Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 5168

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The middle Devonian basins of western Norway: sedimentary response to large-scale transtensional tectonics?
P.T. Osmundsen*, T.B. Andersen
Department of Geology, P.O. Box 1047, University of Oslo, 0316 Blindern, Oslo, Norway

Abstract The Devonian basins of western Norway were formed during late- to post-orogenic extension of overthickened Caledonian crust. The basins are situated in the hanging wall of the extensional NordfjordSogn Detachment Zone (NSDZ) and display extensional half-graben geometries in sections parallel to the local direction of principal extension. Based on overall facies congurations, paleocurrent patterns and intrabasinal structures, we infer an anticlockwise rotation of the syndepositional extension direction from NWSE in the south (Solund basin) to WSWENE in the north (Hornelen basin). The axes of folds that are roughly parallel to the local extension direction are rotated correspondingly. The Kvamshesten basin is located between the Solund and Hornelen basins. Sedimentological and structural data show evidence of an early, southeastwards tilt direction followed by a more eastwards tilt and associated EW owing paleodrainage. Correspondingly, NWSE trending folds and reverse faults are superposed by EW trending ones at low to intermediate stratigraphic levels. The variations in apparent tilt direction for the basins together with variations in intrabasinal structure is interpreted to reect an anticlockwise rotation of the regional syndepositional strain eld. The above observations and inferences indicate that the Devonian basins in western Norway formed in a strain eld dominated by regional transtension, accommodated by extension along the NSDZ and sinistral strikeslip along orogen-parallel shear zones and faults to the north of the basins; alternatively, NW-directed extension preceded the introduction of a sinistral strikeslip component. The models are in accordance with recent work carried out in the footwall of the NSDZ and illustrates the tectono-sedimentary response to a complex interplay between extension and strike slip that appears to have been fundamental in the late-stage disintegration of the Caledonian orogen. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Devonian basins; transtensional tectonics; NordfjordSogn detachment zone

1. Introduction 1.1. The Devonian basins The middle Devonian basins of western Norway are regarded as classic study areas for tectonically controlled sedimentation (Bryhni, 1964a,b; Nilsen, 1968; Bryhni and Skjerlie, 1975; Steel et al., 1977, 1985; Steel and Gloppen 1980). Based on detailed
* Corresponding author. Geological Survey of Norway, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.

sedimentological investigations in the Hornelen basin, Steel et al. (1977), followed by Steel and Gloppen (1980), proposed a strikeslip model for basin formation. During the last 15 years, the late- to postorogenic extension of the Caledonian mountain belt in western Norway has received considerable attention ranne and (Hossack, 1984; Norton, 1986, 1987; Se guret, 1987; Steel, 1988; Andersen and Jamtveit, Se ranne, 1994; 1990; Fossen, 1992; Chauvet and Se Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998). In particular, work has been focussed on the large-magnitude extensional NordfjordSogn Detachment Zone (NSDZ) and on

0040-1951/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0040-195 1(00)00249-3

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the exhumation of deep crustal rocks in its footwall (op. cit.). Thus, although the Devonian basins are situated in the hanging wall of the NSDZ, the present model framework is largely based on observations in the footwall. The Devonian basins display considerable variation with respect to overall geometry and facies distribution (cf. Steel, 1976). This variation is not easily explained by regional unidirectional, topto-the west extensional faulting. Recent work in the Kvamshesten basin (Osmundsen et al., 1998, 2000) calls for a review of all the basins with respect to local and regional basin-forming mechanisms. The main controlling mechanisms involved in sedimentary basin formation are invariably recorded by the basin ll. The location and runoff directions of major drainage basins are, together with their principal bedrock lithologies, recorded in terms of sedimentary facies conguration, sediment dispersal patterns and provenance (e.g. Leeder and Gawthorpe, 1987). In the basins, the same parameters betray a record of basin oor tilt directions and differential subsidence, the key aspects in the understanding of tectonic control. Further information regarding tectonic control may be provided by onlap relationships between sedimentary strata and basement, intrabasinal unconformities and the conguration of syndepositional intrabasinal structures. A reinvestigation of the Devonian basins in western Norway therefore provides an independent database to be considered in the construction of regional tectonic models. In the following, we review the sedimentology and structure of the western Norwegian Devonian basins in terms of the above parameters. In this paper, we shall discuss formation of the Devonian basins in terms of inter- and intrabasinal variations in sedimentary architecture. We furthermore compare our inferences to recent interpretations based on studies within the depositional basement and the footwall of the NSDZ. 1.2. Geological setting The NSDZ constitutes up to 3 km thick extensional mylonite zone (Fig. 1) with abundant evidence of ranne normal displacement (Norton, 1986, 1987; Se guret, 1987; Andersen and Jamtveit, 1990; and Se Swensson and Andersen, 1991). 40Ar/ 39Ar ages on white micas from the detachment zone and the

adjacent rocks in the footwall are in the range from 390 to 400 Ma in Nordfjord and Sunnfjord, respectively (Berry et al., 1995; Andersen, 1998). The footwall of the NSDZ is constituted by the Western Gneiss Region (WGR), which experienced late Caledonian (ca 400420 Ma) eclogitefacies metamorphism (Grifn et al., 1985; Kullerud et al., 1986; B. Tucker in Lutro et al., 1997). Ultrahigh-pressure rocks are present north of the Hornelen basin (Smith, 1984; Wain, 1997). The high-pressure metamorphism was most probably a result of A-type subduction of westernmost Baltica underneath the Laurentian craton during the terminal stages of continental collision between Baltica and Laurentia (Andersen et al., 1991). In the Kvamshesten basin area, $16 kbar eclogites occur within 3 km from the Devonian rocks thus demonstrating a metamorphic gap across the NSDZ corresponding to 4550 km of crust. North of the Hornelen basin, excision is even more dramatic as $20 kbar eclogites are found within 3 km of the Devonian sediments (Krabbendam and Wain, 1997). The hanging wall of the NSDZ comprises a suite of Caledonian nappe rocks described in some detail elsewhere (Osmundsen and Andersen, 1994, in press). The Caledonian nappe rocks are unconformably overlain by Devonian sedimentary rocks. The entire crustal section exposed between Sogn and Nordfjord has been folded in a set of NW- to WSW-trending folds with amplitudes and wavelengths in the order of several kilometers. In the synclines, the Devonian basins and their depositional substrate are preserved while the high-pressure rocks of the WGR crop out in the anticlines (Fig. 2). In the basins, shortening was accommodated by folding around SE, EW and ENEplunging axes and by top-to-the SW and S reverse faulting (Osmundsen et al., 1998; Braathen, 1999). It has been suggested that shortening commenced during Middle Devonian sedimentation in the basins ranne et al., 1991; (Bryhni and Skjerlie, 1975; Se ranne, 1994). The later stages of shortChauvet and Se ening were associated with high anchizone to lower greenschist facies metamorphism (Torsvik et al., 1986; Svendsen et al., pers. commun. 1998) and magnetic remanence and fabrics in the sedimentary rocks indicate a Late Devonian to earliest Carboniferous age (Torsvik et al., 1986). The present eastern margins of the Devonian basins are constituted by semi-ductile to brittle, undulating

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Fig. 1. Overview map of the SognNordfjord area in western Norway showing main tectonostratigraphic units. Note facies congurations and main paleocurrent directions (open arrows) in the Devonian basins. Also note orientation of ductile lineations in the footwall of the Nordfjord Sogn Detachment Zone.

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Fig. 2. Schematic, NS cross-section through the NordfjordSogn area (mainly from Andersen, 1998) showing large-scale syn- and antiforms that deect the entire structural section; the Devonian basins are preserved in the synforms, whereas the eclogite-bearing WGR crops out in the antiforms. Note two sets of extensional detachments beneath the Hornelen and Solund basins: the lower detachment separates the WGR from Caledonian allochtonous rocks, the upper separates the latter from the Devonian basins in the east, cuts the Devonian unconformity below the basins.

low-angle normal faults that cut folded basin strata. Segments of these faults accommodated Permian as well as Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous faulting (Torsvik et al., 1986, 1988, 1992; Eide et al., 1997). The southern and northern basin margins are constituted either by EW striking segments of the lowangle normal faults (Kvamshesten basin area) or by steeper faults with normal separation but abundant evidence for strikeslip movements (Hornelen basin area, Torsvik et al., 1986; 1988; Andersen et al., 1997; Braathen, 1999). The latter cross-cut the low-angle fault east of the Hornelen basin (Andersen et al., 1997; Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998; Braathen, 1999). EW striking faults as well as segments of low-angle normal faults display evidence for dextral slip along the northern basin margins while components of sinistral slip is observed along the southern ranne and Se guret, 1987; Steel, basin margins (Se ranne, 1994). 1988; Chauvet and Se

2. Overall basin geometry, facies conguration and sediment dispersal patterns 2.1. The Solund basin The southeastern parts of the Solund basin are dominated by a several km thick succession of conglomerates banked against the NW-dipping Solund Fault (Nilsen 1968). Towards the NW, the

gy basin ll onlaps the SE-dipping limb of the La gy, however, where anticline (Fig. 3a). SW of La the axial plane trace is deected to a NS trend, onlap onto basement is apparently towards the NE in the present conguration (Nilsen, 1968; Steel et al., 1985, Fig. 3a). The NW continuation of the Solund basin is exposed in the Vrlandet area, where a thick succession of breccias and conglomerates are overlain by uvial sandstones. The basal breccias onlap depositional basement eastwards and internger with polymict conglomerates towards the West. In the Vrlandet area, the Devonian strata display a pronounced fanning wedge relationship where the dip of bedding changes from southwards at low stratigraphic levels to southeastwards in the uvial sandstones. The sandstones internger with fanglomerates and breccias exposed on a SE-trending array of skerries and islands SE of Vrlandet (Fig. 3b). In the Vrlandet area, an apparent reversal of paleocurrent direction took place during deposition of the exposed stratigraphy. Paleocurrent directions inferred from imbricate clasts in the basal deposits are mainly NW-directed while the sandstones display SW- and SE-directed paleocurrents (Fig. 3b). In the interpretation of Nilsen (1968), the conglomerates in the SE part of the basin were dominated by NW-directed paleocurrents according to analysis of cross-bedding, pebble roundness distribution and the distribution of pebble lithologies. The extremely consistent orientation of pebble long axes reported

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ranne and by Nilsen (1968) was re-interpreted by Se guret (1987) to represent a tectonically induced Se fabric (see below). In summary, the parts of the Solund basin exposed in the Solund and Vrlandet areas were dominated by two main depositional systems; a conglomerate-dominated system sourced in the footwall and a sandy system sourced in the hanging wall of a NW-dipping basin-controlling fault. The SW-wards tapering fanglomerates that occur SE of Vrlandet and the SW-directed paleocurrents recorded in the eastern parts of the uvial sandstones indicate that a third depositional system characterized by SW directed sediment transport was located along the NE basin margin. In Solund (Indrevr, 1980; Steel et al., 1985) and particular in the Vrlandet area (Fig. 3b), onlap relationships between Devonian strata and basement as well as interngering relationships between the main sedimentary units indicate that the oldest Devonian rocks are found in the southwest. The basal unconformity is thus a diachroneous surface indicating increasing subsidence towards the SW in the exposed parts of the basin. 2.2. The Hornelen basin The stratigraphy of the Hornelen basin (Fig. 4) comprises a few hundred meters of breccias and conglomerates exposed in the westernmost basin area, fanglomeratic fringes along the northern, southern and parts of the eastern basin margins and a broad central area dominated by uvial sandstones (Bryhni, 1964a,b; Steel et al., 1977; Steel and Aasheim, 1978; Steel and Gloppen, 1980). Steel and Gloppen (1980), followed by Gloppen and Steel (1981), pointed out the difference between the conglomeratic fans on the northern and southern basin margins, respectively. In their interpretation, the relatively thick, steep fans along the northern basin margin were dominated by debris ow deposits. In the south, individual fans had a larger radius and were dominated by stream-transported conglomerates. Thus, the facies distribution in the Hornelen basin is markedly asymmetric. The stratigraphy of the Hornelen as well as the Solund and Kvamshesten basins is dominated by coarsening- to ning upwards (CUFU) successions at a variety of scales (Steel and Gloppen, 1980; Indrevr and Steel, 1975; Bryhni and Skjerlie, 1975; Osmundsen

et al., 1998). Steel and Gloppen (1980), followed by Steel (1988), ascribed this pattern to tectonic control. Paleocurrent directions in the Hornelen basin is inferred to have been from the margins towards the central basin area (fanglomerates) and to have been mainly W- to WSW-directed in the central basin area (uvial sandstones, Steel and Gloppen, 1980). Along the northern basin margin, however, paleocurrents in the uvial sandstones are NW-directed, towards a belt dominated by oodbasin and lacustrine facies (Steel and Gloppen, 1980). 2.3. The Kvamshesten basin The Kvamshesten basin (Fig. 5), appears as a SE- to eastwards rotated half graben basin when viewed in a NWSE to EW section (Fig. 6). The southern parts of the Kvamshesten basin (Fig. 5) are dominated by the up to 2 km thick Southern Margin Fan Complex (SMFC, Osmundsen et al., 1998). The Devonian strata onlap basement towards the NE and E at low to intermediate stratigraphic levels (Bryhni and Skjerlie, ranne et al., 1991; Osmundsen et al., 1998) 1975; Se so that sandstones rest directly upon the unconformity along the western parts of the northern basin margin. Large parts of the present northern basin margin are occupied by a fanglomerate complex (NMFC) that reaches a thickness of ca 1 km. Parts of the NMFC onlaps basement eastwards at low to intermediate stratigraphic levels. Both fan complexes internger with a central belt of uvial and oodbasin sandstones and siltsones. The geometry of fan segments indicate that along the basin margins, sediment transport was towards the central areas of the preserved basin. In the lowermost parts of the central sandstones, readings of trough cross-bedding indicate southeastwards paleocurrent directions while westwards as well as eastwards owing paleocurrents have been inferred at intermediate and high stratigraphic levels (Fig. 5). On the anks of the basin, syncline as well as in the central basin area, readings of trough cross-bedding generally give more northerly and southerly transport directions. The CUFU motif described from the sedimentary ll of the Hornelen basin is also clearly present in the Kvamshesten basin (Osmundsen et al., 1998, 2000). Additional evidence for a syndepositional, eastwards tilt direction come from the progressive eastwards migration of uvial facies and from the

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east-stepping, retrogradational stacking of fanglomerates shown at high stratigraphic levels in Figs. 5 and 6. An original fanning wedge geometry of the Devonian strata is reected by a decrease in the plunge of the main basin syncline from low to high stratigraphic levels in the basin (Osmundsen et al., 1998). steinen basin 2.4. The Ha steinen basin The preserved remnants of the Ha (Fig. 7) are almost entirely conglomeratic with only subordinate sandstone intercalations. No paleocurrent data are available from the basin at present. A striking steinen basin is the relationship displayed by the Ha southeastwards onlap of the entire basin ll (up to 11 000 m of cumulative stratigraphy) onto Caledonian basement with an angle as high as 538 (Vetti, 1996, 1997; Vetti and Milnes, 1997). One possible mechanism for producing this relationship is onlap onto the ank of a NE-trending rollover anticline (op. cit.), alternatively onlap onto an inactive fault scarp. The latter would require onlap onto paleotopography with a relief of between 5800 and 11 000 m, an explanation considered unlikely (Vetti and Milnes, steinen basin are 1997). The preserved parts of the Ha everywhere in a proximal position with respect to the basin oor and margins, which probably explains the conglomeratic nature of the basin ll. 3. Structural geology In western Norway, the present faulted margins of the Devonian basins do not correspond directly to the syndepositional margins as demonstrated by crosscutting relationships and by paleomagnetic and radiometric dating (Torsvik et al., 1986, 1988, 1992; Eide et al., 1997; Osmundsen et al., 1998; Braathen, 1999). Interpretations concerning syndepositional strainelds must therefore rely on the identication

and interpretation of syn-sedimentary intrabasinal structures. Two main populations of intrabasinal structures affect the Devonian in western Norway. These are rstly, extensional/oblique faults dipping towards the W, NW and NE, secondly folds and reverse faults trending NW, W and WSW (Bryhni and Skjerlie, ranne and Se guret, 1987; 1975; Roberts, 1983; Se ranne, 1994; Osmundsen et al., Chauvet and Se 1998; Braathen 1999). In the Solund basin, the strong pebble lineation fabric interpreted as a paleocurrent indicator by Nilsen (1968) was re-interpreted as a tectonically produced lineation by Indrevr and ranne and Se guret Steel (1975) as well as by Se ranne and Se guret (1987) argued that the (1987). Se pebble fabric passed into a greenschist facies pebble fabric close to the NSDZ. Away from the detachment, however, clasts were rotated in a non-consolidated matrix and taken to represent early, soft-sedimentary deformation by the same authors. The elongation direction was NWSE, trending 1208, at an angle to the WNW-plunging stretching lineation observed in the mylonites of the NSDZ directly adjacent to the basin. NW-dipping faults are the most prominent extensional/oblique structures in the Caledonian nappe-stack west of the Kvamshesten basin (Osmundsen, 1996). A number of NW-dipping faults that cross-cut the basal unconformity have been interpreted as syn-sedimentary and a syn-sedimentary system of NW- and NE-dipping conjugate faults affect high stratigraphic levels (Selsvatn fault system, Fig. 5; Osmundsen et al., 1998). Evidences for synsedimentary activity include fanglomerate wedges banked against the fault planes, termination of faults upwards in the stratigraphy, stratigraphic climbs displayed by facies boundaries in the hanging walls and outsized clasts and breccia fragments embedded in oodbasin nes adjacent to a fault plane

Fig. 3. Map of the Solund Basin. (a) SE parts exposed in the Solund archipelago showing relationship between the Devonian strata, the Solund gy anticline. Arrows indicate generalized paleocurrent directions (Nilsen, 1968); lled arrows represent elongate pebble Fault and the La lineation, open arrows readings of trough cross-bedding. Legend: 1. High-pressure rocks (WGR and HP schists undifferentiated); 2. Granodiorite intruding Caledonian nappe rocks; 3. Caledonian allochton undifferentiated, strongly sheared in the footwall of the Solund fault; 4. Devonian Conglomerates; 5. Devonian sandstones; 6. Gabbroic bodies interpreted as landslides by Bryhni and Skjerlie (1975); 7. Fold axis gy anticline); 8. Low-angle normal fault (Solund fault). (b) Vrlandet area showing main facies distribution and sediment dispersal (La patterns as inferred from imbricate clasts and from trough cross-bedding (rose diagrams;). Paleocurrent directions displayed in Fig. 2b are from unrestored data. Legend: 1. Caledonian allochton, 2. Monomict basal breccias overlying basal unconformity (Vrlandet area), 3. Conglomerates, 4. Fluvial channel sandstones with overbank intervals.

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Fig. 4. Map of the Hornelen basin and parts of its substrate (modied from Steel and Gloppen (1980), Lutro (1991), Hartz et al. (1994), Krabbendam and Dewey (1998), Bryhni and Lutro). Open arrows indicate paleocurrent directions in sandy part of basin ll (Steel and Gloppen, 1980). Legend: 1. Eclogite-bearing gneisses of the WGR and extensional detachment mylonites; 2. Caledonian allochton; 3. Conglomerates and breccias of Devonian succession; 4. Fluvial channel sandstones; 5. Floodbasin/Lacustrine sandstones, siltstones and mudstones; 6. Top of main detachment zone separating the WGR from overlying allochtonous units; 7. Low-angle brittle normal fault (eastern basin margin) 8. Fold axes (Grndalen syncline) and 9. High-angle brittle faults (southern and parts of northern basin margin).

(Osmundsen et al., 1998; Bakke 1999). In the Hornelen basin area, NE- and NW-dipping faults with normal/oblique separations appear to dominate at low stratigraphic levels (Hartz et al., 1994; Hartz and Andresen, 1997). The SE- to ENE-plunging folds and SE- to EW trending reverse faults that deform the Devonian basins are part of a set of contractional structures that deform the entire crustal section exposed in western Norway (Vogt, 1936, 1953; Roberts, 1983; ranne et al., 1991; Chauvet Torsvik et al., 1986; Se ranne, 1994; Osmundsen et al., 1998; Braathen, and Se 1999). The post-Caledonian, NS shortening has been correlated with the Svalbardian stage of Vogt (1936) and linked to regional sinistral strikeslip movements in southern Scandinavia and the British Isles (Vogt, ranne et al., 1991; Chauvet and Se ranne, 1953; Se 1994). The basins presently constitute large-scale synclines with a number of parasitic folds. In the Solund basin, strains related to NESW directed shortening are locally high and have given rise to cleavage formation in the southwesternmost exposed parts of the basin (Indrevr and Steel, 1975). Large

parts of the basin does, however, appear to be less steinen basins. folded than the Kvamshesten and Ha The basal unconformity in the Vrlandet area dips southwards at approximately 408 in accordance with rotation by folding along an EW trending axis, alternatively by folding along a SE-plunging axis followed by SE-wards tilt. In the Hornelen basin, folding is particularly well developed along the southern and eastern margins of the basin (e.g. Grndalen syncline in Fig. 4). In the Kvamshesten basin, several SE- to E-striking reverse faults cut the basin ll. The SE-striking reverse faults are observed at low stratigraphic levels in the basin while at intermediate to high stratigraphic levels, reverse faults strike EW (Fig. 5). At intermediate stratigraphic levels, SE-plunging fold trains are cut by a S-dipping reverse fault of unknown displacement. South of Kringlefjellet (Fig. 5), a reverse fault with an inferred displacement of ca 1 km was mapped by Osmundsen et al. (1998). A similar structure with an inferred displacement of minimum 800 m crops out in the NE parts of the basin (Braathen, 1997, 1999; Osmundsen et al., 1998, Fig. 5). Both these large reverse faults have

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Fig. 5. The Kvamshesten basin with main facies distribution, paleocurrent indicators (rose diagrams: readings by present authors, mainly trough cross beds, arrows: generalized from Asphaug, 1975) and conguration of intrabasinal structures. Note the diachroneity between the southern and northern marginal fanglomerate complexes; the oldest deposits preserved in the basin are located along the southern basin margin. Legend: 1. WGR and detachment mylonites, schematic traces of main foliation; 2. Caledonian allochton undifferentiated; Devonian sedimentary rocks; 3. Conglomerates and breccias; 4. Floodplain/oodbasin rocks with intercalated channel- and distal fan deposits, 5. Pebbly green multistory channel sandstone units separated by subordinate red nes; 6. Multistory channel sandstone units intercalated with plane laminated and low-angle cross-bedded sandstones and subordinate red nes; 7. Scoop-shaped low-angle normal fault (Dalsfjord Fault), 8. Thrust/reverse fault; 9. Fold axis; 10. Intrabasinal normal/oblique faults.

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Fig. 6. EW cross-section through the Kvamshesten basin (i.e. parallel to fold axis). Note shallow half-graben geometry, onlap/interngering relationships and eastwards migration of channel sandstones (high stratigraphic levels). The line of prole is generally located along the axial plane trace of the basin syncline (see Fig. 5).

well-developed anticlines in their hanging walls where bedding is steeply overturned for up to 2 km along strike. Along the northern basin margin, NW-dipping reverse faults are rotated together with bedding in the footwall of an ENEWSW-striking reverse fault that places depositional substrate upon the Devonian sedimentary rocks (Fig. 5). Folds in the

Kvamshesten basin display SE plunges at low and intermediate stratigraphic levels and EW to ENE plunges at intermediate to high stratigraphic levels (Osmundsen et al., 1998). At high stratigraphic levels in the basin, strata on the anks of an ENE-plunging anticline displays a fanning wedge relationship towards the axial plane trace (Fig. 8). This type of

steinen Basin and parts of its substrate (modied from Bryhni and Lutro (2000a,b) with additional data from Vetti (1988, Fig. 7. Map of the Ha 1997)). The basin constitutes a steeply plunging syncline with bedding onlapping basement southeastwards at a high angle (Vetti, 1997). Legend: 1. WGR and detachment mylonites undifferentiated; 2. Gneisses and supracrustals with uncertain tectonostratigraphic position (Lutro, 1991), 3. Caledonian allochton undifferentiated; 4. Devonian conglomerates; 5. Faults apparently associated with mylonitic deformation; 6. High-angle fault associated with mylonitic deformation in the WGR (Standalen Fault). 7. Fold axes.

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Fig. 8. Progressive unconformity exposed at high stratigraphic levels in the Kvamshesten Basin. Fine-grained sandstone and siltstone beds display a fanning wedge geometry away from the northern ank of an EW trending anticline, indicating that the NS shortening of the Kvamshesten Basin was partly syndepositional.

relationship has been reported from foreland basins and is typical for syn-sedimentary folds (Burbank et al., 1996). In summary, low to intermediate stratigraphic levels in the Kvamshesten basin display NWSE trending contractional structures overprinted by EW trending ones; at high stratigraphic levels, EW to ENEWSW trending contractional structures dominate. The latter at least were syndepositional (Fig. 8). steinen basin is deformed into a steeply SEThe Ha plunging syncline where bedding is rotated to more than 608 on the anks (Vetti, 1996, 1997; Vetti and Milnes, 1997; Fig. 7).

4. Discussion 4.1. Tectono-sedimentary development of the Devonian basins In continental sedimentary basins, tectonically induced topography exerts a strong control on sediment dispersal patterns (e.g. Leeder and

Gawthorpe, 1987; Leeder and Jackson, 1993). Three major depositional systems are commonly observed; out of these, footwall-sourced alluvial fans and hanging wall sourced fans/uvial lobes represent drainage that is transverse with respect to the principal basin-bounding fault. In early stages of continental rift development, halfgrabens are closed and transverse systems dominate (e.g. Leeder and Gawthorpe, 1987; Schlische, 1991). In closed basins, the area characterized by the highest subsidence rates is commonly occupied by mudat, playa or lacustrine deposits as intrabasinal drainage tends to converge in this area (Leeder and Gawthorpe, 1987; Schlische, 1991). If individual half-grabens link up to form a rift zone, an axial river system usually develops that ows parallel to the array of basin-bounding faults (op. cit.). Thus, a variety of paleocurrent directions may be encountered in continental extensional basins. Paleocurrent data give clues to the syndepositional tilt direction. The tilt direction is often strongly affected by fault shape and may or may not parallel the principal extension direction. Thus, paleocurrent data must be viewed together

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with intrabasinal structural data when addressing the syndepositional strain eld. Although the use of clast long axes as paleocurrent indicators may be disputable in the SE parts of the ranne and Se guret, 1987), data indeSolund basin (Se pendent of clast long axes (cross-bedding, clast roundness distribution, clast lithology distribution) appear to support a NW-directed sediment dispersal (Nilsen, 1968). The NWSE (ca 1208) trending clast long axis fabric interpreted as produced by tectonic clast rota ranne and tion under soft-sedimentary conditions (Se guret, 1987) give evidence of an early phase of Se NWSE-directed extension in the basin. The extension direction inferred from the pebble long axis orientation is at a high angle to the NESW trending gy anticline (Fig. 3a), which has been interpreted La ranne as a rollover anticline (Norton, 1986, 1987; Se guret, 1987). Thus, intrabasinal structure is and Se consistent with NWSE-directed extension and with sedimentological data that indicate a bulk SE-wards tilt of the basin oor in the Solund area. In the interpretation of Nilsen (1968) followed by Steel (1976), the sedimentary data from the Solund basin reect deposition in a southeastwards tilting, extensional half-graben basin dominated by transverse, NW- and SE-directed drainage. The basin was probably bounded by a transfer fault along its NE margin (e.g. Indrevr, 1980; Steel et al., 1985). In the uvial sandstones in northern parts of the basin (Vrlandet area, Fig. 3b), paleocurrents were SE owing, that is in the direction of the footwall of the basin-bounding fault. SW-owing paleocurrents in the same area may represent either a system more axial with respect to the basin-bounding fault or inuence from marginal drainage that transported material towards the central basin area. In the Hornelen basin, sediment entered the basin from the eastern, northern and southern margins and is fed into a uvial channel belt characterized by WSW (i.e. hanging wall)-directed paleocurrents (Steel and Aasheim, 1978; Steel and Gloppen, 1980). In the east, the basin margin was constituted by a W-dipping lowangle normal fault (Cuthbert, 1991; Wilks and Cuthbert, 1994) that provided a drainage area large enough to supply the basin with large amounts of sand-sized material (cf. Friedmann and Burbank, 1995). The main syndepositional tilt direction in the Hornelen basin was towards the east or southeast according to

interpretations by earlier workers (Steel et al., 1985; ranne and Se guret, 1987; Chauvet and Se ranne, Se 1994; Wilks and Cuthbert, 1994). As the basin was transported westwards on the detachment, anked by oblique/strikeslip fault segments along the northern and southern margins, a shingled arrangement of conglomeratic fan bodies was produced (Steel and Gloppen, 1980; Steel et al., 1985; Steel, 1988; Wilks and Cuthbert, 1994). The combination of subsidence and lateral displacements were responsible for the pronounced coarsening- to ning upwards grain size motif recognized in all parts of the basin ll (op. cit.). The WSW-owing paleocurrents reported from the central basin area by Steel and Gloppen (1980) were thus roughly parallel to the extension direction. Along the northern basin margin, however, more northerly sediment transport directions indicate increased subsidence along this margin for a large part of the basin history (op. cit.). The WSW-trending folds that deform the basin ll are at an angle with the more EW trending contractional structures in the Kvamshesten basin. In the Kvamshesten basin, the thick fanglomerate complex along the southern basin margin resembles that of the Solund basin. The axial belt of uvial sandstones and the paleocurrent directions inferred from them are largely subparallel to the present basin syncline axis similar to the conguration encountered in the Hornelen basin (Fig. 5). Thickness variations and onlap relationships displayed by the marginal fan complexes are in accordance with development of a NE-trending rollover anticlinesyncline pair during early stages of basin formation (Osmundsen et al., 1998). East-stepping of fanglomerates along the basin margins and the eastwards migration of the central belt of uvial sandstones give evidence of eastwards migration of the basin's depocentre. This was probably the result of westwards movement of the basin upon the detachment (Osmundsen et al., 2000). Syndepositional intrabasinal faults in the Kvamshesten basin comprise NW-dipping faults with normal and sinistral separations at low stratigraphic levels and a conjugate system of NW- and NE-dipping faults at high stratigraphic levels. When the basin syncline and the eastwards tilt of the basin upon the detachment are restored, the NW-dipping faults have separations that are mainly normal while the conjugate faults at higher stratigraphic levels reveal an

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63

orthorhombic geometry symmetric about NS and E W trending axes (Osmundsen et al., 1998). The EW trending symmetry axis bisects the obtuse angle between the fault sets and is interpreted to represent the direction of principal elongation (op. cit). Thus, sediment transport directions in the belt of uvial sandstones is commonly parallel to the overall intrabasinal extension direction. In the Kvamshesten basin, folds and thrusts display NWSE and EW trends (Fig. 4; Osmundsen et al., 1998). At low to intermediate stratigraphic levels, NWSE trending contractional structures are superposed by EW trending ones (Fig. 5). At high stratigraphic levels, folds and reverse faults trend EW and the relations displayed in Fig. 8 indicate that folding probably started during basin sedimentation. The interpretation of a number of other dislocations in the Hornelen and Kvamshesten basins as unconformi ranne, 1994) has, however, been ties (Chauvet and Se controversial (Wilks and Cuthbert, 1994; Osmundsen et al., 1998). The NE-wards onlap onto basement and the interngering relationships observed at low stratigraphic levels in the Kvamshesten and Solund basins may be explained in two ways; rstly, onlap may have been onto the SW-dipping ank of a synform that resulted from NESW-directed shortening. Alternatively, NE- and eastwards onlap was part of a radial onlap pattern produced by fault growth during early stages of basin formation (e.g. Schlische, 1991; Osmundsen et al., 1998) followed by onlap onto a rollover anticline (Osmundsen et al., 1998, 2000) Both interpretations are compatible with a NWSE direction of extension. SE-trending folds and reverse faults superimposed by EW trending ones at low and intermediate stratigraphic levels in the Kvamshesten basin may indicate that shortening was associated with clockwise rotation of the western parts of the basin; in this scenario, shortening had an overall NS direction, but reverse faults and folds in the western parts of the basin rotated anticlockwise to more NWSE orientations and were later overprinted by new EW trending contractional structures. Alternatively, the straineld rotated with time. This would require a change in the boundary conditions where the direction of shortening rotated in an anticlockwise direction and where only the lower parts of the stratigraphy records the early (NESW-directed) shortening. Steep northerly dips

recorded at high stratigraphic levels together with the high anchizone/lowermost greenschist facies metamorphism apparently associated with shortening ranne and Se guret, 1987) indi(Torsvik et al., 1987; Se cates that much of the shortening post-dates the preserved Devonian stratigraphy (Torsvik et al., 1986; Osmundsen et al., 1998). 4.2. A model of combined extension and strikeslip for the Devonian basins of western norway In central south Norway as well as in the Bergen arcs area south of the Solund basin, the nite streching direction in the ductilely deformed basement is dominantly towards the NW (Fossen, 1992, 1998; Wennberg et al., 1998; Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998; Andersen, 1998). In the SognefjordNordfjord area, streching lineations and fold axes in the footwall of the NSDZ display changes in orientation from NW plunges SE of the Solund basin via EW and ESE WNW beneath the Kvamshesten basin to WSW north ranne, of the Hornelen basin (Fig. 1; Chauvet and Se 1994; Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998). North of the Devonian basins, lineations and fold axes turn to become parallel with the MreTrndelag Fault Zone (MTFZ, Figs. 1 and 9). An important question is whether extension with different (NW, W and SW) orientation in different areas occurred contempora ranne et al., 1991; Chauvet and Se ranne, neously (Se 1994; Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998) or if NW and SW extension directions were separated in time (extension followed by transtension and orogenparallel strikeslip). The Devonian basins formed in the hanging wall of the NSDZ and would tentatively record large-scale inuence of strikeslip during sedimentation. It is also to be expected that this inuence would be stronger in the areas close to the MTFZ where kinematic indicators give evidence for Devonian top-SW extension and sinistral strikeslip ranne, 1992; Robinson, 1995). (Se Of the western Norwegian basins, the Solund basin occupies the position farthest away from the MTFZ. The consistent SE-wards tilt direction inferred from paleocurrent data and half-graben geometry indicates that the basin formed mainly during NW-directed extension. The onlap relationship towards basement in the Vrlandet area may indicate that the basin experienced early, NESW-directed shortening. The

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P.T. Osmundsen, T.B. Andersen / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 5168

Hornelen basin occupies the most proximal position with respect to the area affected by strikeslip. The W to WSW direction of extension and the NNWSSE direction of shortening that can be inferred from the basin geometry is consistent with an anticlockwise rotation of the straineld relative to the Solund basin. Based on the observations and inferences presented above, we infer that the Kvamshesten basin started out as a SE-wards tilting half-graben, similar to the preserved geometry of the Solund basin. The later stages of basin formation conform more closely to that of the Hornelen basin, based on overall conguration of sedimentary units, paleocurrent data and on the EW direction of maximum elongation that has been inferred from the Selsvatn fault system (Osmundsen et al., 1998). That is, while the Solund and Hornelen basins represents congurations of extension direction and overall architecture that are separated in space, the Kvamshesten basin constitutes a single basin where both congurations have been preserved. In a scenario of regional transtension (i.e. Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998), the tectono-sedimentary response in the basin areas would be largely dependent on their distance from the principal zone(s) of strikeslip deformation. Tentatively, the Hornelen basin would respond more rapidly to the component of strikeslip as it was initiated closer to the MTFZ than the other basins in western Norway. The Kvamshesten basin would probably experience the effect of strikeslip at a somewhat later stage while the Solund basin was located too far from the MTFZ to experience signicant strain eld rotation during deposition. An alternative scenario is that the early phase of NW extension and SE-wards tilt pre-dates orogenparallel sinistral strikeslip and that the change in extension direction marks the onset of sinistral deformation. This opens for a model where all the Devonian basins formed in a strain eld characterized by NW-directed extension. This would t the apparent change from NW-to W-directed extension in the Kvamshesten basin, as well as early, NW-directed extension in the Solund basin. The early facies distribution and paleodrainage patterns in the Hornelen basin should, however, resemble those of the Solund basin. From available map and sedimentological data, this is not obvious. The directions of shortening in the basins show a

swing in orientation from NESW in the Solund basin to WSWESE in the Hornelen basin. In the Kvamshesten basin, shortening was at least in part syndepositional and the direction of shortening apparently changed from NESW to NS with time. The syndepositional shortening was, however, not continuous. As indicated by the orthorhombic Selsvatn fault system, the area experienced periods with extension in both NS and EW directions (Osmundsen et al., 1998). In the Kvamshesten and Hornelen basins, an effect of syndepositional NS shortening on sedimentation may be reected in the parallelism between paleocurrent directions inferred from the sandy parts of the basin lls and the synclinal fold axes. In the Kvamshesten basin, a belt of red, ne-grained oodbasin strata are localized along the axial plane trace of the basin syncline at high stratigraphic levels (Fig. 5). Thus, it is possible that intrabasinal drainage was partly controlled by the evolving fold system. Shortening continued past the time-window represented by the Devonian sedimentary rocks and the folded basins were eventually cut by low-angle normal faults that constitute the present basin margins. 5. Conclusions Variations in sedimentary and structural architecture indicate that the Devonian basins of western Norway developed in a strain eld characterized by regional transtension. The syndepositional tilt direction inferred from individual basins reect the local direction of extension in the area where each basin formed (Fig. 9). Each basin was bordered by a large, low-to moderate angle normal fault and a steeper transfer fault subparallel to the extension direction. This conguration was responsible for the asymmetric distribution of sedimentary facies within each basin and for the difference in fanglomerate architecture on opposing basin margins. The interplay between normal and strikeslip faulting on the basin scale may also have been responsible for the geometry of CUFU units encountered within all the basins (Steel and Gloppen, 1980). The inuence of larger-scale, orogen-parallel strikeslip movements is reected in the combined observations from the array of basins in western Norway. When viewed as an array of contemporaneous basins, the syndepositional tilt directions

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65

Fig. 9. Conceptual model for Devonian basin formation in western Norway. Block diagrams are schematic representations of inferred basin geometry while the paleotopography, generalized facies distributions and sediment dispersal patterns are represented above each block diagram. The syndepositional framework was characterized by extension along the NordfjordSogn Detachment Zone and sinistral strike slip along the MreTrndelag Fault Zone or its precursor, which may have been a wider zone characterized by SW-directed extension and sinistral strikeslip. This gave rise to a transtensional strain gradient where the principal axis of extension displayed a progressive anticlockwise rotation from NW to EW northwards in the study area. The response in the basin areas reects the distance from the principal strike slip shear zone such that the Solund Basin experienced mainly SE-directed tilt during deposition while the Hornelen Basin was characterized by steinen Basin probably records NWSE extension due to westwards translation during most of its history. The preserved stratigraphy in the Ha the strong SE-wards onlap relationship towards basement. In the Kvamshesten Basin, NWSE extension and SE-directed tilt was followed by EW extension, E-directed tilt and generally EW owing paleocurrents in the central basin area. Shortening of the basins in a direction roughly normal to the principal direction of extension probably started during sedimentation and the evolving folds may have contributed to the control of paleoow patterns in the central basin areas. As the principal direction of extension changed from NW to W (Kvamshesten Basin), the principal direction of shortening changed from NESW to NS. Shortening was probably not continuous in the basins, but interrupted by periods where elongation was positive in the NS direction.

and facies congurations reect the swing in orientation displayed by the ductile extensional lineation in the NSDZ and WGR and thus the transtensional strain gradient towards the MTFZ. While the Solund and Hornelen basins may be regarded as the preserved geographical and architectural end members in this conguration, the Kvamshesten basin constitutes a tectono-sedimentary link between the two former

basins. The anticlockwise rotation of the syndepositional strain eld inferred from the Kvamshesten basin can be interpreted as a result of gradual entry into the region affected by strikeslip deformation. Alternatively, it opens for the possibility that the strikeslip component post-dates the NW-directed extension that accompanied the early stages of basin formation.

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P.T. Osmundsen, T.B. Andersen / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 5168 Scandinavian Caledonides: implications for late-orogenic processes. Tectonophysics 238, 3154. Cuthbert, S.J., 1991. Evolution of the Devonian Hornelen basin, Western Norway: new constraints from petrological studies of metamorphic clasts. Developments in Sedimentary Provenance Studies, Morton, A.C., Todd, S.P., Haughton, P.D.W. (Eds.). Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 57, 343360. Eide, E.A., Torsvik, T.H., Andersen, T.B., 1997. ArAr geochronologic and paleomagnetic dating of fault breccias; characterization of late Paleozoic and early Cretaceous fault reactivation in Western Norway. Terra Nova 9, 135139. Fossen, H., 1992. The role of extensional tectonics in the Caledonides of South Norway. J. Struct. Geol. 14, 10331046. Fossen, H., 1998. Advances in understanding the post-Caledonian structural evolution of the Bergen area, West Norway. Norw. Geol. Tidsskr. 78, 3346. Friedmann, S.J., Burbank, D.W., 1995. Rift basins and supradetachment basins: Intracontinental extensional end-members. Basin Res. 7, 109127. Gloppen, T.-G., Steel, R.J., 1981. The deposits, internal structure and geometry in six alluvial fanfan delta bodies (Devonian, Norway) a study in the signicance of bedding sequences in conglomerates. In: Etheridge, F., Flores, R.M. (Eds.). Recent and Ancient Non-marine Depositional Environments: Models for Exploration. Spec. Publ. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. 31, 4969. Grifn, W.L., Austrheim, H., Brastad, K., Bryhni, I., Krill, A.G., Krogh, E.J., Mrk, M.B.E., Quale, H., Trudbakken, B., 1985. High-pressure metamorphism in the Scandinavian Caledonides. In: Gee, D.G., Sturt, B.A. (Eds.). The Caledonide Orogen: Scandinavia and Related Areas. Wiley, New York, pp. 783801. Hartz, E., Andresen, A., Andersen, T.B., 1994. Structural observations adjacent to a large-scale extensional detachment zone in the Hinterland of the Norwegian Caledonides. Tectonophysics 231, 123137. Hartz, E.H., Andresen, A., 1997. From collision to collapse: Complex strain permutations in the hinterland of the Scandinavian Caledonides. J. Geophys. Res. 102 (B11), 24 69724 711. Hossack, J.R., 1984. The geometry of listric normal faults in the Devonian basins of Sunnfjord, W. Norway. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 141, 629637. Indrevr, G., 1980. A sedimentological traverse through the central parts of the Solund Devonian basin of western Norway. Unpublished Cand. Real. Thesis, University of Bergen, 207 pp. Indrevr, G., Steel, R.J., 1975. Some aspects of the sedimentary and structural history of the Ordovician and Devonian rocks of the westernmost Solund Islands, West Norway. Norw. Geol. Unders. Bull. 317, 2332. Krabbendam, M., Dewey, J.F., 1998. Exhumation of UHP rocks by transtension in the Western Gneiss Region, Scandinavian Caledonides. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 135, 159181 (Continental Transpressional and Transtensional Tectonics). Krabbendam, M., Wain, A., 1997. Late Caledonian structures, differential retrogression and structural position of ultrahighpressure rocks from the NordfjordStadtlandet area of the Western Gneiss Region. Norw. Geol. Unders. Bull. 432, 127139. Kullerud, L., Trudbakken, B.O., Ilebekk, S., 1986. A compilation

Acknowledgement Financial support from NORSK AGIP a/s is greatly acknowledged.

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