Red) Very hard to extremely hard, slightly abrasive to non abrasive, very competent formations.
Rock type
Unmetamorphosed or weakly metamorphosed shales. Sandstone and limestone. Limestone and dolomite. Weathered granite and gneiss. Serpentinite and metaperidotite. Unmetamorphosed or weakly metamorphosed diorite. Gabbro, peridotite and gneiss. Basalt, andesite. Metabasalt, amphibolite. Metamorphosed diorite and gabbro. Diabase. Quartz rich skarn. Granite and pegmatite. Metamorphosed granitic rock and quartz rich gneiss. Chert and jasperite. Quartzite. Highly metamorphosed volcanic.
1-4 5 6 7 8 9 10
91
in-The-hOle TOOlS
in-The-hole tools
Atlas Copco offers a full range of In-The-Hole tools such as drill rods, core barrels, all based on advanced technology. They are constantly being upgraded to exceed the expectations from the market.
Core barrels
Surface core barrels are available in standard double tube designs with the option for easy conversion to triple tube configurations in broken ground. Thin wall core barrels, used when ground conditions and drill rig selection are appropriate, offer the end user an opportunity to increase sample size within a nominal bore hole size. Underground core barrels are available in double tube and double tube thin wall wireline core barrels and are used for flatter and up hole applications where gravity does not permit unassisted movement of the inner wireline components. Conventional core barrels produce a larger core diameter compared to the equivalent wire line nominal size. Their rugged construction and design features ensure optimization of productivity in soft to medium hard formations, allow them to be used in all orientation and are typically used in shorter boreholes.
Drill rods
Wireline drill rods are manufactured from high quality cold drawn seamless tubes, which provide superior
yield and ultimate strength. Conventional drill rods are available in mid-weight steel and/or aluminium. Rod threads for mineral exploration applications are typically T or O for wireline, with WJ type threads used with conventional style core barrels.
1. Determine direction of the core drilling. If the borehole will be drilled between vertical down to 45 degrees from vertical down, choose one of the three surface style systems. For flatter or up holes, choose within the two underground ranges of corebarrel systems.
2. Determine requirements of the application. For surface style selections, determine if the application requires a double tube or triple tube design. If a double tube design is preferred choose if a standard wall or thin wall design is favored. Likewise, for underground style selections, determine if a standard wall or thin wall design is favored.
3. Determine threads, rods and accessories. Choosing a drill rod is based on the preferred thread connection and the overall length that can be handled efficiently. Dont forget to consider the limitations of the drill design and the envelope within which the drill will be operating. Choose the accessories that you require to complement the core barrel and drill rod selections.
Surface core barrels
Double tube design
Standard wall Thin wall For larger core sample Thread connection Overall length to be handled Standard wall Thin wall For larger core sample Accessories needed
Triple tube design For better core recovery in broken ground Underground core barrels
92
in-The-hOle TOOlS
Dimensions
A summary of the relevant data when evaluating core sample size for corresponding core barrel systems be they double tube, triple tube or thin wall double tube for O surface or O-U pump in configurations. A summary of weights and dimensions of tubular products to help you choose complimentary rod and casing.
Double tube surface and/or underground

Size (Surface-underground) BO/BO-u nO/nO-u hO/hO-u PO 60.0 75.7 96.1 122.7 Metric system (mm) hole diameter Core diameter 36.4 47.6 63.5 85.0 2.36 2.98 3.78 4.83 imperial system (in) hole diameter Core diameter 1.43 1.88 2.50 3.34
Triple tube surface

Size (Surface-Underground) nO3 hO3 PO3 75.7 96.1 122.7 Metric system (mm) hole diameter Core diameter 45.0 61.1 83.0 2.98 3.78 4.83 imperial system (in) hole diameter Core diameter 1.78 2.41 3.27
Double tube thin wall surface and/or underground

Size (Surface-Underground) aOTW / -u BOTW / -u nO2 48.0 60.0 75.7 Metric system (mm) hole diameter Core diameter 30.3 42.0 50.7 1.89 2.36 2.98 imperial system (in) hole diameter Core diameter 1.19 1.65 2.0
Dimensions
Size Diameter 1.5 m Rods
aO /aT agM / aTT BO / BT BgM / BTT nO / nMO / nT hO / hMO / hT PT Casing aW BW nW hW / hWT PW /PWT 57.1 73.0 88.9 114.3 139.7 48.4 60.3 76.2 101.6 125.5 8.3 15.3 19.1 25.0 34.9 16.9 31.2 38.8 50.8 69.7 2.25 2.88 3.50 4.50 5.50 1.91 2.38 3.00 4.00 4.94 18.40 33.80 42.10 55.10 76.70 37.40 68.80 85.60 112.10 153.30
Metric system length 3.0 m kg

6.8 5.9 8.9 7.6 11.4 17.1 25.4 13.9 11.8 17.9 15.3 22.9 34.2 56.0
imperial system Diameter 5 ft OD

1.75 1.75 2.19 2.23 2.75 3.50 4.50
length 10 ft lbs
15.70 13.0 20.1 16.8 25.7 38.0 56.9 31.40 26.0 40.2 33.8 51.4 76.70 123.5
OD
44.5 44.5 55.6 56.5 69.9 88.9 114.3
iD
34.9 36.8 46.0 48.8 60.3 77.8 101.6
iD
1.38 1.45 1.81 1.92 2.38 3.06 4.00
93
RC TOOlS
Reverce circulation tools

The Secoroc RC 50 reverse circulation drill stands for simplicity, performance and reliability. A Quantum Leap cycle is incorporated into the RC hammer, creating a high frequency hammer with world class performance and reliability. The Secoroc RC 50's high frequency enables it to perform well in all rock formations. The Quantum Leap air cycle maximizes efficiency and develops greater power for large or small compressor capacities. The air cycle utilizes a special poppet valve to drive air pressure to accelerate the piston to higher energy levels. Longevity and reliability are due to a larger piston-struck end, a heat-treated collection tube and the use of the Quantum Leap- valve cycle. Atlas Copco's reverse circulation hammers are specifically designed for both deep hole exploration drilling and in-pit grade control applications. Whether you are exploring potential sites or working an existing mine, you can be assured of high performance, exceptional reliability and dependable support.
Secoroc RC 50 reverse circulation hammer

Outside diameter Length without bit Length with bit extended Length with bit retracted Weight without bit Spanner flat on tob sub Minimum recommended bit size Maximum recommended bit size Cylinder bore Piston weight Stroke length Working pressure Make up torque Shank Thread connection 130 mm 1 152 mm 1 276 mm 1 232 mm 72 kg 102 mm 140 mm 152 mm 113.7 mm 17 kg 64 mm 10-35 bar 6 800 Nm 5.13 in 45.4 in 50.2 in 48.5 in 158 lb 4 in 5.5 in 6 in 4.48 in 38 lb 2.5 in 145-500 psi 5 000 ft-lb
Secoroc RC 50 bit assortment Drop centre, Extra flushing head design

Outside diameter, mm Outside diameter, in
140 143 146 152 165*

*For setting casing
5-1/2 5-5/8 5-3/4 6 6-1/2*
Secoroc RC 50 chuck sleeve assortment

Outside diameter. mm Outside diameter. in
Secoroc RC50 4" Remet BOX
132 134 137 139 140 142 144 147 150 153 157 163
5.2 5.28 5.4 5.47 5.52 5.59 5.65 5.77 5.9 6 6.2 6.4
Secoroc RC pipes Pipe OD Pipe mm in

M45 M45 M45 DR115 DR115 114 114 114 114 114 4 4 4 4 4
Pipe Length mm ft
6 000 4 000 3 000 6 000 3 000 19.7 13.1 9.8 19.7 9.8
Hammer size
4 - 5" 4 - 5" 4 - 5" 4 - 5" 4 - 5"
Hole diameter mm in2

127-152 127-152 127-152 127-152 127-152 5-6" 5-6" 5-6" 5-6" 5-6"
Weight
Inner tube ID
kg2
198 132 100 152 80
lbs
436 291 220 335 176
mm
49.2 49.2 49.2 53.5 53.5
inch
1.94 1.94 1.94 2.1 2.1
94
nOTeS
95
Produced by: Atlas Copco Craelius AB, SE-195 82 Mrsta, Sweden, tel +46 8 587 785 00, fax +46 8 591 187 82. Publisher: Daniel Misiano, Mrsta, Sweden, daniel.misiano@se.atlascopco.com Editor: Mike Smith, tunnelbuilder ltd, Cardiff, United Kingdom, mike@tunnelbuilder.com Senior Adviser: Anders Gustafsson, Stockholm, Sweden, anders.gustafsson@se.atlascopco.com Layout: Rafaella Turander, ahrt informationsdesign, rebro, Sweden, turander@ahrt.net Contributors: Anders Bjrk, Anders Gustafsson, Daniel Misiano, David Petersson, Fredrik Gabrielsson, Gerry Black, Hans Fernberg, Jan Jnsson, Lars Gellerhed, Magnus Ericsson, Peter Balen, Tom Ekstrm, all name.surname@se.atlascopco.com. We also thank all contributors of editorial material for case stories. Digital copies of all Atlas Copco reference editions can be ordered from the publisher, address above, or online at www.atlascopco.com/rock. Reproduction of individual articles only by agreement with the publisher. Printed by: Prinfo Welins Tryckeri, rebro, Sweden. Legal notice Copyright 2010, Atlas Copco Craelius AB, Mrsta, Sweden. All rights reserved. Atlas Copco is committed to comply or exceed all applicable laws, rules and regulations. Photos in this publication may show situations which complies with such laws, rules and regulations in the country where the photo has been taken but not necessarily in other parts of the world. In any case think safety first and always use proper ear, eye, head and other protection to minimize risk of personal injury. This publication, as well as specifications and equipment, is subject to change without notice. Consult your Atlas Copco Customer Center for specific information.
96
Excore - excellence in core drilling
An exploration contractors success is dependent upon the efficiency of the drilling equipment. To meet this demand, Atlas Copco has developed the new Excore diamond bit, which offers the latest in diamond drilling technology. Atlas Copco has combined scientific research and innovative new technology with more than 100 years of field experience to create a diamond bit that will revolutionize mining exploration. Excore is a faster drilling, longer lasting coring bit that performs in a wider range of drilling conditions and formations. This means fewer bits needed on the job site - both in operation and on the shelf and increased productivity throughout the entire operation - from purchasing to retrieving core. Excore from Atlas Copco is a series of diamond drill bits that is in the absolute top range of what is available today a bit that stands for excellence, durability, speed and strength.
The power within
Just as our coring drills explore deep inside the earth, so too do we look within ourselves, constantly searching for improvements to products and manufacturing processes. The result is the most comprehensive range of dependable exploration products to power you towards your goal.
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Exploration Drilling

First edition 2010 www.atlascopco.com

There is always a better way

Explorac 220RC reverse circulation rig operating in Australia.

increase in all regions

Figure 2: Worldwide non-ferrous exploration budgets by region, 2008

Figure 4: Worldwide non-ferrous exploration budgets by target, 2008

Diamec U8 APC core drilling rig in operation.

Core drilling operation in Mexico.

geology for exploration and mining

Volcanic rocks sculptured by wind erosion, southern Bolivia.

EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICAN PLATE CARIBBEAN PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE AUSTRALIAN PLATE SCOTIA PLATE

Fig 1: Some of the major plates of the world.

Porphyry copper Mn nodules with Cu, Ni, Co 0 km Ocean Continent 30

Table 1: Main magmatic rocks

Table 2: Some sedimentary rocks

Table 3: Typical metamorphic rocks

PHIC MOR TA S ME ROCK

g erin p. Weath trans Erosion

Table 4: important ore minerals and their composition

Formation and classification of ores

Table 5: Some major ore types

Prospecting and exploration for minerals

Table 1: Exploration activity sequence in general

From prospecting to mining

Exploration Results Mineral Resources Inferred

Whats in the cores?

in search of the right balance

Explorac 220RC Reverse circulation rig in operation in Australia.

but is still only used to a very small extent.

% RC drilling Core drilling

Christensen CS1000P4 surface core drilling rig operating in Zambia.

an introduction to Reverse Circulation drilling

Explorac 220 with cyclone and cone splitter.

RC rod with inner tube.

Standard roller bit and drag bit.

Side inlet air swivel.

Tiered riffle splitter.

Explorac 220 under testdrilling in Australia.

Safety with reverse Circulation Drilling

Reverse circulation drilling with new hammer concept

in-pit grade control

Conventional DTH hammer

Reverse Circulation hammer

The new RC 50 hammer

Four decades of Diamec core drilling rigs

The easy-to-move around Diamec 232 underground core drilling rig.

The service-friendliness of a Diamec U6 core drilling rig.

Diamec U8 PHC core drilling rig in operation in the US.

automatic performance control

Selecting the right core bit

Driller checking outside diameter of an Excore core drilling bit.

impregnated diamond core bits

Extended Channel Flushing

Surface set diamond bits

Diamond Surface Set (SS)

Poly Crystalline Diamond Composite (PDC)

Tungsten Carbide Insert (TCI)

in the matrix and are recommended for harder sedimentary formations.

Atlas Copco representative discussing diamond tool selection with driller.

Tungsten carbide (TC) bits

Poly-crystalline diamond composite bits (PDC)