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Asexual reproduction- genes from a single parent Sexual reproduction- fusion of male and female gametes
Fission- invertebrates
Budding Fragmentation
(a) Both lizards in this photograph are C. uniparens females. The one on top is playing the role of a male. Every two or three weeks during the breeding season, individuals switch sex roles.
Ovary size
Ovulation Progesterone
Time
Figure 46.3a, b
Femalelike
Malelike
Femalelike
Malelike
(b) The sexual behavior of C. uniparens is correlated with the cycle of ovulation mediated by sex hormones. As blood levels of estrogen rise, the ovaries grow, and the lizard behaves like a female. After ovulation, the estrogen level drops abruptly, and the progesterone level rises; these hormone levels correlate with male behavior.
Behavior
External fertilization
Ovaries
Oviduct
Internal fertilization
Uterus Follicles Uterine wall Endometrium Corpus luteum
Prostate gland Urethra Scrotum Figur Glans penis e 46.1 0 Bulbourethral gland Erectile tissue of penis Vas deferens Epididymis Testis
Sex determination
Gender differences are mainly by Y chromosome and GONADS Gonads have dual function- gametogenic and endocrine Gonadal function depends on gonadotropins Cyclic secretion in females and noncyclic in males
Chromosomal sex:
Barr bodies
Development of genitalia: In 7th week of gestation Mullerian duct in females- develops into uterus and fallopian tubes Wolffian duct in males- develops into epididymis and vas deferens
External genitalia bipotential till 8th week Urogenital slit closes in males and remain open in females
Testis secrete MIS and testosterone MIS causes regression of mullerian duct on same side Testosterone induces development of vas deferens and epididymis on same side DHT induces male external genitalia and secondary sexual characters
Brain development: Male behavior and male pattern of gonadotropin secretion if exposed to androgens early
Sex differentiation
1. Genetic sex: Male genetic sex is determined by Y chromosome SRY gene encodes TDF SRY is essential for maleness but not adequate Absence of SRY causes development of ovaries
3. Genital sex: Testosterone and MIS in males Absence of these factors leads to development of female tract
2. Klinefelter syndrome: Seminiferous tubule dysgenesis 47 XXY Female genetic sex with male gonadal and genital sex Tall stature Mental retardation
3. Superfemale: 47 XXX No abnormalities 4. True hermaphroditism: XX/XY mosaic Both gonads present
II Hormonal abnormalities: Pseudohermaphroditism- Genetic sex of one type with external genitalia of opposite sex 1. Female Pseudohermaphroditism- Genetic females exposed to androgens by 8th to 13th week 2. Male Pseudohermaphroditism- Genetic males with female genitalia due to defective testis or androgen resistance
Puberty
Transition from the non-reproductive state to the state of reproductive functions that allows procreation Activation of gonads and development of reproductive tract Period of maturation is called ADOLESCENCE
Sexual precocity
Testes formed in abdomen Descend into scrotum in 7th month of intrauterine life Requires MIS and other factors Cryptorchidism Slightly lower body temperature [2 C] Gametogenesis and hormonal secretion
Scrotum
Sac of skin and superficial fascia that hangs outside the abdomino-pelvic cavity at the root of the penis Role or cremaster and dartos?? Contains paired testicles separated by a midline septum Its external positioning keeps the testes 2C lower than core body temperature
Testis
Covered by tunica vaginalis and albuginia 300 lobules with 2-4 Seminiferous tubules Each lobule has intratubular compartment (Seminiferous epithelium) and peritubular compartment (neurovascular elements) Seminiferous epithelium- sperm cells and sertoli cells
TUNICA ALBUGINEA
EPIDIDYMIS
LOBULES
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonia Primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocyte Spermatid Mature sperm
Spermatogonia- stem cells- enter meiosis Incomplete cytokinesis Primary spermatocyte- prophase of 1st meiotic division Secondary spermatocyte- completion of 1st meiotic division Spermatids- completion of 2nd meiotic division Spermatozoa- spermiogenesis
Duration of 72 days Recruitment of adjacent spermatogonia every 16 days Spermiogenesis- maturation of spermatids into spermatozoa Spermiation- release of spermatozoa Further maturation occurs as it passes through the genital tract
Spermiogenesis
Sertoli cells
True epithelium Extend from basal lamina to the lumen From gap junction with each sperm cell stage Tight junction between adjacent sertoli cells forms blood-testis barrier
Peritubular compartment
Loose connective tissue Peritubular capillary net work Leydig cells
Leydig cells
Steroidogenic Cholesterol is synthesized de novo, or acquired through LDL and HDL receptors Synthesizes testosterone from androstenedione
Functions of DHT: Masculinization of external genitalia in utero Growth and activity of prostate Growth of penis Darkening and folding of scrotum Growth of pubic and axillary hair Growth of facial and body hair Increased muscle mass 5-reductase inhibitors- prostatic hypertrophy
Peripheral actions of testosterone: Regulation of sertoli cell function Induces development of male tract Increase LDL and VLDL levels Increased RBC production Promote bone growth Anabolic effect Maintenance of erectile function and libido
Mechanism of action
Cytoplasmic androgen receptors (AR) bound to chaperone proteins ARE- Androgen Response Element Both testosterone and DHT act through AR
Epididymis
Epididymis
Posterior border of testis Coiled and 7mtr long Head, body and tail Sperms spend a month in epididymis and acquire motility Sperm can be stored for several months in tail of the epididymis Decapacitation
Vas deferens
Vas deferens
40-45cm long Ascend as part of spermatic cord Stores sperms Vasectomy
Ejaculatory duct
2cms in length Empties into prostatic urethra
Seminal fluid
Milky white sticky mixture of sperms and glandular secretions Mixture of secretions from glands like prostate, seminal vesicle and bulbourethral glands Provide nutrition to sperms Propulsion of sperm Buffering
Seminal vesicle secretion: Primary source of fructose 60% of seminal fluid Seminogelins- coagulation of semen after ejaculation Prostatic fluid: 30% of volume High in citrate, zinc, spermine and acid phosphatase PSA- liquefies coagulated semen after a few minutes Bulbourethral glands: Rich in mucus Lubrication , cleansing and buffering of urethra
Spermiogenesis
Spermatids lose excess cytoplasm, acquire tail Parts of sperm; Head- contains DNA; covered by acrosomal cap containing enzymes required for penetration of ovum Body- plenty of mitochondriae Tail- flagellum
Journey of spermatozoa
Stays for one month in epididymis and undergoes maturation Decapacitation Stored for several months in tail of epididymis and vas deferens Acquire motility in epididymis by activation of CatSper protein Undergoes capacitation when exposed to female reproductive tract environment
The penis
Copulatory organ designed to deliver sperms deep into vagina Corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum Vascular spaces Circumcision
Erection
Psychic stimuli and impulses from genitalia Efferent parasympathetic nerves: Nervi erigentis Nonadrenergic noncholinergic fibers
Nitric oxide
Guanylyl cyclase
cGMP
Dilation of arterioles
Emission: propulsion of semen into urethra Ejaculation: ejection of semen out of urethra Afferents- Internal pudendal nerves Emission- Sympathetic response- upper lumbar segments- contraction of smooth muscles of vas deferens and seminal vesicles Ejaculation- contraction of bulbocavernosusS1,2,3 motor
The Ovary
Bilateral Located in broad ligament Cortex- cellular Medulla- neurovascular elements Ovarian follicles- oocyte surrounded by follicular cells Cortex covered by tunica albuginea and surface epithelial cells
Uterus
Provide mechanical support, protection and nutrition to developing conceptus Parts- Fundus, Body and Isthmus
Uterine wall
Endometrium Myometrium Perimetrium
Endometrium 10% of wall thickness Glands and blood vessels Functional and Basilar zone Myometrium 90% Longitudinal, circular and oblique muscles
Cervix
Considered separately from uterus Internal os, cervical canal, external os Extends from isthmus to vagina and projects into it
Fallopian tube
13 cm long Transport gametes Site of fertilization Infundibulum, Ampulla, Isthmus
Vagina
7.5 to 9cm Highly distensible Fornix is a shallow recess surrounding cervical protrusion Hymen- elastic epithelial fold
External genitalia
Vulva or Pudendum Vestibule- area surrounded by labia minora; has urethral and vaginal openings Clitoris- equivalent of penis Labia majora
Menstrual cycle
Ovarian cycle Endometrial cycle Cervical changes Vaginal changes Hormonal changes Usually around 28 days Start from the first day of menstruation
Oogenesis
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Resting primordial follicle Growing preantral follicle Growing antral follicle Dominant follicle Dominant follicle within periovulatory period Corpus luteum Atretic follicle
Small subset of follicles enter growth phase in waves Independent of gonadotropins Gamete- primary oocyte- maturational incompetence- arrest in diplotene stage of 1st meiotic division
Gametes secrete ZP1, ZP2 & ZP3. Form zona pellucida- species specific Granulosa cells express FSH receptor Thecal cells secrete small amounts of androstenidione and express LH receptor
Oocyte acquires maturation competence but still maintains meiotic arrest Maintenance of high levels of cAMP Thecal cells produce increased amounts of androgens FSH stimulates expression of aromatase in granulosa cells Inhibin B formation by granulosa cells
Dominant follicle
About 20 follicles are recruited Prolifera quota Dominant follicle 20mm in preovulatory phase Oocyte becomes 140 in diameter Dominant follicle- significantly steroidogenic FSH induces LH receptors In mural granulosa cells
Ovulation
LH surge Oocyte progresses to metaphase of meiosis II Formation of stigma Release of cytokines and hydrolytic enzymes Breakdown at stigma Cumulus-oocyte complex released into peritoneum
Ovulation
Cumulus expansion- hyaluronic acid and matrix components Granulosa cells secrete angiogenic factors
Corpus luteum
Corpus hemorhagicum Enlargement of granulosa lutein cells 14 days life Needs hCG PGF2 cause regression of lutein cells Corpus albicans Peaking of progesterone production Inhibin A repress FSH
Fall in hormones during 2nd half of luteal phase Luteal phase deficiency
Atretic follicles
Apoptosis Thecal cells persist
Ovarian cycle
Follicular phase: preovulatory phase Luteal phase: postovulatory phase Luteal phase is fixed- 14 days
Uterine cycle
Proliferatory phase: follicular phase Secretory phase: luteal phase Proliferatory phase begins at day 1 of menstruation Menstruation: process of endometrial (stratum functionale) sloughing; lasts 1-5 days; loss of upto 80ml (average 35ml) of blood; withdrawal of progesterone
Proliferative phase: begins on 1st day of menses Till ovulation Increase in endometrial thickness Endometrial glands are drawn out Influence of estrogen Estrogen induces progesterone receptor expression
Secretory phase: Glands get coiled & tortuous and secrete clear fluid Under the influence of progesterone Change in adhesivity of surface epithelium Differentiation of stromal cells into predecidual cells
Menopause
45-55yrs Decline in number of follicles Reduced estrogen and progesterone High gonadotropin levels Climacteric Hot flushes coincide with LH surge
Disorders of menstruation
Menorrhagia: excessive bleeding Metrorrhagia: irregular and intermenstrual bleeding Dysmenorrhoea: painful bleeding Oligomenorrhoea: Amenorrhoea: Anovulatory cycle: Endometriosis: cause of infertility
Vaginal cycle
Estrogens cornify vaginal epithelium Progesterone causes proliferation of vaginal epithelium and infilteration with leucocytes Thick mucus secretion due to progesterone Cornification- increased glycogen accumulation
Ovarian hormones
Estrogens progesterone
Estrogens
LH acts on theca interna to increase androgen secretion FSH induces aromatase in granulosa cells Androgens are converted to 17 estradiol 2% of circulating estrogen is free; 60% bound to albumin; rest to SHBG Metabolized in liver
Actions of estrogens
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Facilitate growth of follicles Increase motility of fallopian tubes Support endometrial growth Increase myometrial excitability Feedback inhibition of FSH Dual effect on LH regulation Increase libido Increased dendrites and synaptic knobs in rat neurons
8. Reported to slow progression of alzheimers 9. Growth hormone of breast 10. Secondary sexual character development 11. Salt and water retention 12. Lowers plasma cholesterol 13. Anti-atherogenic 14. Avoids osteoporosis
Progesterone
Produced by granulosa cells Stimulated by LH
2% is freely circulating; 80% bound to albumin and remaining to CBG Converted to pregnenidiol and conjugated
Actions of progesterone
1. Secretory changes in endometrium. Prepares it for maintenance of conceptus 2. Decreases the excitability of myometrium 3. Decrease estrogen receptors and increase conversion of active estrogens to less active ones 4. Stimulate development of lobules and alveoli of breast
Constant elevation of estrogen to 300% (200pg/mL) for 36hrs induces LH surge PGF2 luteolysin ET-1 and oxytocin
Fertilization
Recombination of genetic material Initiation of embryonic development Ampulla or junction of ampulla and isthmus
Steps of fertilization: 1. Penetration of cumulus- hyaluronidase 2. Bind to ZP3- Acrosomal reaction- ZP2 binding 3. Fusion of membranes 4. Ca2+ cascade- egg activation 5. Exocytosis of cortical granules- modify ZP 2 & 3 6. Sperm enters ovum- completion of 2nd meiotic division
Implantation
Fertilization on day 16 Implantation after 6 days Morula- 3days Blastocyst 4-5 days Inner cell mass and trophoblast Embryonic pole Digest ZP by proteases 5-6 days: hatched blastocyst
Cytotrophoblast Syncytiotrophoblast- adhesive; invasive; endocrine; phagocytosis; transport of substances Interstitial implantation hCG and other hormones
Other hormones
Relaxin CRH, -endorphin, -MSH GnRH, Inhibin subunit of hCG, Prolactin
Fetoplacental unit
Placenta takes over in 6th week after pregnancy Placenta synthesize progesterone and pregnenolone Progesterone is converted to cortisol in fetal adrenal Pregnenolone forms DHEAS & 16OH-DHEAS in fetal liver They form estradiol and estriol respectively in placenta
Placenta
Formed by trophoblastic cells Bathed with maternal blood 2 umbilical arteries and one vein
Functions of placenta
Fetal nutrition Supply oxygen and remove CO2 Remove metabolic wastes Hormonal production Maintenance of pregnancy via progesterone
GFR increases by 50% Increased renal reabsorption of sodium and water Relaxation of ligaments Melasma gravidarum; striae gravidarum Reduced IOP; subconjunctival hemorrhages; corneal edema Nasal congestion; hoarseness of voice Increased salivation
Endocrine and metabolic changes: Thyroid enlargement; Increased Iodine uptake; Increased thyroglobulin Reduced serum Ca2+ levels; increased Vit D; intestinal absorption of calcium Increased pituitary size Hyperplasia and hypertrophy of cells of langerhans; increased glycogen storage
Amniotic fluid
0.5 to 1.0 ltr Contributed by fetal urine Replaced every 3hrs Amniocentesis
Parturition
Duration of pregnancy- 284 days from LMP Increased CRH secretion- increased cortisollung maturation Increase in estrogen & fall in progesterone Increased PGF2 Increase in oxytocin receptors in myometrium Parturition reflex Bearing down
Parturition reflex