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Contents
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Introduction
Salivary glands General functions of the Saliva Components of the saliva Selected immunoactive components of the saliva Lifestyle factors affecting salivary flow Effects of reduced salivary flow Oral microbiota and general health Saliva and dental caries Wound licking
Conclusion
References
Introduction
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The oral cavity is the gateway of the body to the external world and represents one of the most biologically complex and significant sites in the body (Amerongen and Veerman, 2002). Present in the oral cavity of health individuals is a watery fluid known as saliva/spittle/spit/slobber. The importance of the saliva in the mouth is more than most realize and while the digestive functions of saliva are well known and publicized, the saliva also possess considerable anti-microbial functions amongst other functions(Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010). The anti-microbial functions of saliva are quite important for healthy living.
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Salivary Glands
Saliva is secreted in glands aptly called salivary glands. Saliva is secreted by three (3) major salivary glands namely parotid, sub-mandibular and sub-lingual (Fig 1) and these secrete about 90% of the saliva in the mouth. Hundreds of minor salivary glands such as lingual, labial, buccal, palatine and glossopalatine glands, also secrete saliva and these accounts for the remaining 10% of saliva in the oral cavity. (Pedersen et al., 2002; Humphrey and Williamson, 2001; Cassolato and Turnbull, 2001).
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Fig 1: Location of salivary glands in the oral cavity Source; Britannica, 2003
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Taste Digestion
MICROOGANISMS
Bolus formation
Remineralization
Source: Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010; Amerongen and Veerman, 2002; Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998.
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Buffering components
Immunoactive components
Amylase Gustin
Carbonic anhydrase
Lysozyme Lactoferrin Mucin glycoprotein 1 and 2 (MG 1 and 2) Secretory Immunoglobulin A Cystatins Peroxidase
Statherin
Proteins Albumin
Histatines
Proline-rich proteins (PRPs)
Source: Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010; Amerongen and Veerman, 2002; Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998.
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Lactoferrin
Description: Lactoferrin (formerly known as lactotransferrin) is a glycoprotein, and a member of a transferrin family, thus belonging to those proteins capable of binding and transferring iron (Fe3+) ions (Metz-Boutique et al., 1984).
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Lactoferrin
Antimicrobial activities Bacteriostatic, bactericidal, antiviral, fungicidal, anti-inflammatory. Lactoferrin affects microorganisms which are iron dependent such as enteroinvasive E. coli HB 101, Yersinia enterocolica, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus Lactoferrin also reduces the entry of viruses such as Herpes simplex virus (Marchetti et al., 1996; Fujihara and Hayashi, 1995), cytomegaloviruses (Andersen et al., 2001), and the human immunodeficiency virus (Harmsen et al., 1995), respectively
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Lactoferrin
Immunoactivities Lactoferrin links to free iron in the saliva causing bactericidal or bacteriostatic effects on various microorganisms requiring iron for their survival (Kirkpatrick et al., 1971). Lactoferrin contribute to defense against the invasion of facultative intracellular bacteria into cells by binding both target cell membrane glycoaminoglycans and bacterial invasins, which prevents pathogen adhesion to target cells (Valenti and Antonini, 2005). Its main contribution to antiviral defense consists in its binding to cell membrane glycosaminoglycans (Amerongen and Veerman, 2002; Nikawa et al., 1993; Edgar, 1992).
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Lysozyme
Description
- Lysozyme is a single chain polypeptide of 129 amino acids cross-linked with four disulfide bridges (Jolles, 1969) and is a basic protein found in most secretions, including saliva, where it is present in high concentrations.
lysozyme originates from both the salivary gland secretions and from gingival crevicular fluid (Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010).
Salivary
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Lysozyme
Antimicrobial activities
Bactericidal
on gram positive bacteria such as species of Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Lactococcus, Aerococcus and so on. negative bacteria such as Haemophilus and Bacteroides are less susceptible due to the presence of an outer membrane and a lower proportion of peptidoglycan (Sigma, 2012).
Gram
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Lysozyme
Immunoactivities
The
natural substrate for lysozyme is the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls (Holtje, 1996). lysozyme hydrolyzes/digests the cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria by breaking the (1-4) bond between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine in peptidoglycan (Figure 4) and between N-acetyl-Dglucosamine residues in chitodextrin (Rupley, 1964; Holler, 1975).
Hence,
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Lysozyme
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Secretory Immunoglobulin A
Description - The major immunoglobulin in the salivary secretions is immunoglobulin A (IgA). This molecule is secreted as a complex with a linking chain by cells that are found close to the parotid gland. The secreted form of IgA is called secretory IgA (or S-IgA) (Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998).
S-IgA is found at all mucosal sites, such as the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and it is also present in tears and breast milk (in addition to saliva) (Humphrey and Williamson, 2001).
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Secretory Immunoglobulin A
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Secretory Immunoglobulin A
Antimicrobial activities - Bactericidal, bacteriostatic, antiviral and also neutralizes enzyme toxins.
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Secretory Immunoglobulin A
Immunoactivities The immunoactivities of S-IgA include:
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Immune Exclusion
Immune exclusion consists of limiting the penetration of antigenic materials through the mucosal epithelium. This involves the binding of SIgA antibodies with antigens, which facilitates their removal from mucosal surfaces (Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998).
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The binding of SIgA to adhesins can reduce the negative surface charge and the hydrophobicity of bacteria, thus limiting the potential for ionic and hydrophobic interactions between bacteria and host receptors (Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998).
Free in saliva, polymeric IgA effectively aggregates bacteria (Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010).
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Toxin Neutralization
SIgA can neutralize toxins by blocking their binding to cell receptors (Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998).
Glycans on S-IgA are also able to non-specifically trap bacteria (Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010).
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Viral Immunity
SIgA plays an important role in viral immunity because of its presence at the site of initial contact between virions and host cells.
A protective effect of SIgA against respiratory and enteric viral infections has been demonstrated (Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998).
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Secretory Immunoglobulin A Bacteriostatic, bactericidal, anti-viral, toxin neutralization Statherin Thrombospondin Bacteriostatic Antiviral
Source: Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010; Amerongen and Veerman, 2002; Marcotte and Lavoie, 1998.
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Some Streptococcus, Haemophilus and Neisseria species produce proteases that specifically cleave S-IgA1, disrupting functions such as complexing and clumping (Tachezy et al., 1996).
Other bacteria produce glycan hydrolysases that cleave sugar chains from mucins. This causes changes in mucin properties making them much less efficient, both in binding bacteria and in lubrication (Lamont and Jenkinson, 2010).
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Smoking;
Certain drugs and therapies; Emotional states such as anxiety, stress and fear (dry mouth phenomenon); Oral hygiene (Brosky, 2007).
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Effects of hyposalivation
Xerostomia;
Disruption Increased
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disorders;
Difficulty
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Periodontitis
Gingivitis Pharyngitis
Stomatitis
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Fig 3: Factors affecting dental caries Source: Saliva and Dental Caries, 2000
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Conclusion
Most individuals regard saliva as a nuisance and just another bodily function. However, the saliva as simple as it is may appear, represents one of the most important secretions present in the body and while we may not fully understand all its activities and interactions, we should all be grateful for such a wonderful substance and hence, take better care of our body by taking better care of our mouth.
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References
Amerongen A.V. and Veerman E. C. (2002). Saliva: The Defender of The Oral Cavity: Oral Dis. 8: 12-22.
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Andersen J.H., Osbakk S.A., Vorland L.H., Traavik T., Gutteberg T.J. (2001): Lactoferrin And Cyclic Lactoferricin Inhibit The Entry Of Human Fibroblasts. Antiviral Research, 51: 141149. Cassolato S. F. and Turnbull R. S. (2003). Xerostomia: clinical aspects and treatment. Gerodontology. 20:6477. Harmsen M.C., Swart P.J., De Bethune M.P., Pauwels R., De Clercq E., The T.H., Meijer D.K.F. (1995): Antiviral Effects Of Plasma And Milk Proteins: Lactoferrin Shows Potent Activity Against Both Human Immunodeficiency Virus And Human Cytomegalovirus Replication In Vitro. The Journal Of Infectious Diseases, 172, 380388 Humphrey SP , Williamson RT. A Review Of Saliva: Normal Composition, Flow, And Function. J Prosthet Dent. 2001; 85:162-169. Jensen SB, Pedersen AM, Reibel J, Nauntofte B. Xerostomia and hypofunction of the salivary glands in cancer therapy. 2003; 11: 207225. [12673459] Jolles, P., Angewandte Chemie, International Edition, 8, 227-239 (1969). Kirkpatrick C.H., Green I., Rich R.R., Schade A.L. (1971): Inhibition Of Growth Of Candida Albicans By Iron-Unsaturated Lactoferrin: Relation To Host-Defense Mechanisms In Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis. The Journal Of Infectious Diseases, 124, 539544. Marchetti M., Longhi C., Conte M.P., Pisani S., Valenti P., Seganti L. (1996): Lactoferrin Inhib-its Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Adsorption To Vero Cells. Antiviral Research, 29, 221231. Metz-Boutique M.H., Jolles J., Mazurier J., Schoentgen F., Legrand D., Spik G., Montreuil J., Jolles P. (1984): Human Lactotransferrin: Amino Acid Sequence And Structural Comparisons With Other Transferrins. European Journal Of Biochemistry, 145, 659676. Nikawa H, Samaranayake LP , Tenovuo J, Pang KM, Hamada T. The Fungicidal Effect Of Hu-man Lactoferrin On Candida Albicans And Candida Krusei. Arch Oral Biol. 1993;38:1057-1063. Pedersen AM, Bardow A, Jensen SB, Nauntofte B. Saliva and gastrointestinal functions of taste, mastication, swallowing and digestion. Oral Dis 2002;8:117129. [12108756] Richard J. Lamont and Howard F. Jenkinson (2010) .Oral microbiology at a glance /.(At a glance series). ISBN 978-0-8138-2892-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
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Thank you
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