Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GENERAL
ENGINEERING
F ield Manual 5-104 provides a doctrinal basis for the planning and
execution of general engineering in the Theater of Operations. General
engineering sustains military forces in the theater through the performance
of facility construction and repair, and through acquisition, maintenance,
and disposal of real property. The Theater of Operations is defined as “That
portion of an area of conflict necessary for military operations, either
offensive or defensive... , and for the administration incident to such
military operations.”
Field Manual 5-104 was developed for commanders and planning staffs at
all levels who require engineer assistance, or are required to give engineer
assistance in tasks falling under the general engineering purview.
*This publication supersedes FM 5-1, 27 July 1971 and FM 5-162, 30 March 1973.
i
FM 5-104
STANAG IMPLEMENTATION
The provisions of this publication are the subject of International
Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 2885, Procedure for the Provision
of Potable Water in the Field.
Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men
and women are included.
ii
Chapter 1
GENERAL ENGINEERING
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS 2
GENERAL ENGINEERING 1
FM 5-104
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
HOST NATION SUPPORT planning process, so that engineers can learn
Where possible, host nation capabilities local expedient construction methods.
should be identified in peacetime. Civil affairs
personnel play a key role in host nation CONTRACT LABOR
interface. They also assist in establishing Contract labor may be available for use in the
procedures for obtaining host nation support. COMMZ. If so, contracting officers must be
In many parts of the world, host nation appointed, and a contract management
capabilities may be limited to providing structure established. Use of contract labor
construction materials. It is important to tap frees engineer troop units to move forward
host nation regional expertise early in the and reduces engineer force structure require-
ments in the theater.
2 GENERAL ENGINEERING
FM 5-104
CONSTRUCTION CRITERIA
Wartime construction requirements will be Ž Use self-help construction. All non-
governed by the following criteria: engineer units must use self-help construc-
tion procedures to the limit of their
Ž Make maximum use of existing facilities capabilities, short of interfering with
(US or host nation controlled). primary missions, but without wasting
scarce construction materials.
Ž Modify existing facilities rather than
undertake new construction. LOGISTICS
An extensive logistical and transportation
Ž Use austere design and construction system is required to support the acquisition
techniques. and distribution of engineer materials. In
developed theaters, engineers depend heavily
Ž Minimize US engineer troop construction upon locally procured construction materials
effort. and existing distribution networks for sup-
plies. In undeveloped or heavily damaged
Ž Reduce protective construction. Employ areas, construction materials and distribu-
passive protection through dispersion of tion networks are not available. Indeed, the
facilities and equipment (to include in- engineer effort may be more focused on pro-
corporation of nuclear, biological, and curing the necessary material and moving it
chemical (NBC) protective measures and to project sites than on the project itself.
equipment) to reduce the need for protective Therefore, the logistics effort must be con-
construction. sidered in the planning stage so that projects
can be successfully accomplished.
GENERAL ENGINEERING 3
FM 5-104
Speed
Speed is fundamental to all activities in a Construct in phases. Phased construction
Theater of Operations. Practices that support provides for the rapid completion of critical
speedy construction include: parts of buildings or installations and the use
of these parts for their intended purpose
Use existing facilities. Engineer units before the entire project is completed.
must rapidly provide facilities that enable Although phased construction is somewhat
US forces to deliver maximum combat power inefficient, it allows maximum use of facilities
forward. The use of existing facilities con- at the earliest possible time.
tributes greatly to the essential element of
speed by eliminating unnecessary construc- Economy
tion effort. Economy in Theater of Operations construc-
tion demands efficient use of personnel,
Standardize. Standardized materials and equipment, and materials.
plans save time and construction effort. They
permit production-line methods, including Conserve manpower. The soldier is the
prefabrication of structural members. Stand- vital element. For this reason manpower
ardized assembly and erection procedures priorities go to units in contact with the
increase the efficiency of work crews by enemy. Despite the mechanization of modern
reducing the number of methods and tech- warfare, battles are still won and territory
niques they must learn. occupied by ground forces. Construction tasks
are time consuming, and engineers and
Simplify. Simplicity of design and construc- construction workers are often in short
tion is vital in wartime because manpower, supply. Conservation of labor is therefore
materials, and time are in short supply. important. Every engineer must function at
Simple methods and materials allow scarce the peak of efficiency for long hours to
labor to complete installations in a minimum accomplish the engineer mission. Careful
of time. planning and coordination of personnel
assignments are necessary. Projects must be
Use bare-bones construction. Military well organized and supervised. Engineer
engineering in the Theater of Operations is personnel must be carefully allocated and
characterized by concern for only the mini- well provided for. The source of support to
mum necessities and by the temporary nature engineers will depend upon the nature of
of constructed facilities. Adequate, but established command and control relation-
minimal, provisions are made for safety. For ships.
example, local green timbers are often used to
construct wharves or pile-bent bridges even Conserve equipment. In the Theater of
though marine borers will rapidly destroy the Operations, military heavy construction
timbers. The rationale in this case is that the equipment will be in short supply. Some
focus of military effort shifts rapidly, justi- civilian equipment may be available. Because
fying a short useful life for the structure. of low densities, operational capability of
Sanitary facilities may consist of nothing available equipment may be further jeop-
more than pit latrines, because it is not ardized due to shortages of repair parts. Wise
appropriate to provide more permanent or use of construction equipment is essential.
luxurious facilities. In short, quality is sacri-
ficed for speed and economy.
4 GENERAL ENGINEERING
FM 5-104
GENERAL ENGINEERING 5
FM 5-104
6 GENERAL ENGINEERING
Chapter 2
PROCUREMENT AND PRODUCTION
OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ENGINEER-PROCESSED MATERIALS 10
grubbing, dump trucks for hauling, and either possible, since developing and operating a
scoop loaders, scrapers, or cranes with shovel quarry requires considerable time, man-
or dragline attachments for loading. power, and equipment. When planners con-
sider opening a new quarry site, they must
Borrow pits are best located at the tops of weigh the tactical situation, the security of
hills close to or on the construction site for the quarry unit, and the lead time required to
ease of material handling. If borrow pits are develop the site. Engineer units with quar-
located away from the construction site, co- rying equipment are scarce resources in the
ordination with the local landowner must be active Army. The use of such units must be
effected, and additional care must be taken carefully planned.
when closing down the pit to prevent undue
damage to the surrounding terrain. The decision to develop a quarry site must
also take into account the quality and quan-
QUARRIES tity of material offered, the availability of
A quarry is an open excavation from which trained personnel and equipment, the pro-
rock may be removed, either by blasting or by posed quarry’s rock structure and drainage,
ripping with bulldozers. Quarries are typi- and the site’s location with respect to civilian
cally used when borrow pits cannot support populace, access roads, facilities, utilities, and
the mission, either because the material is the construction site. The environmental
insufficient, the quality is poor, or because impact of the quarrying operation should be
borrow pits are too far from the work site. considered because of possible air, ground
Existing quarries should be used whenever water, and noise pollution. The equipment
needed to operate a quarry includes bull- When the decision has been made to use
dozers, air compressors, crawler drills or military resources to produce timber products,
hand drills, and either scooploaders or cranes the first step in planning is to select a timber
with shovel attachments. stand and sawmill site. Again, the support-
ing engineer topographic unit can provide
LOGGING OPERATIONS useful information. The timber stand may be
When host nation support is not adequate to some distance away from the site of the
supply timber products for construction, plan- sawmill. The planner must therefore plan for
ners may decide to conduct independent log- roads and bridges that can handle heavy
ging and/or sawmill operations. Logging is loads. Supporting engineer units will need to
the process of converting standing timber provide for road maintenance. The sawmill
into sawn logs or timber products and de- site should be convenient to roads or railroads
livering them to the sawmill for the manu- for transshipment of the lumber products.
facture of lumber or heavy timber. Logs can The sawmill must have a large, clear area
be processed and used for such purposes as around it, be well drained, and be located at a
timber piles, bridge or wharf stringers, rail- distance from inhabited areas. Provisions
road ties, and framing members for protective must be made for properly disposing of wood
structures. Logs can be processed into dimen- waste products and unused wood preserva-
sioned lumber for use in Theater of Opera- tive, which can be hazardous to human
tions construction if drying time is available. beings. An adequate water supply must be
available for fire protection at the sawmill.
The Army’s capability to conduct logging
and sawmill operations is located solely in The Forestry Team conducts a reconnais-
Engineer Forestry Teams in the Reserve sance, called a timber cruise, to select a
establishment. The Forestry Team General logging site. During the timber cruise, ap-
of the Army (GA) is organized under Tables propriate tree species are identified, and the
of Organization and Equipment (TOE) timber stand’s yield is estimated. After the
5-520G. The team is divided into a team timber cruise is completed, the selected trees
headquarters, a logging section, and a saw- are cut, then logs are cut to the correct length.
mill section. Such teams may be attached to a These logs are loaded on trucks and taken to
supply and service battalion of the general the sawmill, where bark is removed, the logs
support group or to an engineer construction are sawn into the needed dimensions, and
group, or it may be used to support indepen- wood preservative is applied. The dimen-
dent operations. The Forestry Team is 75 sional stability and sturdiness of the wood is
percent mobile. Forestry Teams are scarce enhanced if it is dried in a kiln or in the open
resources, and their use must be carefully air. The drying process consumes valuable
planned. space and time.
ENGINEER-PROCESSED MATERIALS
CRUSHED ROCK PRODUCTION screened, and perhaps washed to meet quality
Rock of specific size and gradation is needed standards for construction missions. It is
for asphalt and concrete production. Crushed almost a certainty that a supply of crushed
rock is used as the base course for roads and rock will be needed in any Theater of Opera-
airfields. Rock from quarry operations and tions construction.
some borrow pit material must be crushed,
Certain Army engineer units in the active conveyers. Planners must be aware that the
and reserve component have the equipment actual output of any given plant differs from
and trained personnel to establish and op its nominal capacity. Actual production
erate large-scale rock crushing plants. Rock reflects the plant’s capacity to handle the
processing units, like quarry units, are low- specific product input, the desired size of the
density engineer resources which must be final product, the size of the crushing equip-
used carefully. Planners must be aware that ment, and the proportion of by-product or
moving a rock processing unit and establish- waste produced.
ing operations at a new site requires con-
siderable lead time. Other problems that are inherently part of
rock processing operations must be consider-
The plant must be sited within a reasonable ed. Equipment maintenance is inevitably a
distance of the quarry and the construction major task, because the heavy loads and
project. It should be located on level ground abrasive action of crushing and moving tons
with good drainage. Adequate space should of rock rapidly wears and damages equip-
be available for equipment, stockpiles, main- ment. Repairs are sometimes difficult, be-
tenance areas, related facilities and utilities, cause spare parts are often scarce.
and for expansion. An adequate supply of
water must be available for the washing ASPHALT PRODUCTION
process. Engineer units with organic asphalt plants
are low density engineer resources in both the
The two most common rock processing units active and reserve components, and should
have either a 75- or a 225-ton per hour rock be used carefully. Moving and establishing
processing plant. Each plant consists of an asphalt plant requires considerable lead
several large pieces of towed equipment, The time. An adequate source of raw materials,
major components are crushers, screening such as rock, sand, and bitumen, must be
equipment, washing equipment, and portable available.
The 100- to 150-ton per hour asphalt plant is trucks are needed to supply the hot oil heaters
the Army’s current plant. This plant can and power plants.
produce all types of bituminous mixes, in-
cluding high-type concrete, cold mixes, and When it is determined that a military asphalt
stabilized base mixtures. The plant consists plant is needed, planners must select an
of a mixer, hot elevator, gradation control optimal site. A large, well-drained area with a
unit, dryer, and feeder, all of which are trailer gravel or hard top surface is to be preferred.
mounted. The upper half of the gradation The plant must be close to both the source of
control unit, the cold elevator, and numerous aggregate and the construction site, because
ancillary parts must be moved on extra most bituminous mixes either become too
trailers. Equipment needed to support plant cool or begin to cure if they are not placed
operations includes dump trucks, portable quickly. A good road net is needed to avoid
conveyors, scoop loaders, bulldozers, and traffic jams and resultant cooling of mixes.
cranes with clamshell attachments. An air The planner must also consider the potential
compressor with drum cutting tools is needed environmental problems, including dust gen-
to open drums of asphalt cement, and fuel erated by the plant and potential soil pol-
lution from bitumen and fuel spills.
Large scale concrete requirements can be may be desirable on a large project such as an
satisfied by those reserve engineer units airfield. Central mix plant operations require
which operate central mix plants. Central the support of scoop loaders, cranes with
mix plants have the facilities to handle, store, clamshell attachments, and dump trucks.
batch, and mix concrete materials. The Central mix plants must be located near the
individual materials are accurately propor- construction site and near a supply of raw
tioned, then mixed in a large drum mixer. The materials and water. They must also be
concrete is deposited in dump trucks and situated on firm ground with good drainage,
moved to the job site. Central mix plants are and have plenty of area for vehicular ma-
capable of producing 80 cubic yards of fresh neuver.
concrete per hour. This type of production
CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES 16
CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES
Engineer Combat Heavy Battalions, under Ž Repairs Air Force bases and facilities
the appropriate Army command, perform beyond the immediate emergency recovery
designated Air Force and all Army construc- requirements of the Air Force (permanent
tion. These battalions may be augmented by repair).
Combat Engineer Battalions, an Engineer
Combat Support Equipment Company, an Ž Supplies construction materials and
Engineer Light Equipment Company, an equipment.
Engineer Construction Support Company, or
an Engineer Pipeline Construction Support Ž Assists in emergency repair of war-
Company. These units execute large construc- damaged air bases.
tion projects on a task or area basis, as
dictated by the theater plan or other theater Ž Assist in providing expedient facilities
project directives. (force beddown).
Construction planning
The planner evaluates all existing transport policy guidance. Information should include
facilities to determine the best methods and definitive drawings, specifications, regula-
routes. These include ports, rail lines, road tions, manuals, or other appropriate refer-
nets, and other nearby airfields that might be ences. The services should also submit their
used for assembling and moving construction specific requirements in broad engineering
equipment and materials to the construction terms together with general site and ultimate
site. development plans. Army engineer units are
usually responsible for site reconnaissance
The planner evaluates the availability and and recommendations, survey, pavement
type of engineer construction forces to deter- design, layout adaptation, and construction.
mine if construction capability is sufficient to Logistical support is prescribed by Army
carry out the required airfield construction. Regulation (AR) 415-30/Air Force Regulation
The planner must weigh the type and avail- (AFR) 93-10. Engineering and logistic data
ability of local construction materials for Air Force base planning can be found in
against overall needs for proposed con- Air Force Manual (AFM) 86-3, Volume I.
struction. Both naturally occurring materials
and other possible sources for materials for INDIVIDUAL
subgrade strengthening should be examined. AIRFIELD/HELIPORT DESIGN
Requirements for importing special materials The engineer commander is responsible for
for surfacing, drainage, and dust control site reconnaissance and recommendations,
must be feasible for available construction design of the airfield/heliport, and the actual
time and resources. construction of the individual airfield. The
engineer is normally given standard designs
Security situation for the type and capacity of the airfield.
The planner devises an adequate plan to However, the planner must frequently alter
ensure that construction troops can protect these designs to meet time and material
themselves, their equipment, and their ma- limitations or the limitations imposed by
terials against harassment and sabotage local topography, area, or obstruction char-
during airfield or heliport construction. Re- acteristics. The engineer in charge of con-
quirements for additional security forces struction may alter designs within the lim-
should be evaluated. itations prescribed by headquarters but must
obtain approval for major changes from
Airfield damage repair (ADR) headquarters before the work starts.
The planner must have knowledge of forces
dedicated to ADR. Depending upon base The engineer commander will need to solve
locations, local agreements, and the overall the following engineering problems in car-
military situation, any combination of Army, rying out most airfield assignments:
Air Force, host nation, or contract engineer
support may be possible. Ž Design a drainage system structure.
Ž Choose a method or methods for stabilizing Ž Select the grade for a minimum of earth-
the subgrade. work within specification limits.
Ž Decide upon the type and thickness of the Ž Design related facilities, including access
base course. and service roads, ammunition and POL
storage areas, navigation aids
Ž Decide upon the type and thickness of the (NAVAIDS), maintenance aprons, warm-
surface course. up aprons, corrosion control facilities,
control towers, airfield lighting, and other
facilities.
Construction priorities
The first goal in building a theater airfield is aprons, hardstands, and additional taxi-
to achieve operational status. Therefore, ways are built.
construction is designed to support air traffic
as soon as possible. The order for construction Ž In stage III, facilities are further expand-
proceeds according to the priorities described ed, and accommodation for more aircraft
below. is added, if necessary. Expedient surfacing
is standard for all airfields. When an
First priority. Provide the facilities most existing surface in the rear area is not
essential for air operations as soon as pos- adequate for all-weather - operations in
sible. Build airfield operational facilities, support of heavy transport aircraft or high
such as runways, taxiways, approaches, and performance fighter aircraft, an appropri-
aircraft parking areas of minimum dimen- ate pavement structure is designed and
sions. Provide minimum storage for bombs, constructed.
ammunition, and aviation fuel. Provide es-
sential sanitary, electric, and water facilities. SITE PREPARATION
Reconnaissance
Second priority. Increase the capacity, Airfield reconnaissance differs from road
safety, and efficiency of all air base opera- location reconnaissance (FM 5-36), in that
tions. Provide indirect support operational more comprehensive information is needed.
facilities. Construct access and service roads An airfield project involves more man-hours,
and essential operational, maintenance, and machine-hours, and material than most road
supply buildings. projects. Air traffic also imposes stricter
requirements on traffic facilities than does
Third priority. Improve operational facil- vehicular traffic. Consequently, the site
ities. Provide facilities for administration selected has to be the best available. Tech-
and special housing. nical Manual 5-330 details reconnaissance
planning for airfields and heliports.
Fourth priority. Provide general housing.
Siting
Staged construction When new construction is undertaken, the
Construction stages establish a sequence for planner and the reconnaissance team must
constructing an airfield. These stages provide choose a site with soil characteristics that
for building the airfield in parts, so that meet strength and stability requirements, or
minimum operational facilities may be a site that requires minimum construction
constructed in minimum time. For effort to attain those standards.
example, a first-priority task may be
reduced to stages as follows: Airfields present more drainage problems
than roads. Their wide, paved areas demand
Ž In stage I, a loop that permits landing, that water be diverted completely around the
takeoff, circulation, and limited apron field, or that long drainage structures be
parking is built. Runway lengths and built. Sites at the low point of valleys or other
widths are the minimum required for depressed areas should be avoided because
critical aircraft. they tend to be focal points for water col-
lection. As in road construction, subsurface
Ž Stage II provides a new runway. The stage water should be avoided. A desirable airfield
I runway now becomes a taxiway, and site lies across a long, gentle slope, because it
is relatively easy to divert water around the of a horizontal construction project. Several
finished installation. acceptable methods are described in TM
5-330. Following mass diagram construction
To accommodate missions efficiently, air- and analysis, equipment is scheduled and
fields require large areas of relatively flat project durations are determined. Analysis of
land. Advance location and layout avoids the mass diagram will also determine haul
cramping facilities. To obtain the required routes, location of equipment work zones,
area, the airfield may have to be spread over and areas for waste and borrow sites.
a large section. This may call for a complex
network of taxiways and service roads. Earthwork is conducted as described earlier
Runways should be aligned in the direction for road construction, except that project
of the prevailing wind. width permits more balancing perpendicular
to the airfield’s centerline. Earthwork
The safe operation of fixed- or rotary-wing balancing may also occur between adjacent
aircraft requires that all obstacles above projects (runway and taxiway, for example).
elevations specified by design criteria be
removed. These criteria vary according to the Drainage
operating characteristics of the aircraft that During-construction and permanent drain-
use the airfield. For example, most heliports age structures are essential to the successful
require an approach zone with a 10:1 glide completion of an airfield or heliport. Planning
angle, whereas heavy cargo aircraft in the considerations are similar to those used for
rear area require a glide angle as flat as 50:1. road construction. Detailed discussion of
To achieve the right glide angle, it is often drainage design, construction, and main-
necessary to remove hills and do major tenance is contained in TM 5-330 and TM
earthwork on distant approaches to the 5-820-3.
airfield proper. The reconnaissance team
should avoid locations that need extensive Surfacing
earthwork to achieve the necessary glide The decision to pave an airfield or heliport in
angle. Clearances are also required along the the Theater of Operations is based upon the
sides of runways. An area of specified width urgency that the airfield be completed, the
must be cleared of all obstacles and graded tactical situation, the amount and type of
according to specification. traffic expected, the soil-bearing charac-
teristics, the climate, and the availability of
Surveys new materials and equipment. Surfacing
Except for staking requirements, the tech- must meet the allowable roughness criteria
niques and principles for conducting airfield for each type of aircraft that will use the
and heliport construction surveys are iden- facility. Specific information on pavement
tical to those for roads. Technical Manuals design is contained in TM 5-330 and TM
5-232 and 5-233 discuss these principles and 5-337.
techniques of field surveying in detail.
Soil stabilization
HORIZONTAL STRUCTURES Soil stabilization operations improve
Earthwork strength, control dust, and render surfaces
An accurate estimate of earthwork volume is waterproof. The process is discussed in
essential to proper control and management Chapter 4, and in further detail in TM 5-330.
SUPPORT FACILITIES
Design the expected duration of use and the avail-
Maximum use must be made of existing ability of labor and construction materials.
facilities. However, airfields and heliports Standards of construction and design appear
may need extensive support facility con- in the AFCS. Often AFCS-recommended
struction. The Army Facilities Components construction materials are not available, and
System (AFCS) provides estimates of ma- locally procured substitutes must govern
terial, man-hours of construction effort, and construction standards and design.
material cost estimates (TM 5-301) for stan-
dard types of facilities. Plans for most facil- Survivability enhancement
ities that support airfield operations can be Several kinds of fortifications are available
found in TM 5-302. to enhance aircraft survivability. Technical
Manual 5-330 provides information to help in
Standards selecting designs, constructing, and main-
Standards for construction in the Theater of taining fortifications. Their purpose is to
Operations are based upon expected duration protect parked aircraft from hostile ground
of use. Facilities are classified as initial (0 to 6 fire and the associated damage effects of
months), and temporary (6 to 24 months). exploding fuel and ammunition. Field
The theater commander normally dictates Manual 5-103 discusses revetment construc-
which standard will be adopted, considering tion.
Priorities for expanding and/or rehabilita- material requirements for expanding or re-
ting an existing airfield generally parallel habilitating airfields are usually similar to
those for new airfield or heliport construction. requirements for new construction and air-
Procedures, personnel, and construction field damage repair.
REPAIRS
The airfield commander prioritizes essential polyurethane concrete, which offers a rapid
airfield damage repair (ADR) missions, method of providing a semipermanent pave-
usually in this order: ment repair.
EXISTING ROUTES 29
ROADS 27
FM 5-104
28 ROADS
FM 5-104
Terrain
labor, equipment, and materials. Wherever Study slopes, drainage, vegetation, character
possible, use staged construction to allow the of soil, likelihood of floods, and other con-
early use of roadways while further con- ditions that may affect construction and
struction and improvement continue. layout. Avoid dense brush, timberland, and
rolling terrain that require heavy clearing or
grading.
EXISTING ROUTES
RECONNAISSANCE Information sought
Conduct route reconnaissance to evaluate The engineer reconnaissance team is briefed
the traffic-bearing capabilities of previously- as to the anticipated traffic (wheeled, tracked,
constructed roads. Results support route or a combination) and the anticipated traffic
selection decisions designed to facilitate unit flow. Single flow traffic allows a column of
and logistical movement within the theater. vehicles to proceed while individual on-
Reconnaissance also determines improve- coming or overtaking vehicles pass at pre-
ments needed before a route can carry determined points. Double flow traffic allows
proposed traffic. two columns of vehicles to proceed simul-
taneously in the same or in opposite directions
Types (see FM 5-36). The reconnaissance team may
Route reconnaissance is classified as either also be asked to determine the road name or
hasty or deliberate. Hasty route reconnais- designation, the location of the road by map
sance determines the immediate military grid reference, and the nature and location of
trafficability of a specified route. It is limited obstructions.
to critical terrain data necessary for route
classification. The results are presented as Obstructions are defined as anything that
an overlay supplemented by such additional reduces the road classification below that
reports as are required by the situation and required to handle proposed traffic efficiently.
the commander’s guidance. A deliberate route Obstructions include—
reconnaissance is conducted when sufficient
time and qualified personnel are available. Ž Restricted lateral clearance, including
Deliberate route reconnaissance is usually traveled way width such as bridges, built-
conducted when the situation demands pro- up areas, rock falls or slide areas, tunnels,
tracted use of an MSR. An overlay is made and wooded areas.
with enclosures that describe all pertinent
terrain features in detail. These documents Ž Restricted overhead clearance, including
form a permanent record which is retained at overpasses, bridges, tunnels, wooded areas,
the engineer unit tasked to perform the built-up areas.
reconnaissance. Pertinent information is
forwarded to the corps and theater transpor- Ž Sharp curves.
tation offices to be used in transportation
planning. The data may also be used to Ž Excessive gradients.
manufacture special overprinted route maps
with the assistance of engineer topographic Ž Poor drainage.
units.
ROADS 29
FM 5-104
30 ROADS
FM 5-104
ROADS 31
FM 5-104
fences, and keeping drainage systems free units. Engineer and nonengineer patrols
from obstruction. Each command should must be established to monitor snow and ice
publish a comprehensive snow- and ice- conditions within the area of operations.
control plan that clearly specifies the Available snow- and ice-control equipment
responsibilities of engineer and nonengineer and supplies must be allocated to support the
plan.
Reconnaissance involves the following steps. Ž Road, topographic, soil, vegetation, and
geologic maps.
Planning
Planning includes coordination of recon- Ž Existing aerial reconnaissance reports; air
naissance effort by appropriate headquarters, photos.
prediction of needs, and assignment of a
definite reconnaissance mission. Air reconnaissance
An air reconnaissance includes a general
Briefing study of the topography, drainage pattern,
In a briefing, the reconnaissance party is told and vegetation. Construction problems,
what site or area to reconnoiter, what is camouflage possibilities, and access routes
already known, and what information the should be identified. Usually, specific ground
party is expected to obtain. Pertinent details reconnaissance procedure is planned by
concerning the times or methods of reporting selecting, from the air, the areas to investigate
results are included in the briefing. and the questions to be answered. Air recon-
naissance can be used to eliminate unsuitable
Preliminary study sites, but cannot be relied on for site selection.
The initial job of the reconnaissance party is Aerial photography greatly enhances the
to conduct this study. The party reviews usefulness of this method of reconnaissance.
32 ROADS
FM 5-104
Ground reconnaissance
While air reconnaissance can effectively natural drainage features minimize the need
minimize needed ground reconnaissance, it for costly and time-consuming construction
cannot replace ground reconnaissance. It is of drainage structures. Whenever possible,
on the ground that most questions are avoid subsurface water. If it is impossible to
answered, or that most observations ten- avoid road construction in saturated terrain,
tatively made from the air are verified. Often, water tables must be lowered during con-
ground and air reconnaissance are not as struction. Steps must also be taken to min-
distinct as they would seem from this dis- imize water’s adverse effect on the strength
cussion. A continuing air reconnaissance of the supporting subgrade and base course.
may be interspersed with specific ground
reconnaissances. Earthmoving
Earthmoving operations are the largest
Reporting single work item on any project involving the
The importance of prompt, accurate, and construction of LOCs. Any step that can be
complete reports cannot be overempha- taken to avoid excessive earthwork will
sized. increase job efficiency. Since all roads are a
series of grades that seldom appear in nature,
SITE SELECTION it is inevitable that some earthwork must be
Select the most favorable trace for the route done. However, the amount to be done should
to follow. Future problems can be avoided by be minimized by properly locating the route.
careful reconnaissance and wise considera-
tion of future tactical, strategic, and post- The engineer should take advantage of all
hostilities needs. A project that is not well prevailing grades that fall within the required
laid out may not meet the requirements for specifications. Avoid excessive grades. By-
construction ease and efficiency, maintain- pass steep hills whenever possible. If the
ability, usability, capacity, and convenience. route must negotiate excessively steep hills,
it should run along the side of the hill. This
Wherever possible, use existing facilities. In may result in a longer route, but will prove to
most areas, an extensive road network be more efficient in terms of earthwork and
already exists. With expansion and rehabili- trafficability. Following contour lines on
tation of the roadway and preparation of hillsides or ridgelines also avoids excessive
adequate surfaces, this network can carry grades and drainage construction.
required traffic loads.
It is important to make a careful analysis of
Where new construction must be undertaken, the geology and ground cover within the
the roadbed should be aligned to take ad- proposed area of construction. Avoid wooded
vantage of the most favorable surface and areas, extremely rocky soils, or undesirable
subsurface terrain. An alignment over soil humus, unnecessary clearing, and earthwork.
with good properties meets the design stan-
dards for strength and stability and minimizes If possible, balance all necessary earthwork.
the need to remove undesirable materials. When there is need for both cutting and
filling at various points along a project, use
Drainage excavated material to construct embank-
Drainage patterns are also important in site ments. This reduces the need for earth
selection. When the tactical situation permits, handling. Plan balancing so that it fits the
roads should be located on ridgelines. Thus, hauling capabilities of available equipment.
ROADS 33
FM 5-104
SURVEYS
Even though it is desirable to balance earth- When a general route has been selected for
work throughout a project, long hauling new construction, a construction survey is
distances may make it more practical to open initiated. In this survey, the team obtains
a nearby borrow pit to obtain fill material or data for all phases of construction activity.
to establish spoil areas to dispose of excess This survey includes reconnaissance, prelim-
soil. Obviously, balancing cannot be done inary, final location, and construction layout
where excavated material cannot be used for surveys.
embankment.
Reconnaissance survey
Obstacles This survey provides a basis for selecting
Where possible, avoid obstacles such as feasible sites or routes and furnishes infor-
rivers, ravines, and canals in order to min- mation for use in later surveys. Use tech-
imize the need for bridge construction or for niques discussed in the sections on recon-
other similar structures. Such construction is naissance and site selection. If a location
time-consuming and calls for materials that cannot be selected on the basis of this survey,
may be in short supply. Make maximum use it will be chosen in the preliminary survey.
of existing structures to decrease total work
requirements. Do not bridge an obstacle more Preliminary survey
than once. See Chapter 5 for further dis- This survey is a detailed study of a location
cussion of LOC bridging. tentatively selected on the basis of recon-
naissance, survey information, and recom-
Curves and grades mendations. Surveyors run a traverse along
Traffic flow over roads is far more efficient if a proposed route, record the topography, and
curves and grades are held to a minimum. plot results. Several such surveys may be
Even gentle curves significantly decrease needed if reconnaissance shows that more
traffic capacity if there are too many on a than one route is feasible. If the best available
route. Therefore, lay out all routes with a route is not already chosen, it should be
minimum of curves by making the tangent selected now.
lines as long as possible. The availability of
long tangents is influenced by terrain. It is Final location survey
also limited by other principles of efficient Conduct this survey if time permits. Establish
location, such as minimizing earthwork, permanent benchmarks for vertical control
avoiding excessive grades, and obtaining and well-marked points for horizontal control.
desirable soil characteristics. This enables construction elements to ac-
curately locate and match specific design
Materials locations with those on site.
Road construction requires many different
types of materials. These include aggregate Construction-layout survey
for concrete and bituminous pavements, This is the final operation before construction
timber and steel for bridges, load-bearing soil begins. In this instrument survey, provide
for embankments, water for construction alignment, grades, and locations to guide
phases, and other supplies. If possible, roads construction operations. Make exact place-
should be located near construction mate- ment of the centerline; lay out curves; set all
rials. The basic construction usually strains remaining stakes, such as slope, grade,
the hauling capability of the unit, and readily shoulder; stake out necessary structures; lay
available construction materials ease the out culvert sites; and perform other work
strain. required to enable construction to begin.
34 ROADS
FM 5-104
DRAINAGE
Carry on with this survey until construction Adequate drainage is essential during con-
is complete. struction of a military road or airfield.
Immediately provide adequate drainage for
The main purpose of construction surveys is the site to ensure that all water that might
to ease and control construction. The number interfere with construction operations is
of surveys conducted and the extent to which removed. Eliminate construction delays and
they are carried out is largely governed by subgrade failures due to pending of surface
available time, construction standard, and water by aggressive, timely development of a
by personnel and material assets. Roads in drainage system. Include temporary meas-
the combat zone may be constructed with ures such as pumping. During clearing and
minimal preplanning and construction con- grubbing operations, keep existing or natural
trol. However, extensive surveys may be watercourses clear, and fill and compact
conducted for a deliberate project in the holes and depressions to grade. Rough crown
COMMZ. The quality and efficiency of con- and grade must be maintained to permit
struction is strongly related to the number water from precipitation, sidehill seeps, and
and extent of surveys and other preplanning springs to move freely away from worksites
activities. by gravity flow. If water is permitted to pond,
the subgrade becomes saturated and fails
under load, earthmoving is impeded, and the
need for equipment maintenance is increased.
ROADS 35
FM 5-104
CONSTRUCTION
In permanent peacetime construction, under- When earthwork estimation, equipment
ground drains are often used because efficient scheduling, and necessary surveys are com-
use of space and safety practices do not plete, the construction sequence can begin.
permit large open ditches, particularly for Prepare the construction site by clearing,
disposal of collected runoff. In contrast, grubbing, and stripping. These operations
Theater of Operations design uses surface are usually done with heavy engineer equip-
ditching almost exclusively because of limited ment. Hand or power felling equipment,
pipe supplies and the absence of storm sewer explosives, and fire are used when applicable.
systems to collect runoff. The factors determining the methods to be
used are the acreage to be cleared, the type
Design the drainage system to remove surface and density of vegetation, the terrain’s effect
water effectively from operating areas, to on equipment operation, the availability of
intercept and dispose of runoff from adjoining equipment and personnel, and the time
areas, to intercept and remove detrimental available for completion. For best results, use
conditions of the selected design storm, and a combination of methods, choosing each
to minimize the effects of exceptionally method for the operation in which it is most
adverse weather conditions. effective.
Consider the proposed use of the road. If it is Conduct cut and fill operations when clear-
to be used only for a short time, such as 1 or 2 ing, grubbing, and stripping are finished.
weeks, a detailed drainage design is not Cut and fill operations are the biggest part of
justifiable. However, if improvement or the earthwork in road construction. The goal
expansion is anticipated, design drainage so of cut and fill work is to bring the route
that future construction does not overload elevation to design specifications. Through-
ditches, culverts, and other drainage facil- out the fill operation, compact the soil in
ities. Drainage problems are greater when layers (lifts).
all-weather use occurs than when only
intermittent use occurs. Achieve compaction with self-propelled or
towed rollers. The end product is a structure
Consider the availability of engineer re- that minimizes settlement, increases shear-
sources. Heavy equipment, such as dozers, ing resistance, reduces seepage, and mini-
graders, scrapers, and power shovels, is mizes volume change. The advantages that
commonly used on drainage projects. But accompany soil compaction make this pro-
where unskilled labor and hand tools are cess standard procedure for constructing
readily available, much work can be done by embankments, subgrades, and bases for road
hand. and airfield pavements.
Maintain the drainage system so that it Cut and fill and compaction efforts are
functions efficiently. Inspect structures in intended to achieve the final grade. This
both wet and dry weather. Give attention to alignment takes into consideration super-
obstructions, erosion, and failures in the elevation along curves to ensure load stabil-
system. A complete discussion of drainage ity, and falls within the grade specifications
design, construction, and maintenance is required for the military road. When final
contained in Chapter 6 of TM 5-330. grade is achieved, cut ditching to control
drainage runoff and crown the road along its
centerline. The road is now ready for sur-
facing.
36 ROADS
FM 5-104
All other types of pavements and bases are In mechanical stabilization, soils are blended,
classified as flexible. Flexible pavements are then compacted. In chemical stabilization,
used almost exclusively in the Theater of soil particles are bonded to form a more
Operations. They are adaptable to almost stable mass. Additives such as lime, bitumen,
any situation and fall within the construction or portland cement are used.
capabilities of normal engineer troop units.
Rigid pavements are not usually suited to Dust control and soil waterproofing can be
Theater of Operations construction require- carried out by applying treatment materials
ments. in a spray (soil penetrants), a mix (admix), or
by laying aggregate, membrane, or mesh as a
Because flexible pavements reflect distortion soil blanket. The agronomic method, using
and displacement from the subgrade upward vegetation cover, is suited to stable situations,
to the surface course, their design must be and is rarely useful in the Theater of Opera-
based on complete and thorough investiga- tions. Technical Manual 5-830-2 discusses
tions of subgrade conditions, borrow areas, these techniques in detail.
and sources of select materials, subbase, and
base materials. Specific information on
pavement design is contained in TM 5-330
and 5-337.
ROADS 37
Chapter 5
BRIDGING
FIXED BRIDGING 39
FLOAT BRIDGING 42
RAILROAD BRIDGES 42
BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION 43
38 BRIDGING
FM 5-104
FIXED BRIDGING
Fixed bridging in the Theater of Operations stringer construction. In the Theater of
is classified as standard or nonstandard. Operations, it is better to repair or reinforce
Standard military fixed bridges are stock existing nonstandard bridges than it is to
items, organic to engineer fixed bridge units undertake new construction.
(see FM 101-10-1 for details), or available for
issue through the US Army supply system. FIXED BRIDGE SITE SELECTION
Fixed bridge assets may be held in reserve at Reconnaissance of existing bridges
the corps or theater level. Bridge reconnaissance is a means of evalua-
ting the physical details of existing bridges.
Fixed bridges consist of standard component The reconnaissance team inspects the bridge
parts which are assembled in a standard to determine its load-carrying capacity (class-
sequence to carry predetermined loads. These ification) and its structural well-being. The
may be assault (Armored Vehicle Launched reconnaissance team should determine
Bridge (AVLB) and Ribbon), tactical (Bailey, whether the situation warrants constructing
Medium Girder Bridge, M4T6), or semiper- a nonstandard bridge or emplacing tactical
manent (beam and girder) bridges. The Army bridging. When a damaged bridge is to be
Facilities Components System (AFCS) lists replaced, reconnaissance information should
several varieties of fixed bridging available include a report on the serviceability of
in standard sets. Descriptions and construc- in-place structural members and other materials
tion techniques are discussed in TM 5-312. which might be reused in construction. Max-
Nonstandard bridges may be constructed out imum use should be made of existing bridge
of whatever suitable material is available. sites to take advantage of existing roads,
New construction is usually limited to short, abutments, piers and/or spans that are
simple span arrangements of timber or steel serviceable.
BRIDGING 39
FM 5-104
40 BRIDGING
FM 5-104
BRIDGING 41
FM 5-104
labor, provided adequate and experienced dling and erecting steel members require heavy
supervision is available. Timber bridges can equipment. Erecting long spans, particularly
be erected with organic equipment and with- on high towers, is hazardous. Therefore, only
out power equipment, if necessary. In fabri- well-trained and properly equipped crews
cating structural steel, such work as template should undertake this work. Use skilled labor
making, laying out, cutting, drilling, riveting, to construct concrete forms, place reinforcing
and welding require special training. Han- steel, and finish concrete.
FLOAT BRIDGING
Military float bridging is designed to provide bridge sites. The following are additional
maneuver forces with assault (Ribbon Bridge) considerations:
and tactical (CL60, M4T6, Light Tactical
Raft) wet gap crossing capability. Float ŽBanks should be low, firm, moderately
bridging is organic to Corps and Divisional sloping, and free from obstructions. Exist-
Engineer Float Bridge Companies (see FM ing or easily prepared assembly sites are
101-10-1 for details) or maybe held in reserve desirable.
at corps or theater level. These bridges consist
of standard end and interior bay sections ŽWater adjacent to the near bank should
which are self-buoyant, or consist of decking not be more than waist deep. Current
affixed to pontons. Descriptions and con- velocity should be moderate (less than 11
struction techniques are found in TM 5-210. feet per second).
Main supply routes use fixed bridging when ŽWater depth must be sufficient to prevent
it is available. Float bridging may be used boats or bridge components from running
under some circumstances. For instance, the aground.
lack of existing fixed facilities or suitable
construction materials to fabricate/reinforce/ ŽNatural holdfasts for anchorages are de-
repair fixed bridging, or the urgent need to sirable.
maintain logistical flow may dictate tem-
porary military float bridging. When the Float bridging must be installed far enough
situation calls for prolonged use or heavy downstream from a demolished or under
traffic, an existing fixed bridge should be capacity bridge to avoid interference with
upgraded or new construction initiated. reconstruction or reinforcement operations.
Unstable portions of a demolished bridge
FLOAT BRIDGE SITE SELECTION and debris that may damage the float bridge
Criteria for establishing a float bridge site should be removed.
are generally the same as those for fixed
RAILROAD BRIDGES
United States Army railroad bridging is Many varieties of standard railroad bridges
fixed, and is classified as standard or non- are available through AFCS. Construction
standard. The US Army does not currently details and bills of material are shown in TM
employ railroad float bridge equipment. 5-302. General information on types and
42 BRIDGING
FM 5-104
construction procedures or criteria for stan- up girders. Stringer decks—heavy timber for
dard railroad bridging is given in TM 5-312. short spans of 16 feet or less—or steel
Nonstandard railroad bridging can be con- stringers for longer spans, are the easiest to
structed out of any available suitable ma- construct in the field. Design criteria for
terial. The military situation rarely permits nonstandard railroad bridges are contained
permanent railroad construction, hence semi- in Chapter 8 of TM 5-312 and civil design
permanent construction is generally used. texts listed in Appendix A of TM 5-312.
BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION
An efficient MSR network must be able to bridges with appropriate classification
carry all expected traffic loads. Often, ratings, or to design and emplace bridges
bridging is the weak link in the load-carrying that can carry these loads.
capacity of a route. Military standard
bridging is designed to be assembled in Situations may arise when it will be impos-
modules that result in a bridge of known sible to safely accommodate all traffic desig-
capacity. Tactical bridging is designed to nated to cross MSR bridges. Guidelines are
pass an uninterrupted flow of combat/ set for special crossings (caution and risk) for
tactical vehicles, which generally fall within oversized or overweight loads on military
a military load classification (MLC) below fixed and float bridging (FM 5-34, FM
60. However, some combinations of vehicles 101-10-1, TM 5-312, TM 5-210). The theater
may exceed a given bridge design capacity. commander may authorize such crossings.
Where heavy loads are anticipated, it is best An engineer officer must periodically inspect
to plot MSRs along routes that already use the bridge for signs of failure when routine
BRIDGING 43
FM 5-104
caution crossings are made and after each in the area have a known classification (see
risk crossing. Structurally damaged parts FM 5-34 and TM 5-312).
must be replaced, repaired, or reinforced
before traffic can be resumed. SOURCES OF EXISTING
INFORMATION
In addition, not all civil-installed bridges are Bridge classification data can usually be
designed to support military MSR traffic. found with the local engineer unit. This unit
Load classification may not have been deter- is responsible for the area where the bridge is
mined by civilian authorities. Many kinds of located along with the supporting topo-
bridges may be encountered in the Theater of graphic engineer unit. If the bridge was
Operations, and there is no single easy constructed by military engineers, the design
approach for classifying them. Some bridges, class or as-built plans should be on file.
such as simple stringer bridges, can easily be Engineer intelligence studies often provide
classified by their external dimensions. How- bridge classification information for most
ever, it may be impossible to calculate a areas of operation in foreign countries.
reasonable classification for other types, such Classify the bridge using engineer recon-
as prestressed and continuous span concrete, naissance data.
unless complete design information is avail-
able. The most reliable index for classifying The most reliable source of bridge class-
such a bridge would be an analysis of the ification information for civilian-constructed
floor system. The Theater Engineer must set bridges is local civilian authorities. In most
policy on caution and risk classifications for cases, complete design specifications, as-built
civil-installed bridges, while the Theater plans, and the types and strengths of ma-
Commander retains authorization for these terials used in civilian bridges are available.
special crossings.
Local, state, and county officials in the United
When faced with a special crossing situation, States and in friendly foreign countries often
always consider alternatives like bypasses impose maximum load limits or maximum
and fords. Measure the importance of over- permissible stresses on their bridges. It is
sized or overweight traffic against other important that these officials be consulted to
traffic using the bridging. Forward move- determine maximum military load classifi-
ment of combat power and logistics takes cation that can be applied to the bridge in
precedence over evacuation and retrograde peacetime or for maneuver purposes. Corro-
movement. sion and normal wear and tear tend to
diminish a bridge’s load-carrying capacity
METHODS over time. The most recent evaluation of the
There are two methods of classifying a bridge: bridge is desirable. Based upon the engineer’s
analytical and expedient. Careful analysis evaluation of civilian reports, additional
must often follow expedient classification. appraisal of a bridge’s classification may be
The situation and available time and in- required.
formation determine the method chosen. An
analytical classification may be required if Correlation curves have been developed for
the bridge is of great importance. An engi- some standard US- and foreign civilian-made
neer’s estimate may suffice if similar bridges bridges that relate the known civilian bridge
design loads to military classifications. These
44 BRIDGING
FM 5-104
curves, discussed in TM 5-312, Chapter 5, are neer organization in the area will classify
often useful in establishing a temporary bridges of military significance by the
bridge classification. The analytical method analytical method if possible. If a posted
is always preferred when time and informa- temporary class is judged accurate by the
tion are available. responsible engineer, the classification can
be posted as permanent. Engineer units
RESPONSIBILITIES should keep records on each significant
Bridge classification and marking is an bridge within their assigned area.
engineer responsibility. The responsible engi-
BRIDGING 45
FM 5-104
the original structure are still usable? What is varied that no preferred method can be
the type of bridge and what are the span suggested.
lengths? What are the characteristics of the
waterway, particularly as to the use of Experience with several methods will usually
additional bents or pile piers? Will the present suggest a practical method of repair. Unless
approaches be satisfactory for a reinforced there has been an opportunity for advance
bridge? Will the intermediate supports and planning, the selection of repair methods
abutments also need to be reinforced? Are should be left to the engineer commander
alternate sites available? responsible for the repairs. The factors upon
which the engineer will base choices are—
Materials that may be used include standard
steel military units (preferred because of Ž Type of bridge.
quality and speed of construction), military
stock timbers, other military items of issue, Ž Nature of damage.
local materials of adequate quality. Possible
construction methods depend upon items of Ž Tactical situation and bridge require-
equipment available, working locations, and ments.
the nature of the repairs. A detailed dis-
cussion of bridge reinforcement is contained Ž Nature of surroundings and immediately
in TM 5-312. usable bypasses.
46 BRIDGING
FM 5-104
BRIDGING 47
Chapter 6
RAILROADS
RESPONSIBILITIES 49
PLANNING 51
48 RAILROADS
FM 5-104
RESPONSIBILITIES
Within the Theater of Operations, the respon- Transportation Corps (TC). Each transpor-
sibility for construction, major rehabilitation, tation unit may be assigned from 90 to 150
and major repair of railroads is assigned to miles of main line with terminal operating
the engineers. These responsibilities include and maintenance facilities, signaling
all design, new construction, and modifica- equipment, and interlocking facilities
tion of existing railroads to meet military necessary for operation. Where host nation
traffic needs. agreements exist, day-to-day operations and
maintenance may be largely conducted by
Responsibility for operating railroads and the local work force. Reconnaissance and
performing routine maintenance rests with selection of new routes and routes to be
the transportation railway service of the rehabilitated are responsibilities of the
RAILROADS 49
FM 5-104
transportation units in coordination with the engineers must be prepared to provide con-
engineer elements in the area of operation. struction support in missions beyond the
Although responsibility for ordinary main- capability of the transportation services.
tenance rests with the transportation corps,
50 RAILROADS
FM 5-104
PLANNING
All existing facilities must be used to the Urgent tactical situations dictate lower stan-
maximum extent possible in order to hold dards for construction and maintenance in
down construction time. New railroad con- the Theater of Operations. Theater of Opera-
struction will probably be totally comprised tions railroads may have lower factors of
of short spurs to connect existing networks safety, sharper curves, and steeper grades
with military terminals or to detour around than recommended by the American Railway
severely damaged areas. The focus of engi- Engineering Association (AREA). Once the
neer effort should be on modifying and minimum standard for immediate service
repairing existing railroads to meet military has been attained, phased improvements can
needs. be made, provided the importance of the line
justifies the effort. The end goal is to bring
Local labor and management are key to the the line up to AREA standards; however, this
rapid modification and continuing mainte- can seldom be accomplished in the Theater of
nance of existing facilities. Local personnel Operations.
can often supply materials as well as skilled
labor to speed the work and relieve military Most railway bridging requirements can be
personnel for other projects. Native railway satisfied by the simple steel stringer type
operating personnel are also a source of bridge supported on timber trestles or piles.
information on existing operations and sup- Plans for rapid replacement of existing
ply facilities in a liberated area. bridging must be made, because the enemy
may be expected to concentrate demolition
efforts on railway bridges and turnouts.
ŽMission and required capacity of the ŽDirection of future development and expan-
proposed systems, sion.
ŽType and size of rolling stock to be op- Upon determining the design requirements,
erated, a reconnaissance is conducted to determine
the siting of the rail system. The surveys,
ŽTrack gage, studies, and plans required for constructing a
railroad are necessarily more elaborate than
ŽInitial, intermediate, and final terminal those for most road construction.
points along the route,
ROUTE SELECTION
ŽServicing and maintenance facilities re- Studies of the best available topographic
quired, maps and aerial photographs narrow the
choice of routes to be reconnoitered. Factors
ŽConnections with other rail systems, which affect the location of a route include
RAILROADS 51
FM 5-104
logistics, length of line, curvature, gradients, tional locomotive as a helper engine or, if the
and ease and speed of construction. grade is very short, the train may be carried
over the crest by momentum. Since military
Logistics railroads operate at slow speeds, the ruling
Logistics must receive first consideration in grade must be kept to a minimum. As always,
selecting a route in the Theater of Operations. the necessity for speedy construction must be
Normally a rail line will extend from a port, a top priority.
beachhead, or other source of supplies in the
communication zone, forward to mainte- Ease and speed of construction
nance areas supporting the forces present. The route should be chosen to secure ease and
Alternate routes are desirable for greater speed of construction. It is essential in a
flexibility of movement, and as insurance Theater of Operations that transportation
against cases of mainline obstruction as a facilities be available as soon as possible.
result of enemy action, wrecks, washouts, Many additional hours of earthwork and
floods, fires, or landslides. grading can be avoided by a careful route
selection.
Length of line
Length of line (mileage from point of origin to ROUTE RECONNAISSANCE
terminus) is important only when it adds A complete ground reconnaissance of the
materially to the time of train movement. As possible routes is needed. The reconnaissance
much as 30 percent increased mileage is team should note odometer and barometer
permissible when it proves advantageous to observations of distances and elevations, the
the other factors involved. general character of the terrain, the control-
ling curvatures, soil and drainage conditions,
Curvature bridge and tunnel sites, the size and character
Curvatures should be minimized as much as of bridges needed, intersections with railways
possible consistent with speed of construc- or important roads, availability of ballast
tion. Curvature for a military railroad will and other construction material, and points
depend largely on the maximum rigid wheel- at which construction parties would have
base of cars and locomotives. Superelevation access to the railway route. The factors to be
is used to counteract centrifugal force on taken into consideration include the roadbed,
curves by raising the outer rail higher than rock cuts, hillsides, drainage, security, water
the inner. Field Manual 5-370 provides more supply, passing track, and surveys.
information on degrees of curvature and
superelevation. Roadbed
The roadbed should be built on favorable
Gradients soils. Clay beds, peat bogs, muck, and
The ruling grade of a route is the most swampy areas are unstable foundations and
demanding grade over which a maximum provide unsuitable soils for building fills.
tonnage train can be handled by a single Cuts through unfavorable soils will slough
locomotive. Where diesel electric units are and slide. Seek minimum earthwork in loca-
used, a single locomotive may consist of two ting the roadbed and track.
or more units coupled to work as a single
locomotive that is controlled from the cab of Rock cuts
the leading unit. The ruling grade is not Where rock cuts are proposed, the bedding
necessarily the maximum grade. Steeper planes should dip away from the track to
grades can be negotiated by using an addi- prevent rock slides. Cutting removes the
52 RAILROADS
FM 5-104
support from rock sloping toward the track. precision than the location survey of most
Locations at the foot of high bluffs subject new roads, since curves and superelevations
the track to rock falls, slides, and washouts. must be accurately computed.
Rock work is time consuming. Avoid it
whenever practicable. CONSTRUCTION
Schedules
Hillsides When the necessary reconnaissance and
In the temperate zone, choose sites along the surveys are complete, the engineer prepares
lee side of hills. This prevents snowdrifts and an estimate of the work and materials re-
resists the effect of winds. quired and a plan for carrying out the
construction. The engineer must schedule the
Drainage priority and rate of construction and provide
The proposed site should facilitate drainage for the even flow of material to ensure orderly
or prevent the need for it. Ridge routes are progress. Schedules must continually be
best for this purpose, but may be exposed to updated to accommodate changed field con-
enemy fire. Avoid locations that require ditions or other exigencies.
heavy bridging. Note that diesel equipment
cannot be operated over track inundated In preparing schedules, the engineer will
above the top of rail, because water will make a full project analysis, identifying
damage traction motors. construction phases and estimating man-
hours, machine time, and necessary material
Security flow. This information can be most effectively
Concealment from enemy fire and observa- presented in graphical form, such as bar
tion must be considered, but may have to give charts or line charts. If the project is large
way to other necessary requirements. and involves other organizations and inter-
mediate decisions, the Critical Path Method
Water supply should be employed. This technique is fully
If steam operation is planned, an adequate described in TM 5-333. In addition to their
water supply must be available at 15- to 20- planning function, the schedules can also
mile intervals along the route. serve as progress charts.
RAILROADS 53
FM 5-104
will be aware of the material stocks available 10. Make final alignment.
and the requisitioning and transportation
situation. The group may be able to stockpile Each of these tasks is discussed in detail in
some railroad materials in unusually static Chapter 4 of TM 5-370.
situations, but usually the construction ma-
terials that are not locally available must CONSTRUCTION OF
come from logistics facilities. AUXILIARY FACILITIES
In addition to the actual rail line, certain
Materials may be hauled to the job site on facilities are necessary to rail operations or
work trains when motor transport is in short are required due to particular physical condi-
supply or when the terrain is rough and/or tions.
there is a lack of nearby highway and access
roads. Materials are brought to the end of Sidings
existing track on rolling stock pushed ahead Sidings are auxiliary tracks next to the main
of the locomotive. line. They are used for meeting and passing
trains, for separating and storing equipment
Construction sequence that breaks down enroute, and for storing
As a first stage in organizing the work, the rolling stock that cannot be moved to its
engineer divides the line into sections in destination. The Transportation Corps gives
which special features such as bridges, sta- guidance on the location of sidings. Sidings
tions, yards, and rock cuts can be constructed are built parallel to the rail line. The siding
while other work is in progress. Work can should be 250 feet longer than the longest
proceed concurrently at several locations. train that will use it. Generally, the siding
has a turnout at either end.
The standard construction sequence is as
follows: Highway and rail crossing at grades
Avoid highway and road crossings at grade
1. Clear and grub. wherever possible. When crossings must be
installed, they should be constructed so that
2. Prepare the subgrade by cutting or filling the axis of the road is approximately per-
and compacting. pendicular to the centerline of the railroad.
3. Unload and distribute track materials. Rail crossings carry one track across another
at grade and permit passing of wheel flanges
4. Align and space cross ties. through opposing rails. The design of frogs to
allow these crossings depends on the angle at
5. Place line rails or ties. which they cross. In military railroads, most
frogs are made of precast, immobile rails
6. Place gage rail on ties to ensure proper which can be easily installed.
spacing.
Wyes
7. Line the track. Wyes are used in place of turntables, which
are normally impractical for use in the
8. Unload ballast. Theater of Operations. Wyes maybe installed
at engine terminals, summits, junctions, and
9. Raise and surface track. railheads, as time permits. In some cases, the
54 RAILROADS
FM 5-104
wye’s stem may be long enough to permit age, and block stations. Block stations are
turnaround of the entire train. facilities that house the switching and sig-
naling equipment that controls train
Utility and service facilities movements.
Service facilities should be laid out so that
servicing operations can be performed in Railheads and yards
proper sequence as the locomotive moves A railhead is at the end of a railroad line.
through the terminal. The usual relation of Yards are a system of tracks that serve three
operations and facilities from terminal basic functions:
entrance to terminal exit is—
1. One or more tracks long enough to receive
1. Inspection—inspection pits or platforms. a entire train;
2. Lubrication (during inspection)-oil and 2. A system of shorter tracks for the storage
grease service areas. or classification of freight;
RAILROADS 55
FM 5-104
located and constructed. The rail transpor- The maintenance standard in the Theater of
tation officer’s task is to make the most Operations will not in most cases be to the
efficient use of existing facilities by maxi- standard of railways located in the zone of
mizing maintenance efforts. the interior. However, aggressive engineer
action will help to keep this vital link open.
56 RAILROADS
Chapter 7
LOGISTICS OVER THE
SHORE (LOTS) OPERATIONS
RESPONSIBILITIES 58
CAPABILITIES 60
LOTS INSTALLATION 61
RESPONSIBILITIES
Logistics planning to support deployed forces To construct a LOTS site, the support of
on a foreign shore always begins with an Combat Engineer or Engineer Combat Heavy
evaluation of in-place fixed port facilities and Battalion effort is needed. Specific construc-
capacities. These, combined with connecting tion requirements may demand that these
railway, highway, and inland waterway units be augmented by an Engineer Port
networks, are the major logistic systems Construction Company, Combat Support
required for military operations. When a Equipment Company, or a Pipeline Construc-
reckoning of available resources is complete, tion Support Company, or theater-level diving
planners determine the need for LOTS ter- teams. Engineer missions are directed in
minals to supplement and back up the accordance with the applicable task orga-
transportation net. nization.
Overall responsibility for LOTS operations Engineer units give construction, repair, and
lies with the Transportation Corps. Each maintenance support to LOTS operations.
LOTS terminal acts under the direct control An engineer unit may expect to encounter
of a transportation terminal battalion made these missions in supporting a LOTS:
up of two service companies and appropriate
Iighterage units. The theater commander may ŽConstruct semipermanent piers and
assign construction support responsibilities causeways.
to Army, Navy, and/or Marine Corps engi-
neer units, depending on their availability ŽPrepare and stabilize beaches.
and the overall situation. Mutually sup-
porting or follow-on construction must be ŽConstruct access and egress routes from
coordinated with other engineer units beaches to backwater areas.
assigned to or projected for the area of
operations. ŽConstruct access to marshaling areas
and/or adjoining LOTS sites.
The US Army Engineers must be prepared to
support the LOTS mission because— ŽConstruct marshaling and storage areas.
ŽExisting ports may be damaged, incom- ŽConstruct road and rail links to existing
plete, or unavailable. LOCs.
CAPABILITIES
PORT CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES
Engineer Port Construction Companies are Lightweight Diving Team. This sixteen-
capable of emplacing floating or elevated member team is capable of performing self-
semipermanent piers and causeways. These contained, underwater breathing apparatus
are to be constructed from pontoon cube (SCUBA) and lightweight diving to a maxi-
barges, DeLong piers, or other state-of-the- mum depth of 190 feet in support of LOTS
art, rapidly deployable pier and barge operations. During LOTS operations, these
equipment. The Port Construction Company diving teams provide support in three distinct
can also install offshore POL facilities and areas: engineer support, transportation sup-
has a limited capability to install onshore port, and quartermaster support. Additional
POL storage facilities. diving support for LOTS operations is coor-
dinated through the ControI and Support
PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION Detachment at theater level.
SUPPORT COMPANIES
Engineer Pipeline Construction Support Diving teams that support engineer activities
Companies are trained and equipped to assist with—
install beach unloading equipment for POL,
to assist engineer battalions with the con- ŽInstallation, recovery, and repair of off-
struction of rigid distribution pipelines, and shore pipelines,
to assist in the construction of rigid metal
storage tanks. The companies have a limited ŽBottom surveys for beach improvements,
capability to carry out all of these missions
on their own, although at a much slower rate. ŽInspection and repair of vessel anchorages,
LOTS INSTALLATION
LAYOUT
Initial LOTS planning and site selection are The supporting engineer must be informed
coordinated between the terminal service about the layout of the LOTS site, because the
group or brigade commander (Transportation layout determines the required engineer
Corps) and the Navy/Military Sealift Com- effort. A LOTS layout varies with the situa-
mand. Initial selection is based on map tion and existing geographic conditions. The
studies, hydrographic charts, and aerial physical size of the individual site depends
reconnaissance. on security considerations, soil trafficability,
the number of ships to be unloaded at the site,
RECONNAISSANCE and the type of cargo coming ashore. For
The reconnaissance party includes repre- example, a LOTS terminal may need to be
sentatives of the terminal group commander, very large if ammunition and/or POL are
the terminal battalion command, the sup being unloaded over a beach that is subject to
porting engineer, the supporting signal enemy attack. General cargo unloaded over a
officer, Military Police, and Navy personnel secure beach needs less area.
to advise on mooring areas. Others partici-
pate if the situation dictates, or at the LANDING CRAFT
terminal commander’s request. The recon- UNLOADING POINTS
naissance party briefs the terminal com- A knowledge of the beaching positions des-
mander on its findings. The briefing must ignated for landing craft is important to the
cover— supporting engineer, especially if landing
points are to be used for extended periods. A
Ž Engineer effort required to prepare and common maintenance problem on beaching
maintain the site, based on available units, positions is the creation of troughs or pits in
equipment, and materials. the beach beyond the water line. Troughing
is caused by landing craft ramps, which dig
• Signal construction and maintenance into the inclined beach at a steep angle. This
required for necessary communications problem is exacerbated when wheeled ve-
within the beach area, and between the hicles dig into the sandy beach material, and
beach and the terminal group head- water washes the loosened material away.
quarters. Vehicles can easily bog down and stall in
these troughs, thus slowing unloading opera-
• Types of lighterage craft (LCU, LCM, tions. Engineers can reduce the troughing by
LACV-30) that may be used, based on placing stone or gravel at the unloading
beach conditions. point, or by cutting down the slope of the
beach. Both these measures require mainte-
• Safe haven for lighterage craft in stormy nance for as long as the unloading points are
weather. used.
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
stability and protected working surfaces The major engineer effort in a LOTS is
permit unloading at times when wave action invested in road construction and mainte-
would otherwise prevent landing craft from nance. Considerable effort must be spent to
operating across a beach. The DeLong pier is stabilize soil and improve trafficability in the
a self-contained pier that can be brought to beach area. Constructed roads must with-
the LOTS site and emplaced in a relatively stand the impact of material-handling
short time. Specially trained engineer per- equipment carrying extremely heavy loads.
sonnel from the Engineer Port Construction Roads that support LOTS are usually con-
Company and certain other units can install structed in a loop to reduce their required
this equipment. Other engineer assistance is width and eliminate vehicle turning as much
required at the beach end of the pier to as possible.
prepare the beach and anchor the pier.
The availability of construction material
Causeways are floating structures which determines the types of roads that can be
project out from the beach. In some appli- constructed. Naturally occurring materials
cations, they are used as rafts to ferry such as rock and wood may be scarce or of
equipment from ship to shore. Causeways are poor quality. Portland cement may not be
more susceptible to wave action than are available or may be prohibitively expensive
piers. But they are much more easily to use. Sand grid material is excellent for use
deployed. In areas where wave action is not a in areas of cohesionless soil. Mo-mat and
significant problem, causeways can be used steel planking may be used if they are
as floating piers. Engineers provide beach available. When roads are constructed in
preparation and anchoring for causeway areas of poor soil conditions, roadways must
operation. be well marked, and adequate drainage must
be provided for.
EXPEDIENT SURFACING
MARSHALING AREAS
Marshaling areas serve as a collection point Marshaling area surfaces must be stable
from which unloaded materials and equip- enough to support a loaded piece of material-
ment can be distributed to the proper units. handling equipment. Material-handling
The size of the marshaling area varies with equipment with loads may weigh up to
the size and type of shipping, the unloading 100,000 pounds. Access and egress roads
rate, the hostile situation, and the units being must be capable of supporting the same
supported. Marshaling areas vary from 25 to loads. The surface must be protected with
500 acres. In hostile environments, mar- adequate drainage.
shaling areas are dispersed, with acreage
divided into many small parcels. Most material shipped to a Theater of Opera-
tions via surface transportation is container-
ized. Once ashore, the containers are opened
and unpacked for distribution to the intended provided with overhead protection from the
units. Empty containers are collected and elements.
reloaded aboard ships, then returned to their
point of origin. Container collection areas Ammunition storage areas must be remote
must therefore be provided. These areas must from other activities on the beach. They must
have the same trafficability, drainage, and be dispersed and camouflaged. Each site
access/egress characteristics as the mar- requires access and egress routes, preferably
shaling areas, and can require nearly as arranged so that vehicles will not have to
much space. back up.
CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES 66
PLANNING FACTORS 71
PORT CONSTRUCTION 73
PORTS 65
FM 5-104
CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES
The operation of a port in a Theater of THEATER, THEATER ARMY, AND
Operations is a large and vital undertaking TRANSCOM RESPONSIBILITIES
with many divisions of responsibility be- The functions of higher echelon command for
tween the Navy and the branches of the the construction or rehabilitation of a port
Army. Basic decisions as to the location of include:
ports, capacity, utilization, wharfage, and
storage facilities are made at the Theater and Ž Studies of intelligence reports and all
Theater Army (TA) and Transportation available reconnaissance applying to each
Command (TRANSCOM) Headquarters. The port area that is considered for use.
responsibilities of the Theater Command,
Theater Army Command, and TRANSCOM Ž Tentative determination of the ports or
commander are stated in FM 100-10. The TA coastal area to be used as a part of overall
Assistant Chief of Staff (ACS), Movements, strategic planning.
is responsible for operating ports and fur-
nishing liaison with the Navy, Coast Guard, Ž Assignment of the mission of the port.
and other interested military and authorized
civilian agencies, both of allied countries and Ž Determination of port requirements.
the United States. The ACS, Movements,
requests, advises, and makes recommenda- Ž Tentative decision on the general methods
tions concerning the engineer troops of construction to be used, and determina-
employed and the work concerned. tion of engineer units, special equipment,
and materials required.
66 PORTS
FM 5-104
PORTS 67
FM 5-104
ENGINEER UNITS
Engineer units are responsible for port con- Ž Dredging, except as accomplished by the
struction and rehabilitation and for coordi- Navy.
nating all work with that of any Navy units
engaged in harbor clearance and salvage Ž Debris clearance in the port area.
operations, such as the neutralization of
mines and underwater obstacles. Engineers Ž Acquisition of buildings, facilities, and
perform minor salvage operations, such as other property within the port area for
clearing obstructions and debris from harbor military use.
entrances and improving channels. This does
not include large-scale salvaging, which is a Ž Provision of warehouses, depots, quarters
Navy responsibility. The majority of tasks for port personnel, and other facilities as
will be accomplished by Engineer Port Con- required for the operation of the port.
struction Companies, Combat Heavy Battal-
ions, and specialty teams assigned to the Ž Continuous study of the port situation and
Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE) preparation of tentative plans for possible
5-530 series. In performing their mission of contingencies.
rehabilitation, construction, and mainte-
nance of a port, Army engineers are respon- Ž Requisitioning of the supplies and equip-
sible for— ment to carry out the mission.
Ž Construction, and major maintenance The engineer unit normally responsible for
only, of tanker unloading facilities, in- major port construction or rehabilitation is
cluding mooring facilities, submerged the engineer construction group. It is orga-
pipelines, surface pipelines, and rigid POL nized to include an Engineer Port Construc-
tank farms. tion Company or Companies, Pipeline
Construction Support Companies, Combat
Ž Maintenance and operation of the fire Heavy Engineer Battalions, Dump Truck
fighting facilities of the port. Companies, Engineer Construction Support
Companies, Dredge Teams, and other units
68 PORTS
FM 5-104
the mission may require. When several groups Engineer divers operate under TOE 5-530 as
are employed together, they are organized as cellular teams that provide specialized diving
an engineer brigade. support to all theater requirements. As in the
LOTS environment, a Control and Support
The engineer construction group is a flexible Detachment located at theater level coordi-
organization, and only becomes operational nates the efforts of operational teams
when working units are assigned or attached attached to corps and echelons above corps,
to it. The Headquarters and Headquarters in support of port construction missions.
Company, Engineer Construction Group,
commands and controls three to five Combat One such operational unit, the Deep Water
Heavy Battalions or their equivalent in Diving Team, is allocated to port construction
assigned or attached troops. When composed companies on a basis of one team per one to
of two or three Combat Heavy Battalions and three companies. These teams are capable of
at least one Port Construction Company, the two shift operations using SCUBA, light-
group is capable of typical wharf construc- weight, and deep sea equipment up to a
tion. Pipeline Construction Support Com- maximum depth of 250 feet. Missions that
panies, dredges and Dredge Teams, Con- these teams could expect to perform in support
struction Support Companies, and Dump of port construction operations include—
Truck Companies are added as the mission
and scope of work requires. Ž Light underwater salvage,
PORTS 69
FM 5-104
underwater damage assessment televisions movement from the port by rail, motor, and
systems, salvage pumps, and diving equip- inland water transportation, and under cer-
ment maintenance support can be obtained tain conditions, air transport. Finally, the
through the control and support team or on transportation unit is responsible for estab-
an as needed basis. lishing engineer construction priorities.
70 PORTS
FM 5-104
PLANNING FACTORS
Wherever possible, port construction efforts Ž Delivery of construction materials,
in the Theater of Operations are based upon
the rehabilitation and/or expansion of Ž Local sequence of operations,
existing facilities rather than new construc-
tion. Once the decision as to the location of Ž Necessary delays between operations,
the port has been made at the theater head-
quarters, the mission is assigned to an Ž Weather.
appropriate engineer command. The location
of the port will be made based upon an After the port has been occupied, planners
analysis of the projected capacity of the must carefully and critically examine pre-
facility, the quantity and nature of cargo to vious plans in view of the actual physical
be handled, the tactical and strategic situa- condition of the port. The impact of proposed
tion, and the construction materials and changes on logistics and scheduling must be
assets available. coordinated through engineer, transporta-
tion, and command channels. Priorities
Careful planning based upon extensive and established in the operation order may have
detailed reconnaissance is essential to suc- to be modified after construction is under-
cessful port construction. This reconnais- taken. Planning and scheduling are based on
sance should begin upon receipt of the mis- meeting all immediate needs, while ensuring
sion and continue throughout construction that all work contributes toward the antici-
and up to actual occupation. A thorough pated requirements.
initial reconnaissance will help planners to
estimate logistical requirements by providing Studies are made to determine the relative
data on the physical condition of the port to value of rehabilitation and construction.
be seized or occupied. These studies compare the value to be gained
from specific facilities within a port to the
Based upon this analysis, construction construction effort required. Among other
assignments, facilities required, and sched- factors, selection of the best ports for further
uled target dates for various phases of development is determined by the need for
development are derived and outlined in the dispersion, location of logistical require-
operation order. From this information, a ments, time and effort required to move
construction schedule is formulated. Con- construction units, and local availability of
struction schedules are prepared to show in materials as well as civilian or prisoner-of-
detail the time plan for all operations in their war labor.
proper sequence. Equipment hours and man-
hours of labor required for each principal Port capacity requirements are estimated by
operation are then tabulated. The construc- Headquarters, TRANSCOM, or the Theater
tion schedule is based on— Army Support Command (TASCOM) ACS,
Movements. The engineer usually makes an
Ž Time allowed for completion, independent estimate of the capacity of the
port under various alternative methods of
Ž Available equipment, construction, repair, or rehabilitation. This
procedure serves as an aid to determining the
Ž Type of labor available (regular troop units, most advantageous relative priorities of
reserve troop units, newly activated troop engineer projects. The capacity estimates of
units, local contractors, international TRANSCOM and TASCOM, however, must
contractors), govern with respect to military loads. On the
PORTS 71
FM 5-104
basis of port capacity estimates, the engineer Planners may use the basic periods of time
recommends schedules for construction/ such as the two-shift, 20-hour working day, or
rehabilitation of port cranes and other facil- the days in a month to prepare estimated
ities, road and railroad construction within labor needs extending over a period of time.
the port area, preparation of storage and However, adverse physical conditions pecu-
marshaling areas, and the like. Some con- liar to the location must be considered. For
siderations in port capacity estimating and example, severe icing conditions during the
planning follow. winter months, periods of extreme tide range,
or severe seasonal winds may have a direct
WHARF FACILITIES bearing upon construction or rehabilitation
Rehabilitation and construction priorities, work. When heavy seasonal rains, snowfall,
choice of construction materials, and plans of icing, seasonal winds of unusual severity,
operations for the port are factors which frequent or seasonal fogs, or exceptionally
determine the attainment of the greatest high or low temperatures are typical to a
capacity from the wharfage with the least coastal area, work time estimates should be
expenditure of manpower and materials. modified to allow for such conditions.
72 PORTS
FM 5-104
PORT CONSTRUCTION
PHASED CONSTRUCTION
Current procedures for port construction in
undeveloped areas usually fall under the
following phases:
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Commercial records indicate that at least 9
months are required for a skilled construc-
tion crew of 30 to construct a modern (approx-
imately 80 by 1,000 feet) steel or concrete pile
wharf by conventional (cast-in-place and/or
on-site job erection) methods. This time
requirement, even allowing for larger con-
struction crews, indicates that neither steel
nor concrete pile wharves will likely be built
by conventional methods in the future. Recent
studies indicate that although steel and con-
crete will be the most common building
materials in new military port construction,
their use will probably be limited to new,
unconventional construction methods.
PORTS 73
FM 5-104
74 PORTS
FM 5-104
Other on-shore construction requirements The actual minimum water depths of new
include— wharf construction are dictated by the
wharf’s intended use (POL wharf, container
Ž Potable and impotable water supply for wharf, lighter wharf). These depths are
ships docked/moored in the port as well as determined and given in the operation order.
the port itself.
Dredging may be required to establish and
Ž Electric power supply and distribution maintain required depths. Experience gained
which may require overhead and under- during World War II and in Vietnam indicates
ground systems. that there are a number of specific problems
associated with dredging projects in a
Ž Fire fighting facilities and special systems Theater of Operations. Transportation of
as needed, such as special facilities for dredges to the Theater of Operations can be
POL terminals. difficult. Hopper dredges and sidecasting
dredges are the only ones that are seagoing.
Suitable water depths must be maintained at Other dredges must either be towed to the site
ports. According to FM 101-10-1, a minimum or assembled from components transported
low tide water depth of about 33 feet should be aboard cargo ships.
used for planning purposes because it will
accommodate virtually all deep-draft vessels. It is also difficult to secure dredges within the
However, the recent trend toward containeri- Theater of Operations. The routine patterns
zation and the use of large tankers with over followed by dredges greatly limit the effec-
50,000 hundredweight capacities indicate tiveness of any passive defensive measures.
that some future military ports should be Pipeline dredges are virtually stationary
planned with minimum water depths of 40 to targets. The availability of dredges and crews
50 feet. The planned construction of wharves for use in early stages of deployment in a
in water depths several feet less than desired Theater of Operations is a major problem.
may also be justified where— The Army at the present has no trained
military dredge crews or portable dredges
Ž It is established that the required depth suitable for use in a Theater of Operations.
can be obtained by dredging, that such
dredging is practical as part of the con- Sweeping, covered in detail in TM 5-235, is a
struction project, and that it can be per- method of locating pinnacles or other ob-
formed without endangering the in-place structions which exist in navigation areas
wharf structure. above the depth limits required by the draft of
the largest ships to use the area. Sweeping is
Ž Short-term use is anticipated, thus making always used as a final check after dredging
lighterage more feasible than dredging or operations.
wharf relocation.
PORTS 75
FM 5-104
Ž Replacing wharf bracings and anchorages Ž The decking may be removed for adding
which have been destroyed by decay or stringers, or smaller stringers may be
erosion. placed on the pile cap between existing
stringers from beneath the decking and
Ž Replacing entire spud barge pier, spud, or wedged tight against the deck.
other major barge pier accessories.
Ž If the wharf can support the weight of the
REHABILITATION OF pile driver, several floor planks can be
BREAKWATER STRUCTURES taken up and the piles driven through the
The repair of breakwaters and similar struc- hole. New pile bents are capped and wedged
tures is required to protect the characteristics tight against the stringers.
of a harbor. Breached breakwater structures
are repaired by dumping rock of sizes suitable
for use in mounds.
76 PORTS
FM 5-104
Ž A rock or ballast-filled timber crib may be Ž Part of a solid-fill wharf may be bridged
used to replace a gap in a pile wharf using standard or nonstandard fixed
structure or to extend the outshore end on bridging.
the wharf. The timber crib may be built on
land, launched by using log rollers, floated Ž If a slip is filled with rubble so that ships
into position, and filled with rock or ballast cannot be brought to the face of the wharf,
to hold it in place. it may be possible to fend them off with
camels, barges, or other devices so that
Ž Use standard military floating bridges or they will be retained in deep water for
Navy pontoons to supplement or tempo- unloading. Alternatively, it may be pos-
rarily replace damaged causeways. sible to use standard trestles, fixed
bridging, and assembled Navy pontoons
Ž Use standard military floating bridges or to extend the width of the pier.
Navy pontoons to provide access between
undamaged sections of off-loading piers. Ž The hull of a capsized or sunken vessel
may be used as the substructure for a pier.
Ž If a section of a wharf has been destroyed,
the face of the wharf is restored first so Ž The shore end of a causeway constructed
that ships may be worked while the area from Navy pontoon cubes may be anchored
behind the face is being restored. onshore by excavating a section of beach,
floating the pontoons into the temporary
Ž The shore end of a pier may be used for inlet thus made, and then backfilling to
lighters or other short vessels while the provide a solid anchorage.
pier is being extended.
PORTS 77
Chapter 9
GENERAL SUPPLY, MAINTENANCE,
AND AMMUNITION STORAGE
FACILITIES
Dispersion
• Availability of suitable existing facilities Where terrain conditions permit, facilities
that may be either occupied immediately should be dispersed to prevent the enemy
or modified to desired specifications. from inflicting massive damage in a single
strike. Precautions must be made, however,
• Environmental restrictions which may to ensure that operations are not unduly
limit the size of the required facility (these hampered by ill-planned dispersion schemes.
may be caused by weather or host nation
policy). Security
Generally, security includes active and pas-
• Accessibility to projected traffic. sive measures taken to thwart enemy troop
interdiction. Active measures may include
• Availability of construction materials. construction of fire fighting positions, barbed
wire obstacles, earthen barriers, minefield,
• Climatic extremes which may demand placement of remote sensors, and use of
refrigeration or other climate control security patrols. Passive measures may in-
measures. clude use of camouflage and decoy systems
and the enforcement of light discipline.
PROTECTION
Protection of a facility or installation maybe Refer to AR 50-6 and AR 190-11 for required
accomplished by active and passive security security measures for ammunition supply
measures, including facility hardening and points. Engineer tasks that support security
dispersion. The enemy situation must be measures include clearing a right of way for
evaluated as thoroughly as possible. Threats security fences and constructing guard posts,
to supply and maintenance facilities may fences, and lighting systems. Protective
include conventional or nuclear/chemical minefield may be required in some cases.
attacks delivered by artillery, missiles, or
aircraft. Remote delivery of mines should LAYOUT
also be considered. Covert activities maybe a In siting and laying out an installation, the
threat following the insertion of deep-strike commander, with the assistance of the staff,
forces. In determining how to best protect a evaluates all the information gathered in the
facility against interdictory attacks, the planning and reconnaissance phases. Once
commander must take into account the sur- the commander or the designated representa-
rounding terrain, weather, the availability of tive has made a decision on where the instal-
Class IV and V materials to support protec- lation is to be built, the engineer develops a
tive measures, and the enemy situation. construction plan that takes into considera-
Another consideration that may influence tion available resources (military, host
the commander’s decision is the host nation nation, or contract construction personnel,
policy governing construction and use of materials, and equipment). The layout should
construction resources. be organized in such a way that it can be
completed soon enough to meet the priority
Facility hardening scheme. Internal operating efficiency must
Hardening of facilities should be emphasized also be considered in the layout. The Army
when terrain constricts dispersion and Threat Facilities Components System (AFCS) TM
analysis indicates that the facilities are pos- 5-302, illustrates typical installation layouts.
sible targets for enemy weapons. Hardening
techniques are discussed in FM 5-103.
CONSTRUCTION
New construction must be held to the mini- cedures for acquiring existing facilities and
mum. Whenever feasible, facility require- other real property in the Theater of Opera-
ments must be met by existing facilities (US tions. Host nation agreements may require
and host nation), organic unit shelters, and compensation for using or converting such
portable or relocatable facility substitutes. facilities. Army engineers and host nation
and civilian contractors are encouraged to
Standards for new construction (initial or use ingenuity, imagination, and inventive-
temporary) are dictated by the theater com- ness to adapt existing facilities for military
mander, based upon expected duration of use, use.
the availability of materials, man-hours of
construction effort, and material cost (TM MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
5-301). Locally available materials may dic- Routine maintenance and repair of facilities
tate design and construction criteria. Plans is accomplished by user units through unit-
are provided for many supply and mainte- appointed teams. Army engineers perform
nance facilities in TM 5-302. maintenance and repair work that exceeds
the capabilities of user units. This support
CONVERSION OF usually requires specialized skills or heavy
EXISTING FACILITIES equipment. Further information on Real
Instances may arise when it will be better in Property Maintenance Activities (RPMA) is
terms of labor, material, and time, to modify given in Chapter 13.
existing facilities. Chapter 12 discusses pro-
PLANNING FACTORS
construction, and the more extensive the Planners must consider a number of factors
construction support required. Depending when they are designing ammunition storage
upon the extent of a contingency operation, and supply facilities, including drainage,
land based ammunition supply and storage shelter, ventilation, facility size, vehicle
facilities may also be desired. Their construc- access, water supply, and protection.
tion may be less elaborate than the developed
theater counterpart, but security and safe Drainage
and efficient operation must still be Munitions can be damaged by excessive mois-
considered. ture, and must be kept dry. Proper grading
and, where possible, the installation of
CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES drainage facilities in the area of the ammuni-
Engineer elements, under the appropriate tion facility will divert rainfall and ground
Army command, are charged with the fol- water away from ammunition stacks.
lowing construction responsibilities in sup-
port of ammunition storage and supply Shelter
operations: Ammunition and explosives must be shel-
tered, wherever possible, from the elements
Ž Reconnaissance and improvement and/or and the enemy. Depending upon the situation
construction of roads and bridges which and the assets available, these shelters may
provide access to and egress from the range from approved steel, arch-earth
ammunition facility. Engineers will also mounded igloos, to an outdoor modular
construct roads within the facility. storage system reinforced with earthwork
berms. These systems are discussed in detail
Ž Location of water sources for fire fighting in FM 9-38.
operations and construction of required
reservoirs or water distribution system. Ventilation
Adequate ventilation is required to protect
Ž Construction of standard ammunition stocks from moisture and to prevent the
storage magazines for indoor storage, or buildup of toxic and combustible gases.
berms and pads for outdoor storage. Engi-
neers may be tasked to supply appropriate Size
dunnage for ammunition stacks, in The size of the facility depends on the kinds
accordance with TM 9-1300-206. and quantities of munitions being handled.
Facility size will be determined by the logis-
Ž construction of firebreaks in and around tical unit commander, based on standards set
the facility. forth in TM 9-1300-206 and the tactical
situation.
Ž Construction of quarters and support facil-
ities for ammunition facility personnel Vehicle access
and security forces. This includes asso- Vehicles that use the ammunition facility
ciated power and sanitary requirements. must be able to travel to and from the approp-
riate pickup points. Road networks and traffic
Ž Construction and maintenance of peri- flow patterns inside the facility must support
meter security fences, lighting systems or concurrent resupply and issue operations,
other required obstacles. and provide for rapid evacuation of all
Chapter 10
PETROLEUM PIPELINES AND STORAGE
FACILITIES
RESPONSIBILITIES 86
ENGINEER CAPABILITIES 87
RESPONSIBILITIES
The Joint Petroleum Office (JPO) coordinates on priorities established by the TA com-
the petroleum needs of all services within the mander and by directives received from the
Theater command. The petroleum group TAMMC.
commander for the Theater Army (TA) is
responsible for all aspects of theater level Bulk petroleum in the Theather of Operations
petroleum distributio planning and related is distributed by the Petroleum Pipeline and
supply opeations. The group performs liai- Terminal Operating Battalions. These bat-
son with the Theater Army Materiel Manage- talions are responsible for the operation and
ment Center (TAMMC) and Host Nation organizational maintenance of petroleum
(HN) staffs for coordinating allied petroleum peipelines and storage facilities. They are
distribution support. It distributes fuels based responsible for installing collapsible tanks
and associated equipment for the Tactical ENCOM provides maintenance (excluding
Petroleum Terminal (TPT). They also install organizational maintenance) and repair of
collapsible hoselines used to temporarily existing pipelines. It also designs, constructs,
extend pipelines. and expands the tactical pipeline system
(including marine terminals and storage
The Theater Army Engineer Command facilities). These tasks are done by US engi-
(ENCOM) or the senior engineer HQ supports neer forces or through coordination with the
the petroleum distribution effort. The HN.
ENGINEER CAPABILITIES
Engineer support to the petroleum distribu- tion and combat engineer battalions to con-
tion effort calls for a combination of general struct, rehabilitate, and maintain pipeline
and special construction skills. To maximize systems. (They do not perform organizational
potential and minimize duplication of low maintenance.) These units have a limited
density skills and equipment, general engi- independent capability to construct, rehabil-
neer construction units are augmented with itate, and maintain pipeline systems.
specialized units from the active or reserve
establishments. Pipeline Construction Support Companies
can help using units with specialized repairs.
COMBAT HEAVY ENGINEER They can provide advisory personnel to three
BATTALIONS (TOE 5-115) engineer companies of an engineer battalion
The primary military engineer units required engaged in pipeline construction. Unit per-
to support the petroleum distribution effort sonnel can advise on such tasks as pipe
are the Combat Heavy Engineer Battalions. stringing, pipe coupling, storage tank erec-
These units provide horizontal and general tion, and pump station and dispensing facil-
construction support for most of the tactical ity construction. Engineer Pipeline Construc-
pipeline construction mission. tion Support Companies are equipped to
function on a two-shift basis. The companies
Many tasks in pipeline construction are hori- have a limited number of bolster trailers for
zontal. These include route clearing and transporting pipe.
flattening, and constructing gap crossings
and pipe supports. These tasks can best be ENGINEER PORT CONSTRUCTION
done by a general construction unit with COMPANIES (TOE 5-129)
heavy earthmoving equipment. The battal- In support of the petroleum distribution effort,
ions also provide the labor or help to super- Port Construction Companies install offshore
vise HN personnel for assembling pipe and mooring facilities. They can install both
associated equipment. floating and underwater pipeline. They also
construct POL jetties and wharfs, and can
ENGINEER PIPELINE install limited POL storage facilities in the
CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT beach area. With the support of divers, these
COMPANIES (TOE 5-177) units can conduct underwater pipeline
These units provide technical personnel and repairs.
specialized equipment. They help construc-
OFFSHORE PETROLEUM
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (OPDS) dispensing points. A water supply for fire
The OPDS is a set of equipment and material fighting may need to be developed.
used to move petroleum from ships or barges
to the first storage facilities on land. The BOLTED STEEL STORAGE TANKS
OPDS maybe installed entirely by US Army Bolted steel tanks with storage capacities of
engineer units or in conjunction with US up to 10,000 barrels (420,000 gallons) are still
Navy construction units. This depends upon in the supply system. These tanks are espe-
the specific theater or situation. The Army cially useful at petroleum terminals in places
engineers and Navy construction forces have where area restrictions preclude the optimum
the capability to extend underwater pipeline spacing of collapsible tanks or where more
up to 4 miles from the high water mark. Such permanent facilities are required. The erec-
lines are needed where shallow waters or tion of the bolted steel tanks requires con-
blocked channels prevent tankers from siderably more time and engineer effort than
entering ports. If tankers can enter and use collapsible tanks.
existing port facilities, engineers install fuel
unloading equipment at the pier or wharf. INLAND PETROLEUM
The first major storage facility is usually DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (IPDS)
located within a 5-mile radius of the beach. The IPDS is the system of pipelines, hose-
lines, and storage containers that extends
TACTICAL PETROLEUM from the shore or port as far forward toward
TERMINALS (TPT) the combat area as practical. The system
The TPT has been recently developed to take consists of one or more main or trunk pipe-
advantage of new, rapidly emplaceable, lines, pumping stations that move the product
flexible storage tanks. The standard TPT through the line, intermediate tank farms,
uses 18 of these 5,000-barrel (210,000-gallon) branch lines to large users such as airfields,
collapsible tanks to provide fuel storage. and the head terminal at the end of the line.
When the TPT is deployed at its maximum The main pipeline may bean existing civilian
size, it requires an area of about 160 acres. pipeline provided by the HN, a line captured
The tanks are interconnected, filled, and from the enemy, or a tactical military pipeline
emptied by a system of flexible hoses and constructed by military engineers, or a com-
trailer-mounted pumps. The Petroleum Op- bination. The construction materials used in
erating Battalion is responsible for emplacing tactical military pipelines are easily assem-
fuel tanks, hoselines, and pumps. bled and readily adaptable to existing
conditions.
Substantial engineer effort may be needed to
help the petroleum operating battalion pre- MILITARY IPDS PIPE
pare the TPT site. The areas around the tank AND COUPLINGS
sites must be cleared of vegetation, and the The new standard pipe used in the military
sites must be leveled. Earth berms must be IPDS system is either a 6- or 8-inch nominal
built to provide added support and horizontal diameter aluminum pipe. The pipe comes in
protection for the tanks. The tank farm area standard lengths of 20 feet. The pipe ends
must be properly drained to prevent water have special grooves rolled on the ends to
damage and to minimize problems from fuel allow sections of pipe to be joined with a
spills or catastrophic failure of a tank. gasket and coupling. The new couplings for
Interconnecting roads are needed within the the pipe are designed to be closed with a lever.
tank farm, as well as access roads and The new pipe is considerably lighter than the
parking areas for heavy vehicles at fuel older steel pipe and tubing, and can be joined
much faster and with fewer people. Alumi- 20 miles apart. In mountainous terrain, pump
num pipe comes with curved elbow sections stations may be much closer together.
which allow pipe to negotiate turns and
elbows. The aluminum pipe can be cut and Pump stations consist of a set of pumps,
the ends prepared in the field with special station fuel storage tanks, various pipeline
tools held by the Engineer Pipeline Construc- operating equipment, and personnel facilities
tion Support Company. for the crews. The tactical and logistical
situation will dictate the other features of the
PUMPS AND PUMP STATIONS station. The pump station should be located
Pump stations are located along the pipeline on relatively high ground to allow fuel vapors
to maintain the pressure required to move to move away from the facility. Personnel
liquid fuel. Pump stations are operated by facilities should be located away from the
crews from the Petroleum Operating Bat- operating equipment because of noise and
talion. These crews operate pumps, maintain the presence of noxious fumes.
equipment, and may perform pipeline patrol
between adjacent pump stations. The spacing Assembling pump station components re-
of the pump stations will depend upon the quires the specialized skills of personnel from
hydraulic design of the pipeline, as deter- the Engineer Pipeline Construction Support
mined by the engineer, and the anticipated Company. Newly introduced equipment
future requirements of the system, as deter- significantly reduces construction time,
mined by the petroleum group. On relatively because many of the components are modu-
flat terrain, pump stations will be about 15 to larized. However, some fabrication is still
required.
Ž Route can service large users such as terion. Sections of pipe that are buried under-
airfields. ground or are submerged under water must
be tested. Other critical sections include any
Ž Route follows natural linear features such parts of a pipeline that are placed in tunnels
as wood edges and fence rows as an aid in used by personnel or vehicles. Leaks in tun-
camouflage. nels may allow vapors to accumulate or
expose the pipe to damage from moving
It is essential to determine elevations along vehicles. A fire or explosion may result.
the route as part of the reconnaissance. These
data are critical to the system’s hydraulic The pipeline is best checked by pressure-
design. The hydraulic design determines the testing with water. The engineer unit must
location and number of pump stations and of provide water for this event. Water is intro-
certain control devices needed so the pipeline duced into the pipeline and subjected to
can work properly. increasing pressure for a period of time. The
pipeline must maintain the required pressure
CONSTRUCTION PHASE for the specified period before the section of
Different parts of the pipeline system can be pipeline can be accepted by the operating
built simultaneously. As construction crews unit. Testing with air can be used for shorter
are clearing the pipeline route, other crews sections of line, but leaks are difficult to
can be building gap-crossing structures or pinpoint. Under extreme operational re-
installing pump stations and intermediate quirements the testing may be authorized
storage facilities. Thus, the construction of a using fuel, but only as a last resort.
pipeline system requires a maximum of
flexibility and decentralized control of the PIPELINE MAINTENANCE
construction elements. Leaders of small units Once the pipeline has been accepted by the
must be well prepared to function with a petroleum operating battalion, that unit is
minimum of supervision, because the con- responsible for maintenance. The unit will
struction battalion will likely have elements make frequent inspections of the line for
spread over many miles. In this way, the visual signs of leaks and damage. The unit is
entire battalion can be effectively employed. capable of repairing minor leaks and re-
placing short sections of pipeline that have
Tactical situation, terrain difficulty, and been damaged. However, the operating unit
required supporting construction will deter- will need engineer support to make repairs
mine how the construction will be carried out. beyond its capability, for instance, on buried
The joining of pipeline elements is likely to be pipe or pipe that is in an inaccessible location.
a short end phase, with longer earlier phases
in which the battalion works in a decen- Safety is extremely important when dealing
tralized fashion. with pipeline breaks and leaks. Spilled fuel
must be contained to reduce the fire hazard
As the pipeline is assembled, certain sections and to prevent contamination of water sup-
will have to be tested carefully to make sure plies. Absolute control of all flame- or spark-
they are absolutely leak-proof. Any section of generating equipment or material within or
pipe that cannot be visually inspected or is near the work is vital.
not readily accessible must meet this cri-
RESPONSIBILITIES 93
PLANNING 93
ENGINEER CAPABILITIES 96
92 WATER SUPPLY
FM 5-104
RESPONSIBILITIES
The Theater Army Commander is responsible selves or carry sufficient water with them
for the control and distribution of water to US until engineers, quartermaster water units,
Army forces, to other US services, and, as and supply and services (S&S) elements can
required, to allied support elements. The establish water operations. Divisional engi-
Theater Army Deputy Chief of Staff for neer units moving with the combat units can
Logistics (TADCSLOG) has the overall re- provide important information about surface
sponsibility for developing the water distri- water sources and existing wells in the area
bution plan for the theater and supervising of operation. This information is useful for
the TA Commander’s priorities and alloca- supplementing maps and other existing data.
tion procedures. When operations are conducted in an arid
environment, it is particularly important that
The senior ENCOM headquarters and its all water sources are located and secured.
subordinate engineer organizations are re- Engineer terrain analysis teams and the
sponsible for the detection of subsurface water detection response team can provide
water, well drilling, construction, and repair valuable information about where to look for
and maintenance (excluding organizational water sources.
maintenance) of support facilities. Engineers
are responsible for construction and mainte- If sufficient water sources are not available
nance of semipermanent and permanent in the contingency area, water may be
water utilities at Army fixed installations. imported from third country supply bases
Management of water utilities at fixed instal- (TCSB) or from CONUS. Engineers will pro-
lations is accomplished by facilities vide construction support to assist in the
engineers. unloading of water. Engineers can provide
pier and wharf construction and potable
Logistical and civil affairs personnel or HNS, water pipeline construction capability to the
if available, operate and perform organiza- force in order to move water forward into the
tional maintenance on semipermanent and corps area.
permanent water purification utilities at fixed
installations. The logistics organizations are In a fully developed contingency area, water
responsible for the management, control, should be distributed by hose line and pipe-
purification, storage, and distribution of line. Engineer units will assist water supply
water, including organizational maintenance units by providing pipeline construction and
of water equipment. maintenance and repair beyond the water
unit’s organic capability.
Military units deployed in a contingency
area must initially secure water for them-
PLANNING
In developed areas, existing water sources the tactical situation, and the commander’s
and distribution systems are used to provide plans.
field water supply. In undeveloped areas and
forward of the COMMZ in developed theaters, Initially existing developed and surface
water supply points are established as far sources are used before ground water re-
forward as possible, given the locations of sources are tapped. The employment of NBC
available water sources, consuming units, munitions can contaminate surface water
WATER SUPPLY 93
FM 5-104
supplies over a wide area. Subsurface water brigades or higher levels or organizations.
supplies are unlikely to be contaminated at The purpose of well drilling is to supplement
first. Earth and rock layers are effective in existing water sources, reduce logistical dis-
diminishing contamination. In an NBC tances, and to avoid the use of contaminated
emergency, it may be necessary to use a water supplies. In arid regions, wells may
subsurface water supply. sustain the force after the initial lodgement
phase of operations.
WELL DRILLING
As a contingency, well drilling operations ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
should be planned to meet an NBC threat. In ON PLANNING
general, wells will be established to provide Environmental conditions determine the
water to forces in a new Theater of Opera- location of water sources and how much
tions, to forward units in a mature theater, water is needed for subsistence. The chart
and to forces that occupy permanent or semi- shows the characteristic advantages and
permanent fixed Army installations in a disadvantages associated with supplying and
mature Theater of Operations. Wells are using water in a variety of climatic condi-
located and drilled in secure support areas of tions.
TEMPERATE REGIONS
Advantages Disadvantages
Abundant resources Surface sources easily contami-
Ž Lakes nated by NBC munitions.
Ž Streams
Ž Rivers Natural contamination possible
Ž Existing wells by organics, disease-bearing
Ž Local water Systems. organisms, and inorganic salt.
94 WATER SUPPLY
FM 5-104
TROPICAL REGIONS
Advantages Disadvantages
Water resources available but Surface sources easily contami-
more scattered nated by NBC munitions.
Ž Lakes
Ž Streams Dense vegetation may make
Ž Rivers access difficult.
Ž Existing wells
Ž Local water systems. Increase of natural contamina-
tion.
Water sources can be pur-
ified at small unit level. Presence of waterborne diseases and
parasites capable of transmitting
disease may make water unsuitable
for bathing and laundry use until
disinfected.
FRIGID CLIMATES
Advantages Disadvantages
Water resources may be abun- Increased consumption to pre-
dant, but frozen vent dehydration.
Ž Lakes
Ž Rivers Water purification, storage,
Ž Streams and distribution system must
Ž Existing wells. be protected from freezing.
WATER SUPPLY 95
FM 5-104
ARID REGIONS
Advantages Disadvantages
None. Surface fresh water almost
nonexistent.
ENGINEER CAPABILITIES
The versatility of the engineer battalions ENGINEER BATTALIONS
combined with the special capabilities of Engineer battalions are employed in general
certain engineer companies and teams makes support (GS) to the logistics units involved in
the engineer force an especially valuable purification, storage, and distribution of
asset to the TA Commander. The Engineer water. Expected tasks include the following:
Combat Heavy Battalion is best suited for
the general engineer support tasks associated Ž Develop water points by creating ponds
with water distribution. The Combat Engi- and lakes across streams, deepening and
neer Battalion may be assigned certain tasks; reinforcing existing water collection areas.
however, this unit’s construction capabilities
are limited. Ž Provide drainage to prevent contamination
of water sources from storm runoff.
Specialized engineer companies and teams
augment the engineer battalions’ capabilities Ž Construct physical protection structures
for certain projects. The Engineer Port Con- for water sources.
struction Company may be employed for
those tasks associated with waterfront con- Ž Construct and improve roads from water
struction and construction over the water. points and well sites to MSRs.
The Engineer Pipeline Construction Support
Company augments the engineer battalion Ž Maintain, repair, and construct semi-
with specialized skills and technical advice permanent and permanent water utilities
for the construction, repair, and maintenance at Army fixed installations.
of water pipelines and rigid storage tanks.
The Terrain Analysis Team can provide Ž Repair and construct water storage and
valuable assistance for determining the pre- distribution systems in arid environments.
cise location for water wells. Water wells are
drilled by engineer water well drilling teams.
96 WATER SUPPLY
FM 5-104
These tasks are general and all engineer available. These allow the pipeline to be
battalions are capable of carrying them out adapted to any situation.
to some degree. The Combat Heavy Engineer
Battalion has a greater capability for con- The material used for water distribution
ducting these tasks than the Combat Engi- systems is the same material which may
neer Battalion. later be used for a POL distribution system.
Ž Assist water purification companies with The Engineer Pipeline Construction Com-
the site preparation and installation of pany is capable of—
reverse osmosis water purification units
(ROWPUs). Ž Constructing short pipelines.
The standard pipe is either 6-inch or 8-inch Ž Providing technical assistance or inde-
aluminum, connected by mechanical coup- pendently erecting steel tanks for water
lings. The water is moved through the pipe by storage.
pumps, positioned along the line by the
hydraulic design requirements. Standard Ž Conducting route survey for pipelines.
accessories (valves, bends, manifolds) are
WATER SUPPLY 97
FM 5-104
ENGINEER TERRAIN
ANALYSIS TEAMS In general, each well drilling team can
Engineer Terrain Analysis Teams are complete two wells in approximately three
assigned to the topographic engineer bat- and one half days. Two wells can support one
talion in support of the TA command. The quartermaster water supply point. Material
ENCOM Terrain Analysis Teams may be sufficient to complete two wells per team is
attached to the corps or the division as the unit’s standard load. The teams are not
required. Terrain Analysis Teams acquire logistically self-sufficient. They are incapable
terrain data from existing data bases or from of providing their own security. The teams
physical reconnaissance. They use this in- are dependent on supporting units to clear a
formation to prepare map overlays and drilling site and excavate mud pits. A water
reports needed to locate potential water source must be provided to allow drilling to
sources. begin.
98 WATER SUPPLY
FM 5-104
WATER SUPPLY 99
Chapter 12
REAL ESTATE
OBJECTIVES 101
PLANNING 104
OBJECTIVES
The efficient conduct of real estate activities Ž Protect the United States and its allies
depends largely on a command-wide under- against unjust and unreasonable claims
standing of the objectives of the real estate and charges for using, renting, or leasing
program in overseas commands. These real or personal property.
objectives are:
Ž Provide reasonable compensation to in-
Ž Acquire and administer real property dividuals or agencies for the use of real
essential to the mission. property, except when such property is
located in a combat zone or in enemy
Ž Acquire and use existing facilities in order territory.
to keep new construction to a minimum.
Ž Plan, execute, and analyze real estate THEATER ARMY (TA) COMMANDER
operations in accordance with pertinent If the TA commander is assigned responsi-
directives, policies, and regulations. bility for theater real estate operations, all or
part of this responsibility may be redelegated
Ž Prepare budget estimates and justifica- to the Communications Zone Commander.
tions, as directed. The TA commander often retains control of
real estate in the combat zone, redelegating
Ž Prepare and submit real estate reports, as responsibility for rear areas only.
directed.
THEATER ENGINEER
Ž Conduct utilization inspection in accor- The theater engineer operates and manages
dance with instructions and criteria fur- real estate and property acquisition, mainte-
nished by the Chief of Engineers. nance, and disposal functions. A suggested
organization of a theater engineer’s real all services by the theater engineer. When the
estate division is shown below. The duties of commander of another service is responsible
this division include: for real estate activities, only the appropriate
duties for the Army command are performed
Ž Furnish technical real estate guidance and by the theater engineer.
advice to the theater commander, staff,
and all echelons of the theater command. SUBORDINATE COMMAND
ENGINEERS
Ž Recommend real estate policies and opera- Engineers of commands below the theater
tion procedures to the theater logistics engineer are responsible for furnishing tech-
officer. nical real estate guidance to the commanders,
staffs, and subordinate echelon of the com-
Ž With approval by the theater logistics mands. They handle such other real estate
officer, prepare, coordinate, distribute, and duties as may be assigned or subdelegated to
exercise staff supervision over the execu- them by the TA commander.
tion of theater real estate directives.
ARMY ENGINEER
Ž Acquire, manage, dispose of, pay rents and REAL ESTATE TEAMS
damages for, handle claims, and prepare Army Engineer Real Estate (AERE) teams
records and reports for real estate used are responsible to the Area Support Com-
within the Theater of Operations. mand (ASC) and conduct real estate opera-
tions within their assigned areas in accor-
Ž Maintain a theater real estate office. dance with directives, instructions, and
standing operating procedures. Their duties
Ž Prepare long-range real estate plans and include—
requirements.
Ž Acquire, manage, and dispose of real
Ž Use existing facilities as much as possible estate.
to reduce the need for new construction.
Ž Investigate, process, and settle real estate
Ž Exercise staff supervision over the real claims.
estate operations of subordinate
commands. Ž Conduct utilization inspections.
PLANNING
Real estate operations plans are based on participate in all planning activities. In addi-
directives or instructions issued to the theater tion to plans for real estate operations during
commander by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or by hostilities, consideration should be given to
the service commander appointed executive real estate requirements for the occupation
agent for the JCS. Other policies are estab- period after hostilities cease.
lished by the theater commander based upon
directives and instructions issued by the Qualified personnel are essential to the
JCS. handling of real estate responsibilities, since
such activities can have major consequences
Real estate planning must be initiated in the in relations between US forces and the host
preparatory phases of a campaign by a plan- nation. Military legal officers and civilian
ning group that includes the theater general lawyers familiar with the laws of countries
staff and representatives of all service com- within the Theater of Operations should
manders. The agency that will handle theater assist the planning group with advice and
real estate operations when the campaign technical review of proposed real estate poli-
begins is organized at this time, and should cies and procedures.
PROPERTY ACQUISITION
In the active combat zone, real estate required damage resulting from acts of war or caused
by US forces is acquired by seizure or requisi- by ordinary military wear and tear.
tion, without formal documentation. Seizure
is resorted to only when it is justified by Outside the active combat zone, property is
urgent military necessity, and only with the acquired only by requisition, and all trans-
approval of the commander who has area actions are documented thoroughly under
responsibility. Host nation property may be the applicable provisions of theater direc-
occupied without documentation to the extent tives. Large tracts of real estate are required
that tactical operations dictate, and in ac- for ports, staging areas, training and ma-
cordance with US\host nation agreements. neuver areas, leave centers, supply depots,
and headquarters installations. Some of this
Normally, property is obtained through property may be highly developed and have
requisition, which is a demand upon the considerable value to the civilian population.
owner of the property or the owner’s repre- Procedures must provide the property re-
sentative. No rent or other compensation is quired while ensuring that the legal rights of
paid for requisitioned or seized property in owners are protected.
the combat zone either for its use or for
EXISTING FACILITIES
Existing facilities should be used whenever evict and resettle any civilians from property
they are available. The advantages of using requisitioned by the military forces. Only in
existing facilities are— the most urgent circumstances, or upon
refusal of local authorities to act, will eviction
Ž Swift occupation by military activities. be handled by the Army.
FACILITY CONSTRUCTION
New construction in the Theater of Opera- plishment of the overall mission, where no
tions is normally limited to facilities that are existing facility meets the criteria.
vital—as defined in Chapter l—to the accom-
RESPONSIBILITIES 108
PLANNING 108
RESPONSIBILITIES
Real Property Maintenance Activities are (ENCOM) at Theater Army (TA) level gives
administered in the COMMZ by the Theater overall supervision and technical assistance.
Army Area Command (TAACOM) through Administration of RPMA forward of the corps
its subordinate Area Support Groups (ASGs). rear boundary is a corps responsibility.
Support for RPMA is provided on an area Command relationships in the TA are de-
basis to all installations, organic activities, scribed in FM 100-16.
and tenant units. The Engineer Command
PLANNING
The ENCOM and the responsible engineer or alterations on existing structures must
staff must consider current and anticipated include estimates for labor and materials.
RPMA requirements for their area of opera- Planners may use estimating sources such as
tions. This will include— the Engineering Performance Standards
(EPS) or a commercial estimating guide such
Ž Maintenance and repair in the COMMZ. as the Means Estimating Guide.
OPERATION OF UTILITIES
In the Theater of Operations, the operation Since utilities systems must be reliable,
and maintenance or upgrade of existing util- measures should be taken to ensure their
ities as well as the construction, operation, correct operation and to provide increased
and maintenance of new utilities systems security if the situation warrants. Such
may be an engineer responsibility. Utilities measures include controlled access, con-
systems include electrical generating and tinuous inspection, and adequate security
distribution systems, waste water collection personnel.
and treatment systems, and other special
utilities systems such as cooling and refrig- POWER GENERATION AND
eration, compressed air, and heating systems. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Operating these systems requires specially If existing electrical generating and distri-
trained personnel. They may be available bution systems are substandard or inade-
through the ENCOM, trained locally, or hired quate for military requirements, either they
from the local work force. will have to be upgraded or new systems
installed. Army Regulation 420-43, TM 5-683, As with all AFCS design in the Theater of
and TM 5-684 give detailed guidance on Operations, the standard of construction for
installation, maintenance, and repair of waste water systems will be nonpermanent,
electrical generation and distribution sys- and designed to require minimum mainte-
tems. Electrical supply in the Theater of nance during the limited time anticipated for
Operations can be accomplished in phases. the period of occupation. Locally-available
Portable generating sets can supply mini- materials may be used if approved by the TA
mum power requirements until fixed genera- Engineer. Engineers will perform RPMA and
tion and distribution systems are installed. operate the system as directed by the TA
engineer.
WASTE WATER COLLECTION
AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS OPERATION OF OTHER
Large troop concentrations at fixed facilities UTILITIES SYSTEMS
generate requirements for sewage and waste In some areas, other types of central utilities
water collection and treatment. When systems may have to be operated by theater
existing fixed facilities are occupied, they forces. These systems include heating,
usually include waste water systems. How- cooling, or refrigeration. Often, existing
ever, these may not be operational or suitable facilities will have utility equipment that
for use by military forces. These systems must be repaired and/or maintained if it is to
should be operated, maintained, and repaired be operated. Responsibility for this work will
by engineer elements or qualified indigenous be directed by the TA engineer.
personnel. Construction, operation, mainte-
nance, and repair of adequate sewage dis- Local, portable, or unit systems such as
posal systems are described in AR 420-46, stoves and portable refrigeration units will
TM 5-665, and TM 5-666. be maintained, repaired, and operated by the
using unit. Central utility systems such as
Field sanitation measures, such as pit latrines steam plants, cold storage warehouses, or
and grease sumps, or portable chemical toilets cooling plants are usually maintained by
and waste treatment plants, may be used engineers. Where existing facilities are used,
temporarily until fixed facilities are com- these systems may also be maintained by
pleted and in operation. ENCOM assets.
Much short-term maintenance and repair When major repairs are required, the engineer
work can be performed by local troops or- unit assigned to the ASG, augmented when
ganized into self-help teams. These teams necessary with assets from the ENCOM,
makes repairs according to priorities given accomplish the work. If the program is exten-
by the TA engineer. Generally, the priorities sive or long term, the unit commander should
are scheduled based on the impact the work coordinate with the TA engineer to initiate a
has on the mission. continuing facility engineer operation at the
facility or installation. The facility engineer
After immediate and ongoing maintenance will then coordinate all requirements and
and repair requirements are determined, a resources needed to accomplish the mission.
repair and maintenance program will be Further guidance on facilities maintenance
established using self help and supporting and repair may be found in AR 420-22, AR
engineer assets and/or local personnel to 420-70, TM 5-610, and DA Pam 738-570.
Refuse disposal in the Theater of Operations Besides burning, other methods of reducing
is usually accomplished by landfilling, the volume of refuse are compaction and
burning, or removal from the area. Land- selective disposal. Selective disposal is the
filling requires a suitable area and equipment separation of certain types of refuse, such as
wood or metal, from the refuse to be buried. resources available to perform the work, the
The separated material is then stored or area where the facility will be located, the
reused. Compaction is accomplished with situation, and environmental aspects of the
specialized equipment for collecting and area.
compacting refuse before it is dumped into
the landfill. At the landfill site, special mobile Special consideration should be given to
compaction equipment may be used to reduce hazardous waste, especially waste products
the volume of the refuse before it is covered. generated by medical facilities and mainte-
Other compaction and refuse handling tech- nance operations. Every attempt should be
niques include compacting and baling refuse made to dispose of hazardous waste in
for burial or removal from the area. accordance with appropriate regulations.
Improper disposal of such products may cause
Refuse collection and disposal techniques serious illness or death to those who operate
depend on the volume of refuse to be gener- landfills or cause irreversible damage to the
ated, the duration of facility occupation, the environment.
presence of existing collection facilities, the
Forces in the rear area can defeat the Threat and overcome
natural or man-made disasters. They can continue to support
forward forces by applying the principles and objectives of rear
area protection (RAP). Rear area protection operations include
Rear Area Combat Operations (RACO) and ADC operations.
Rear Area Combat Operations include actions taken to neutralize
or destroy enemy forces in the rear area. These operations are
conducted by any combination of individual units, base defense
forces Military Police (MP) response forces, and tactical combat
forces (TCF). They are discussed in FMs 100-10, 100-15, and
100-16.
MISSION ORGANIZATION
Area Damage Control operations increase as neer elements. Where no previous HN agree-
the Theater of Operations evolves from a ments exist, civil affairs elements will
contingency operation to a fully developed negotiate with local authorities and the
theater with extensive support facilities in private sector to secure engineer assistance
the COMMZ. Initial phases of a contingency should the need arise. Rear Area Combat
operation characteristically maximize com- Operations may be introduced into the con-
bat power while keeping support elements tingency operations, depending on the size of
and facilities at a minimum. Airlift and the force conducting the operation and the
sealift assets are heavily relied upon for rapid control the commander wants to exercise
deployment, reinforcement, and resupply. over RAP operations.
However, for an extended operation, the key
to success in generating maximum combat REAR AREA OPERATIONS
power is to secure a lodgement area or provide At each echelon, brigade and above, a RAP
a base for rapid buildup. The decision of the officer is assigned to ensure that units prepare
commander to introduce combat support (CS) for and conduct RAP operations in accor-
and combat service support (CSS) units into dance with command priorities. At division
the lodgment area depends upon how secure level and above, a Rear Area Operations
the units can be made. Support bases may be Center (RAOC) is organized to assist the
forced to operate from ships or a third country. RAP officer by controlling the rear area
battle at each echelon. The RAOC provides
If the contingency operation is in support of the G3/Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations
an allied nation and valid agreements and (DCSOPS) with operational planning and
support will ensure security of forces in the support to fight the rear area battle. Base
rear area, the host nation may provide ADC defense liaison teams (BDLT) are assigned to
support for the force. In many cases, this each RAOC to coordinate base defense and
support may consist only of unskilled labor. conduct liaison as directed by the RAOC, as
Expertise must be supplied by organic engi- shown on the following page.
with the RAOC operations section to develop Centralized control of ADC assets must be
alternative plans for incidents where exten- maintained within the ADC section to permit
sive damage cannot be resolved. The ADC overall analysis of their capability and to
section provides information on the location prevent piecemeal application of critical
and extent of damage to the RAOC for the assets. Execution of ADC is decentralized to
tasking of engineer assets. These missions do the lowest level. When ADC requirements
not involve dedicated support, but rather exceed base or base cluster assets, the RAOC
unit-type missions which can be performed responds with engineer assets to alleviate the
by units with ADC-related capability as problem or initiate action. Their goal is to
sufficient assets become available. isolate the damage and to reduce its effects on
other supporting units.
ADC RESPONSIBILITIES
The destruction from modern weapons may When preparations have been made, the ADC
be so widespread that only essential functions unit coordinates and rehearses ADC plans
can possibly receive priority assistance from and Standing Operating Procedures (SOPs).
external sources. Accordingly, damage The unit also organizes, equips, and trains
assessment reports and requests for external personnel and units for ADC operations.
ADC assistance must be concise. They must Finally, the unit identifies food, water, and
address only mission-essential functions. other critical supplies such as medicine for
Nuclear attacks so reduce communications emergency distribution.
that commanders must plan and establish
alternate means for reporting damage and The RAOC will assist in the operational and
coordinating recovery and restoration efforts. technical planning for and coordination of
External ADC support is provided as assets special ADC assistance, such as external
become available. engineer support. Each base defense plan
will contain an ADC plan to provide a pre-
ADC UNITS coordinated, decentralized response using
Area Damage Control Units designate organic assets. Priorities of engineer and
responsibilities for ADC operations and other external support for ADC assistance
establish ADC priorities. It is their duty to will be based upon the degree of exposure of a
establish communications and warning pro- base or unit and its importance to the main
cedures, and maintain a personnel roster for battle effort.
each facility or activity to expedite casualty
rescue or search operations. The ADC unit ADC command duties
prepares an analysis of the vulnerability of a Unit and base commanders must be prepared
facility or unit in relation to its importance as to plan for ADC operations by establishing,
a target. It may plan to disperse and harden planning, and executing a damage control
facilities and units to reduce the possibility of plan. It will be their job to supervise and
extensive damage. The unit also designates execute recovery, repair, and reconstitution
alternate operational sites or alert areas, and plans in case of enemy attack, natural
conducts an ADC capabilities analysis. See disaster, or accident. Commanders must
FM 5-100, Appendix D. organize, train, and equip damage control
teams for fire fighting, medical support, NBC
accomplishment of the mission. Particular sion routes may need to be cleared or repaired.
care should be taken to avoid further injuring These operations will generally require the
buried survivors. Unexploded ordnance may use of heavy equipment.
be located in the debris. Depending upon the
acceptable risk of further damage and delay Facility repair
in completing the cleanup, engineers may be A wide variety of tasks may be needed to
required to explode the ordnance in place or repair facilities. Reference should be made to
mark it for neutralization by EOD personnel. applicable chapters in this manual. Within a
Controlled dumping areas and routes to them given echelon or area, priority of facility
must be designated for the clearance. repair will generally follow guidelines dis-
cussed in the section on repair priorities
Fire protection service (page 118).
Individual units and bases will be expected to
conduct their own rudimentary fire fighting Flood damage control
operations. The base defense liaison team Engineer equipment and expertise may be
may be able to coordinate for host nation required to construct or repair dikes, levees,
support. When available, engineer fire and drainage channels. Storm sewers may
fighting teams may be responsible for pro- require clearing and reconstruction. Filler
viding fire protection to facilities. Other material for sandbags will be needed and
engineer elements may assist in containing may need to be transported to work sites. In
fires by providing manpower and heavy and severely flooded areas, temporary work plat-
light equipment. If the fire is too extensive, it forms and ferries may be constructed with
can be limited by firebreaks using engineer float bridging equipment. Search and rescue
equipment and explosives. Knowledge of missions may be required by engineer bridge
existing stores of flammables, explosives, boat crews.
and gas lines is imperative to the prevention
of further damage. Tree blowdown clearance
Tree blowdown may occur for a variety of
Power production and restoration reasons, including nuclear strike, conven-
Repair of local power production equipment tional bombing or explosives, and natural
is an extremely technical task and may re- disasters. The most extensive and hazardous
quire local assistance. When available, engi- cleanup will result from nuclear strikes. Pre-
neer electrician teams may provide assistance cautions must be taken to protect work crews.
in repair of in-place equipment, or may be Continuous monitoring for radiation and
required to install a backup system if damage accurate personnel exposure rosters must be
is too extensive. Rights of way for transmis- maintained.
SUPPORT OF LARGE-SCALE
DECONTAMINATION OPERATIONS
On the AirLand battlefield, enemy forces for and carry out their own decontamination
may employ NBC weapons. Combat opera- operations. However, they will perform hasty
tions may also be carried into areas pre- decontamination only, so that they can
viously struck by these weapons. It is the accomplish their immediate assigned mis-
responsibility of all combat, combat support, sions (FM 3-5, FM 3-100).
and combat service support units to prepare
For deliberate and complete decontamination ity will enhance the efficiency of units in the
of personnel and equipment of large units, it following ways:
may be necessary to establish permanent
decontamination sites within the Theater of Ž Reduce the risk of further injury to troops
Operations. These sites will allow large-scale, and civilians.
move-through decontamination operations
in support of fixed facilities or in unit restor- Ž Control vapor and runoff hazards.
ation and reconstitution operations from the
COMMZ forward to the division rear. The Ž Provide a standard, rapidly operating,
services of a planned decontamination facil- efficient, fixed facility.
DECONTAMINATION RESPONSIBILITIES
DECONTAMINATION UNITS Engineers may assist the NBC reconnais-
Fixed decontamination sites are operated by sance element in reconnaissance and selec-
specially trained and equipped decontamina- tion of the decontamination site (FM 3-5).
tion units assigned to the corps or Theater Final selection is the responsibility of the
levels. Such units have overall responsibility unit command, with assistance from the
for planning, site preparation, operation, and NBC unit. However, engineers may provide
post-operation activities for the decontami- advice and assistance on site selection,
nation site. They require considerable aug- preparation, and maintenance, water supply,
mentation from using and supporting units. setup and shutdown operations, and decon-
Support on a semipermanent basis is also tamination operations.
required for administration and food service,
equipment maintenance, transportation and Site selection
supply, and engineering support (FM 3-5). Final selection of a fixed decontamination
site is the responsibility of the local com-
ENGINEER SUPPORT mander, usually assisted by the NBC unit in
Engineers tasked to support a large scale charge. The engineer unit commander, how-
decontamination operation can expect to be ever, should be aware of requirements for
assigned to the tasks and responsibilities such an area (FM 3-5). A fixed decontami-
described below. nation site should be easily accessible but out
of contamination range of populated areas. It
Route reconnaissance should be large enough to accommodate
Perform route reconnaissance from the battle planned operations, and have drainage and
area or the installation to the decontamina- soil characteristics favorable for operations
tion site. Route selection will be coordinated and storage of contaminated materials. Water
with the NBC unit that has overall responsi- is an integral part of the decontamination
bility for the decontamination site. One process. Though nonpotable water is used, it
alternate route should be chosen if possible, must be available and uncontaminated in
to avoid unnecessary decontamination of the sufficient quantities or the decontamination
MSR and other LOCs. Any access routes to operation will cease to function. The site
the decontamination site should be a safe should also be favorable for camouflage and
distance from uncontaminated civilian and concealment.
military areas. Final selection of the routes to
the decontamination site is the responsibility
of the area commander.
Assistance in area
decontamination operations mentation from engineers and other sup-
Decontamination of roads, bridges, struc- porting units. Responsible NBC units will
tures, and selected areas of terrain is a long determine requirements for area decontami-
and arduous task requiring extensive aug- nation (FM 3-5).
The site should be located near waste collec- of waste products, including edible and
tion facilities that can handle large volumes contaminated solids.
Principles of phased construction will be ground water supply, thus potentially ex-
enforced. Lower priority complementary posing patients and staff to infections.
facilities may include a helicopter landing
site, waste collection facilities, motor pools, FACILITY PROTECTION
laundry, vehicle parking, supply receiving Precautionary measures taken to prevent or
and shipping facilities, and recreation areas. minimize damage as a result of natural
Even though waste collection facilities have disaster, accidents, and enemy activity are
low priority at the initial planning phase, the specified in the area damage control (ADC)
importance of this facility increases in direct plan. Medical treatment facilities should not
proportion to the intensity and duration of be located immediately adjacent to potential
the conflict, since vast amounts of contami- tactical targets such as airfields, ammunition
nated waste may be generated. Expedient storage and supply facilities, POL storage,
methods for disposing of contaminated waste and major bridges. When the facility must lie
products must be considered during the initial within an established defensive perimeter, it
stages of planning. Such efforts must be should be located away from the perimeter,
designed to avoid any possibility of contami- and at a distance from critical targets.
nating ground water supplies. Expedient
methods, whether they are landfill operations The decision to camouflage a hospital or
or incinerators, should be planned and lo- display the Red Cross emblem rests with the
cated so that they enhance the operations of tactical commander. All protection afforded
the medical facilities. These methods should medical units under the Geneva Wounded
also be planned for the semifixed facilities and Sick Convention of 1949 is compromised
such as EVACs, CSHs, and MASHs to pre- when medical treatment facilities are camou-
vent them from contaminating their own flaged.
Ž Potential threat from the EPW population located on a local topographic high point,
to logistical support operations in the with free draining subgrade soil. This will
proposed location. serve to minimize earth moving requirements
for drainage. Greater sanitary precautions
Ž Threat and boldness of guerrilla activity must be taken when working with high water
in the area. tables or swamp-like environments. Planners
should also assure a potable water supply, a
Ž Attitude of the local civilian population. sewage system, an available electrical power
supply, and nearby supplies of construction
Ž Attitude of the EPWs. materials. If possible, existing structures
should be used to minimize new construction.
Ž Accessibility of the facility to support
forces and transportation to the site for Types of internment facilities
support elements. Within the COMMZ, EPW internment facil-
ities are classified as EPW camps or EPW
Ž Proximity to probable target areas (for branch camps. The EPW camp is generally
example, airfields, ammunition storage.) semipermanent construction and is composed
of one to eight 500-person enclosures. The
Engineer participation in managing EPW EPW branch camp is a subsidiary camp of a
activities includes providing construction designated EPW camp. It is established to
support for building or renovating internment meet a specific EPW labor requirement and
facilities, and employing EPW labor in engi- facilitates the accomplishment of a particular
neer tasks where appropriate. work need. As with any Theater of Operations
construction, existing facilities that can be
FACILITIES used directly or modified with a justifiable
Enemy prisoners of war must be lodged in effort are preferable to new construction.
buildings or barracks which are dry, heated,
lighted, and protected from fire. Minimum New construction
dormitory area and air-space requirements Construction standards, bills of material,
are the same as for troops at base camps. and estimates of man-hours of construction
Enemy prisoners of war must have constantly effort are contained in the Army Facilities
at their disposal installations conforming to Components System (TMs 5-301, 5-302, and
sanitary rules, including the best practicable 5-303). If facilities must be built, they are to be
provisions for baths and showers. They must built to temporary standards. For economy in
be allowed to take physical exercise and to area and fencing, buildings are best grouped
enjoy the fresh air. Sexes must be segregated. in the center of the enclosure. Space between
the buildings and the deadline fences may be
Site selection used for open air and exercise area.
Prisoner of war internment facilities must be
planned soon enough in a contingency Engineer support to the construction of EPW
operation to provide for timely site selection facilities may include—
and development. Construction materials
must be procured and construction initiated Ž Install security fencing/obstacles, light-
promptly. Construction should be planned to ing, and towers.
maintain a standby capability for the accep-
tance of additional EPWs. The site should be Ž Create a vegetation-clear zone.
Ž Construct patrol roads adjacent to or out- Prisoners of war should be used to the maxi-
side of the facility. mum extent for all work necessary in the
administration, management, construction,
Ž Construct EPW camp barracks, dispen- and maintenance of EPW camps and
sary, mess, and baths and latrines, with facilities.
related water and power facilities.
The following guidelines apply to the use of
PRISONER OF WAR LABOR EPW labor:
Prisoners of war constitute a significant
potential supply of both skilled and unskilled Ž The EPW may not be retained or employed
labor. Prisoners of war may possess in an area subject to hostile fire in the
engineer-related labor skills. The camp combat zone. This generally precludes use
commander can assure the best employment of EPWs forward of the COMMZ.
for each EPW by establishing and main-
taining occupational skill records. Approval Ž The EPW may volunteer, but may not be
for work on a project is obtained through compelled to transport or handle stores, or
operations channels from PERSCOM. Use of to engage in public works and building
EPW labor assumes a non-hostile attitude on operations which have a military character
the part of the EPWs. The commander, in or purpose.
deciding to use EPW labor, must weigh how
essential the required work is against the Ž The EPW may not be employed in labor
personnel (security and support) and logis- considered to be injurious to health or
tical effort required to provide the EPW labor. dangerous because of the inherent nature
Generally, the significant effort required to of the work.
manage EPW labor means that EPWs are
only used in the absence of qualified local Ž The EPW may not be assigned to perform
labor or contractors, or when the commander work considered as humiliating or de-
determines that military engineers are not grading. This would not include any tasks
available or must be employed elsewhere. required for the administration or mainte-
nance of the EPW camp itself.
Glossary
ABN/AMBL Airborne/Airmobile
ACS Assistant Chief of Staff
ADA Air defense artillery
ADC Area Damage Control
Admin Administration
ADP Automatic data processing
ADR Airfield Damage Repair
AERE Army Engineer Real Estate
AF Air Force
AFCS Army Facilities Components System
AFM Air Force Manual
AFR Air Force Regulation
AMB Ambulance
AOS Aircraft operating surfaces
AR Army Regulation
AREA American Railway Engineering Association
ASC Area Support Command
ASG Area Support Group
ASP Ammunition supply point
ATP Ammunition transfer point
AVLB Armored vehicle launched bridge
BCOC Base Cluster Operation Center
BDE Brigade
BDOC Base Defense Operation Center
BDLT Base Defense Liaison Teams
BN Battalion
BOM Bill of material
CBT ENGR Combat Engineer
CESP Civil Engineer Support Plan
CMO Civil-military operations
CO Company
COMMZ Communications zone
CONUS Continental United States
CS Combat Support
CSA Combat Storage Area
CSH Combat Support Hospital
CSS Combat Service Support
DCSOPS Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations
DIV Division
ENCOM Engineer Command
ENGR Engineer
EOD Explosive Ordnance Disposal
EPS Engineering Performance Standards
EPW Enemy Prisoner of War
EVAC Evacuation Hospital
FC Field Circular
FCZ Forward Combat Zone
FLOT Forward line of troops
FM Field Manual
FSSP Fuel System Supply Point
FT Foot, feet
GA General of the Army
GS General Support
HN Host Nation
HNS Host Nation Support
HP Horsepower
HQ Headquarters
IN Inch, inches
IPDS Inland Petroleum Distribution System
JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff
JI Joint Intelligence
JPO Joint Petroleum Office
KG Kilogram, kilograms
LB Pound, pounds
LCM Landing Craft Mechanized
LI Logistices installation
LOCs Lines of Communication
LOTS Logistsics over the shore
GLOSSARY 1
FM 5-104
M Meter, meters
MAINT Maintenance
MASH Mobile Army surgical hospital
MEDCEN US Army Medical Center
MEDDAC Medical Department Activity
METT-T Mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time
MGI Military Geographic Information
MHE Materials handling equipment
MLC Military load classification
MOPP Mission oriented protection posture
MOS Minimum operating strip
MP Military Police
MSR Main Supply Route
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NAVAIDS Navigation Aids
NBC Nuclear, biological, chemical
OCE Office of the Chief of Engineers
OPCON Operational control
OPDS Offshore Petroleum Distribution System
OPLAN Operations Plan
OPN Operations
PERSCOM Personnel Command
PETR OP Petroleum Pipeline and Terminal Operating
POL Petroleum, oils, and lubricants
POMCUS Prepositioned materiel configured to unit sets
QM Quartermaster
RACO Rear area combat operations
RAOC Rear Area Operations Center
RAP Rear area protection
RO/RO Roll on/roll off
ROWPU Reverse osmosis water purification unit
RPMA Real Property Maintenance Activities
RRR Rapid Runway Repair
S&S Supply and services
SCUBA Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
SEC Section
SOFA Status of Forces Agreements
SOP Standing operating procedure
STANAG Standardization Agreement
TA Theater Army
TAACOM Theater Army Area Command
TADCSLOG Theater Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics
TAENCOM Theater Army Engineer Command
TAMMC Theater Army Materiel Management Center
TAMMS Theater Army Materiel Management System
TASCOM Theater Army Support Command
TC Transportation Corps
TCF Tactical Combat Forces
TCM Theater construction manager
TCSB Third Country Supply Bases
TDA Table of Distribution and Allowances
TM Technical Manual
TOE Table of Organization and Equipment
TPFDD Time-phased force deployment plan
TPT Tactical Petroleum Terminal
TRANSCOM Transportation Command
TRANSPOR Transportation
TRS Transportation Railway Service
TSA Theater Storage Area
US United States
USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers
USAETL/TAC United States Army Engineer Topographic Laboratory/Terrain Analysis
Center
USAF United States Air Force
USMC United States Marine Corps
UXO Unexploded ordnance
W With
WDRT Water Detection Response Team
ZI Zone of the Interior
2 GLOSSARY
FM 5-104
Appendix
GENERAL ENGINEER
SUPPORT EQUIPMENT
APPENDIX 129
FM 5-104
130 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
BASIS OF ISSUE: The existing assets of the 3-, 5-, and 7-ton cranes will be
replaced by the appropriate version of the 7.5-ton crane on a one-for-one
basis.
APPENDIX 131
FM 5-104
EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT
132 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
SCOOP LOADERS
APPENDIX 133
FM 5-104
134 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
TRACTOR, FULL TRACK, LOW SPEED, MEDIUM AND HEAVY DRAWBAR PULL
APPENDIX 135
FM 5-104
136 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
HAULING EQUIPMENT
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The 2½-ton and 5-ton dump trucks are used
to tow trailers, to carry squad tools and personnel, and to haul earth, rock,
general cargo, and construction materials in support of unit missions. The
20-ton dump trucks are used where there is a large requirement for earth,
rock, and asphalt in support of major construction projects.
APPENDIX 137
FM 5-104
138 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
APPENDIX 139
FM 5-104
140 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
BASIS OF ISSUE: The truck tractors (M916 and M920) are employed at
the platoon level in essentially all engineer TOEs except ABN/AMBL. The
M917, M918, and M919 vehicles are authorized in Corps units, primarily the
Construction and Combat Support Companies and the Combat Heavy
Battalions.
APPENDIX 141
FM 5-104
THE M916
THE M917
THE M919
THE M920
142 APPENDIX
FM 5-104
References
RELATED REFERENCES
Related publications are sources of additional information. They are not
required for understanding this publication.
REFERENCES 1
FM 5-104
2 REFERENCES
FM 5-104
MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS
Air Force Troop Construction and Support of the Air Force
Regulation 90-3 Overseas
REFERENCES 3
FM 5-104
Index
This index is organized by topic and subtopic
within topic. Topics and subtopics are identified
by page number. Illustrations are shown in bold-
face type.
ADC. See Area Damage Control
ADC units
planning responsibilities, 116
resource identification by, 117
ADR. See Airfield Damage Repair
Aerial photography, 40
AFCS. See Army Facilities Components System
Aircraft
airfield approach zone requirements of, 23
combinations, 18, 19
fixed-wing, 18, 19
rotary-wing, 18
survivability enhancement of, 24
Airfield Damage Repair
Air Force capability to perform, 26
planning for, 20
priorities for tasks in, 26
specialized materials for, 26
types of damage, 25
Airfields
airfield classification system, 18
area classification of, 18
construction of, 21-24
construction standards for, 24
design of, 20
existing, adaptation of, 24-25
facilities, 20
factors in planning, 19-20
heliport classification system, 18
mission classification of, 18, 19
reconnaissance for, 22
repair. See Airfield Damage Repair
site selection, 19, 22-23
American Railway Engineering Association
(AREA), 51
Ammunition storage facilities
climate conditions and, 84
design factors in, 82-83
drainage, 82
engineer responsibility for, 82
facility protection measures, 83,
fire prevention measures, 82-84
layout of, 83
location for, 64,81-83
LOTS sites, 64
INDEX 1
FM 5-104
2 INDEX
FM 5-104
Causeways, 62
Chief of Engineers, 102
Contract labor. See Labor
Construction criteria, 3
Construction materials
asphalt, 11-12
borrow pits, 8-9
crushed rock, 10-11
locally procured, adaptation to, 8
military logistical supply of, 8
portland cement concrete, 13-14
ports, 74
quarries, 9-10
railroads, 53-54
topographical support for location of, 8
Construction procedures
airfields, phased, 21-22
pipelines, 91
ports, 71, 73-74, 76-77
railroads, 54
Containerized shipping
LOTS terminals, 63-64
ports, 66, 74-75
water depth required for, 75
Crushed rock, 10-11
Decontamination operations
decontamination units, 120
engineer support to, 120, 122
individual unit responsibility for, 119
NBC conditions, 119
site management, 120-121
DeLong pier. See Piers
DeLong pier, 73
Detours and bypasses, 47
Diver support
LOTS, 60
port operations, 69-70
Quartermaster Corps, 60
Drainage
airfields, 22, 23
ammunition storage facilities, 82
during road construction, 35
natural patterns of, 33
rail routes, 53
surface ditching system, 36
temporary measures, 35
Dust control. See Soil Stabilization
Earthmoving
airfield construction, 23
minimization of, 33
road construction, 33-34
INDEX 3
FM 5-104
4 INDEX
FM 5-104
INDEX 5
FM 5-104
6 INDEX
FM 5-104
INDEX 7
FM 5-104
8 INDEX
FM 5-104
methods, 37
LOTS sites, 62
Standard asphalt travel plant, 12
Standardization. see also Army Facilities
Components System
standard plans, 5
value of, 4
Subgrade drainage to lower water table, 35
Surfacing. See Pavement
Survey
airfields, 23
fixed bridge sites, 41
roads, 34-35
Topographic support
aerial photography as a source of, 40
bridge reconnaissance, 40
water detection, 98
Tractor, backhoe/loader JD 410, 134
Tractor, full track, low speed, medium and
heavy drawbar pull, 135
Tractor-scraper, 14 to 18 cubic yards, 136
Traffic
density, effect on railroad design, 52
double flow traffic, 29
loads on bridges, 41, 43-44
oversize and overweight loads, 43-44
single flow traffic, 29
Transportation Corps
military railroad responsibilities, 49, 51, 54
port operations responsibilities, 66-67, 70, 71
Transportation railway service
organization, 50
The 20-ton dump truck, 138
The 2½-ton dump truck, 138
Typical decontamination station, 121
Typical LOTS site, 61
Typical quarry layout, 9
INDEX 9
FM 5-104
10 INDEX
FM 5-104
12 NOVEMBER 1986
Official:
R. L. DILWORTH
Brigadier General, United States Army
The Adjutant General
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, UASR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 A, Require-
ments for General Engineering (Qty rqr block no. 750); Engineer Troop Organization and Operations
(Qty rqr block no. 18); and Engineer Construction and Construction Support Units (Qty rqr block no. 33)