Saudi Arabia

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Al-Mamlakah al-Arabiyyah as-Sudiyyah

Flag

Emblem

Motto:
"L ilha ill l-lh, Muhammadun raslu l-lh"
"There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God."[1][a] (Shahada)
Anthem: as-Salm al-Malakiyy
Speed for Glory
MENU0:00

Capital
and largest city

Riyadh

2439N 4646E
Official languages

Arabic[5]

Demonym
Saudi Arabian
Saudi (informal)
Government

Unitary Islamic absolute monarchy

King

Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz

Crown Prince Salman bin Abdul Aziz

Legislature

None[a]

Establishment
-

Kingdom founded

23 September 1932[6]

Area
-

Total

2,149,690[5] km2 (13th)

870,000 sq mi
-

Water (%)

0.7

Population
-

2012 estimate 29,195,895[7] (43rd)

Density

12.3/km2 (216th)

31/sq mi
GDP (PPP)

2012 estimate

Total

$906.806 billion[8] (19th)

Per capita

GDP (nominal)

$31,275[8] (28th)
2012 estimate

Total

$727.307 billion[8] (19th)

Per capita

HDI (2013)

$25,085[8] (30th)

0.782[9]

high 57th
Currency

Saudi riyal (SR) (SAR)

Time zone

AST (UTC+3)

Drives on the right

Calling code

+966

ISO 3166 code

Internet TLD
.sa

SA

.
a.
king.

^ Legislation is by king's decree. The Consultative Assembly exists to advise the

Saudi Arabia (i/sadi rebi./ or i/sdi rebi./; Arabic: as-Sudiyyah or asSadiyyah), officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic:
al-Mamlakah al-Arabiyyah as-Sudiyyah, Arabic pronunciation (helpinfo)), is the
largest Arab state in Western Asia by land area (approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000
sq mi), constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula) and the second-largest in the Arab
world (after Algeria). It is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the
northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the
southeast, Yemen in the south, the Red Sea to the west and Persian Gulf to the east. Its
population is estimated to consist of 16 million citizens and an additional 9 million
registered foreign expatriates and 2 million illegal immigrants.[10]
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of
his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the
creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of
his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian
government has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, and it describes itself as
being Islamic. Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and the kingdom is sometimes
called "the Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in
Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
Saudi Arabia has the world's largest oil reserves which are concentrated largely in the
Eastern Province.[11][12] Oil accounts for more than 95% of exports and 70% of
government revenue, although the share of the non-oil economy has been growing
recently. This has facilitated the transformation of an underdeveloped desert kingdom
into one of the world's wealthiest nations. Vast oil revenues have permitted rapid
modernisation, such as the creation of a welfare state.[13] It has also the world's sixth
largest natural gas reserves. Saudi Arabia is the only country in the world which bans
women from driving.[14]
Etymology

See also: Arab (etymology)

Following the unification of the kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named
al-Mamlakah al-Arabyah as-Sudyah (a transliteration of in Arabic)
by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, king Abdul Aziz Al Saud. This is
normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[15] although it literally
means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom".[16]
The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Sudyah in the Arabic name of the

country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of
Al Saud () . Its inclusion indicated that the country's ruler viewed it as the personal
possession of the royal family.[17][18] Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the
word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[19] to the personal name of an ancestor. In
the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder,
Muhammad bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud).[20]
History

Main article: History of Saudi Arabia

Before the foundation of Saudi Arabia
See also: Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia and Unification of Saudi Arabia

The Arabian peninsula in 1914

Apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina,
located in the Hejaz in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, most of what was to become
Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic tribal societies in the inhospitable desert.[21]
The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 571. In the early 7th
century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single
Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the
territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge swathes of territory (from
the Iberian Peninsula in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In
so doing, Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the
focus shifted to the more developed conquered lands.[22] From the 10th century to the
early 20th century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known
as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one
of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder
of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[23][24]
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz,
Asir and Al-Hasa) to the Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason
was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the
Indian Ocean.[25] Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four
centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.[26]
[27] The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al
Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of
the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,[28]
founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[29] This

alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion
and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.[30] The first "Saudi state"
established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled
most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[31] but was destroyed by 1818 by the
Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[32] A much smaller second "Saudi
state", located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th
century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi
Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were
victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.[23]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a
suzerainty (albeit nominal) over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia
was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,[33][34] with the Sharif of Mecca having preeminence and ruling the Hejaz.[35] In 1902, Ibn Saud took control of Riyadh in Nejd and
brought the Al Saud back to Nejd.[23]) Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a
tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish, and
which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.[36] With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn
Saud captured Hasa from the Ottomans in 1913.
In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the
Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt
against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.[37] Although the Arab Revolt
of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end
of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia.[38]
Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt, and instead continued his struggle
with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in
1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Hejaz was conquered in 1924-25 and on 10
January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself King of the Hejaz.[39] A year later, he added
the title of King of Nejd.[23]
After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion
of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait,
and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he
recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan
became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favor
modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country.
As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated
in 1930 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred.[40] In 1932 the two
kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[23]
Post-unification
Main article: Modern history of Saudi Arabia
The new kingdom was one of the poorest countries in the world, reliant on limited

agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.[41] However, in 1938 vast reserves of oil were
discovered in the Al-Hasa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf and full-scale
development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Aramco (Arabian
American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and
substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in
the Hejaz, which was the center for newspapers and radio. But the large influx of
foreigners to work in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for
xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and
extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive
foreign borrowing.[23]

Abdul Aziz bin Saud, first king of Saudi Arabia

King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However, an intense
rivalry between the King and his half-brother, Prince Faisal emerged, fueled by doubts in
the royal family over Saud's competence. As a consequence, Saud was deposed in
favor of Faisal in 1964. Saudi Arabia gained control of a proportion (20%) of Aramco in
1972, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil
boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the October War against
Egypt and Syria. Oil prices quadrupled.[23] Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by his
nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid.
[42]
By 1976 Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.[43] Khalid's
reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate,
transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[23] in foreign
policy, close ties with the US were developed.[42] In 1979, two events occurred which
greatly concerned the Al Saud regime,[44] and had a long-term influence on Saudi
foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared
that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of
the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. In fact, there
were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979 and 1980. The second
event, was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The
militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and
un-Islamic nature of the Saudi regime.[45] The government regained control of the
mosque after 10 days and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the
royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social
norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the Ulema a
greater role in government.[46] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to
grow in strength.[47]

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia after unification in 1932

In 1980 Saudi Arabia took full control of Aramco from the US.
King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982, and was succeeded by his brother, King
Fahd, who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986.
Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the
purchase of American and British military equipment.[23] The vast wealth generated by
oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to
rapid modernisation, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new
media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly
affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was dramatic change in the
social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by
the royal family[23] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for
wider participation in government.[48]
In the 1980s, the Saudi regime spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the
Iran-Iraq War.[49] However, Saudi Arabia condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in
1990 and asked the US to intervene.[23] King Fahd allowed American and coalition
troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of
its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because
of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both
in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.
The Saudi regime's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among
some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an
increase in Islamic terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamic terrorist attacks in
Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi national (until
stripped of his nationality in 1994). 15 of the 19 hijackers involved in 9/11 attacks on New
York, Washington and Virginia were Saudi nationals.[50] Many Saudis, who did not in
any way support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the Saudi
regime's policies.[51]
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the regime. Although now extremely
wealthy, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in
unemployment have contributed to discontent, and has been reflected in a rise in civil
unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited "reforms"
were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law)" which
emphasised the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993 the Consultative
Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members - all chosen by
the king. The King's intent was to respond to dissent while making as few actual
changes in the status quo as possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have
democracy in mind: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic
creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shr]."[23]

Oil and gas pipelines in the Middle-East

In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Abdullah assumed the
role of de facto regent, taking on the day-to-day running of the country. However, his
authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the
"Sudairi Seven").[52] From the 1990s, signs of discontent continued and included, in
2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and
Khobar.[53] In FebruaryApril 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were
held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part in the poll.[23]
In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of
minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced a number of
economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited
deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. In February 2009,
Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces,
and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior
appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate
individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.[23]
On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare
display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through
the city, killing eleven people.[54] Police stopped the demonstration after about 15
minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.[55]
In 2011 and 2012 Saudi Arabia was affected by its own Arab Spring protests.[56] In
response, King Abdullah announced a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $10.7
billion. No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some
prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[57] Although male-only municipal
elections were held on 29 September 2011 [58][59] Abdullah announced that women will
be able to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated
to the Shura Council.[60]
Politics

Main article: Politics of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[61] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi
Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is,
Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad)
are declared to be the country's constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever
been written for Saudi Arabia, and Saudi Arabia remains the only Arab nation where no

national elections have ever taken place, since its creation.[62] No political parties or
national elections are permitted[61] and according to The Economist's 2010 Democracy
Index, the Saudi government is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among the
167 countries rated.[63]
In the absence of national elections and political parties,[61] politics in Saudi Arabia
takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the
royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[64] Outside of the Al-Saud, participation in the
political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the
form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs and members of
important commercial families on major decisions.[65] This process is not reported by
the Saudi media.[66]
By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the
traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[67] In many ways the approach to
government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains
strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by
tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over
local and national events.[65] As mentioned earlier, in recent years there have been
limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative
Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[68]
The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist
activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority particularly in the Eastern Province; and
long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[69]
Of these, the Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and
have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts in the country.[53]
However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.
On 25 September 2011, Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah has announced that women will
have the right to stand and vote in future local elections and join the advisory Shura
council as full members.[70]
Monarchy and royal family
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions[65] and royal decrees to
form the basis of the country's legislation.[71] The king is also the prime minister, and
presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzar), which comprises the first and
second deputy prime.
The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allow it to
control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence
at all levels of government.[72] The number of princes is estimated to be at least 7,000,
with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of King
Abdul Aziz.[73] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,[61] as are
the thirteen regional governorships.[74] Long term political and government

appointments, such as those of King Abdullah, who had been Commander of the
National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him)[75]),
former Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation from 1962 to his death in
2011, former crown prince Prince Nayef who was the Minister of Interior from 1975 to his
death in 2012, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975[76] and
current Minister of Defence and Aviation Prince Salman, who was Governor of the
Riyadh Province from 1962 to 2011,[77] have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms"
for senior princes.[78]
The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal
ambitions and ideological differences.[64] The most powerful clan faction is known as
the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their
descendants.[79] Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of
reform,[80] and whether the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There
were divisions within the family over who should succeed to the throne after the
accession or earlier death of Prince Sultan.[79][81] When prince Sultan died before
ascending to the throne on 21 October 2011, King Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef as
crown prince.[82] Prince Nayef also died before ascending to the throne in 2012.[83]
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused
of corruption.[84] In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for
them,[18] the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are
blurred.[73] The extent of corruption has been described as systemic[85] and endemic,
[86] and its existence was acknowledged[87] and defended[88] by Prince Bandar bin
Sultan (a senior member of the royal family[89]) in an interview in 2001.[90] Although
corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations,[91]
specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence
contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US$2 billion in bribes relating to the AlYamamah arms deal.[92] Prince Bandar denied the allegations.[93] Investigations by
both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the
company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.[94]
Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave
Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is
"highly clean").[95]
There has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an
agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The
creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for
political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National Dialogue Forum was announced
that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current
national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal
elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the
succession.[68] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government
by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post.[96]
However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.[97]

Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders
and jurists) a direct role in government,[98] the only other example being Iran.[99] The
ulema have also been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the
imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia
in 1990.[100] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education
systems[101] and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.
[102]
By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by
King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the
ulema was in decline.[103] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand
Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[104] The government's response to the
crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:
[46] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system[104] and
allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.
[46] Since his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah has taken steps to rein
back the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring their control over girls' education
to the Ministry of Education.[105]
The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[106] the country's leading
religious family.[102] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd alWahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today
dominant in Saudi Arabia.[107] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the
royal family)[108] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[109] and powersharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[100] The pact, which persists to this day,
[109] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious
matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh
support the Al Saud's political authority[110] thereby using its religious-moral authority to
legitimize the royal family's rule.[111] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the
ulema has diminished in recent decades,[112] they still hold the most important religious
posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[102]
Legal system
Main article: Legal system of Saudi Arabia

Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary
source of law. Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document[113]
The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qu'ran
and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet).[71] Sharia is not codified and there is no

system of judicial precedent. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali
school of jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in pre-modern texts[114] and noted for its literalist
interpretation of the Qu'ran and hadith.[115] Nevertheless, because the judge is
empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and will
apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements
arise even in apparently identical cases.[116]
Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather
than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia.[71] Royal decrees supplement
Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional
tribal law and custom remain significant.[117]
The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges
and lawyers form part of the ulema, the country's religious leadership. However, there
are also extra-Sharia government tribunals which handle disputes relating to specific
royal decrees.[118] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to
the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[119]
The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for being slow, arcane,[120] lacking in
some of the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with the modern world.[121]
In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new
court system, although the reforms have yet to be implemented.[116] The capabilities
and reactionary nature of the judges have, in particular, been criticized[122] and, in
2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary's personnel at the
most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.[120]

Deera Square, central Riyadh. Known locally as "Chop-chop square", it is the location of
public beheadings.[123]
Western-based organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
condemn both the Saudi criminal justice system and its severe punishments. However,
"ordinary Saudis", according to a BBC report, support the system and say that it
maintains a low crime rate.[124] There are no jury trials in Saudi Arabia and courts
observe few formalities.[125] Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a
criminal procedure code had been introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked
some basic protections and, in any case, had been routinely ignored by judges. Those
arrested are often not informed of the crime of which they are accused or given access
to a lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they do not confess. At
trial, there is a presumption of guilt and the accused is often unable to examine
witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in secret.[126]
The physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading, stoning,
amputation and lashing, and the number of executions have been strongly criticized.

[127] The death penalty can be imposed for a wide range of offences including murder,
rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and
can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by
crucifixion.[128][129] The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all
carried out by public beheading. The last reported execution for sorcery took place in
June 2012[130] and three recent convictions for witchcraft did not result in execution.
Although repeated theft can be punishable by amputation of the right hand, only one
instance of judicial amputation was reported between 2007 and 2010. Gay rights are not
recognised. Homosexual acts are punishable by flogging or death.[128][131] Lashings
are a common form of punishment[132] and are often imposed for offences against
religion and public morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and fasting
obligations.[128]
Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically
removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.[122] Families of someone
unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency
in return for a payment of diyya, or blood money, by the perpetrator.[133]
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has long been criticized for its human rights record. Human rights issues
that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of
women (see Women in Saudi society below), religious discrimination, the lack of
religious freedom and the activities of the religious police (see Religion below).[127]
Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to four UN human rights conventions
and, in 2004, the government approved the establishment of the National Society for
Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by government employees, to monitor their
implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and doubts remain
over its neutrality and independence.[134] Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few
countries in the world not to accept the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In
response to the continuing criticism of its human rights record, the Saudi government
points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this justifies a
different social and political order.[135]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia

Saudi-born Osama bin Laden (right) with a journalist Hamid Mir in 1997
Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945[15][136] and is a founder member of the Arab

League, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the
Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[137] It plays a
prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005
joined the World Trade Organization.[15] Saudi Arabia supports the intended formation
of the Arab Customs Union in 2015 and an Arab common market[138] by 2020, as
announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.[139] As a founding member of OPEC, its
oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate
sharp price movements so as to not jeopardise the Western economies.[15]

King Abdullah with former US President George W. Bush.

Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70 billion in "overseas
development aid".[140] However, there is evidence that the vast majority was, in fact,
spent on propagating and extending the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other
forms of Islam.[141] There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid and
Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries.[142] The two main
allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes
terrorism.[143] Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which AlQaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[144] However, the Saudi
government strenuously denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural
extremism.[145]
In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and proAmerican,[146] and it is certainly a long-term ally of the United States.[147] However,
this[148] and Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing
of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist
response internally.[149] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself
from the U.S. and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the U.S.-led
invasion of Iraq in 2003.[65] Relations with the United States became strained following
9/11.[150] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting
terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.[151] Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out
of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia.[152] According to the U.S.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base
for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia
constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups
worldwide."[153]
Saudi Arabia's increasing alarm at the rise of Iran is reflected in the reported private
comments of King Abdullah[154] urging the US to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the
snake".[155] Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab-Israeli
conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians
and condemning Hezbollah.[156] Following the Arab Spring Saudi Arabia offered asylum

to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah telephoned
President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[157]
Military
Main article: Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia
Further information: Al-Yamamah arms deal

Royal Saudi Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon.

The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force,
the Royal Saudi Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard
(SANG, an independent military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000
active-duty personnel. In 2005 the armed forces had the following personnel: the army,
75,000; the air force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; the navy, 15,500 (including 3,000
marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. [158] In
addition, there is an Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service.
The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and originated out of
Abdul Aziz's tribal military-religious force, the Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is
attributable to it being effectively Abdullah's private army since the 1960s and, unlike the
rest of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The
SANG has been a counterbalance to the Sudairi faction in the royal family: Prince
Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called 'Sudairi Seven' and
controls the remainder of the armed forces.[159]

HMS Makkah, an Al Riyadh class frigate.

Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-'90s and
was about US$25.4 billion in 2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in
government spending for its military, representing about 7% of gross domestic product in
2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most
densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US,
France and Britain.[158] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military
hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military.[160] On 20 October 2010, the
U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in
American history an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the
Saudi armed forces.[161] The UK has also been a major supplier of military equipment

to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[162] Since 1985, the UK has supplied military aircraft
notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft and other equipment as
part of the long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth 43 billion by
2006 and thought to be worth a further 40 billion.[163]
In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a 1.9bn ($3bn) deal to supply Hawk
trainer jets to Saudi Arabia.[164]
Geography

Main article: Geography of Saudi Arabia

Ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. The yellow line encloses the ecoregions Arabian
Desert, East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands and two other smaller desert areas.[165]
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian peninsula,[166] lying between latitudes
16 and 33 N, and longitudes 34 and 56 E. Because the country's southern borders
with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely defined or marked, the exact
size of the country remains unknown.[166] The CIA World Factbook's estimate is
2,250,000 km2 (868,730 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 13th largest state.
[167]
Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert and associated semidesert and shrubland (see satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of linked
deserts and includes the 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in
the southern part of the country, the world's largest contiguous sand desert.[65][168]
There are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis are numerous. The few
fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[65] The
main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea
and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea
coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel to which runs an
imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous, and contains the
3,133 m (10,279 ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.[65]

The Nejd landscape: desert and the Tuwaiq Escarpment near Riyadh
Except for the southwestern province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with
extremely high day-time temperatures and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average

summer temperatures are around 113 F (45 C), but can be as high as 129 F (54 C).
In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 32 F (0 C). In the spring and autumn
the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 84 F (29 C). Annual rainfall is
extremely low. The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean
monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12
in) of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of the annual precipitation.[169]
Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand rats, and
jerboas. Larger animals such as gazelles, oryx, and leopards were relatively numerous
until the 1950s, when hunting from motor vehicles reduced these animals almost to
extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles,
hawks, vultures, sand grouse and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of
which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine
life in the Persian Gulf. Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys,
and chickens. Reflecting the country's desert conditions, Saudi Arabia's plant life mostly
consists of small herbs and shrubs requiring little water. There are a few small areas of
grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.[65]
Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Saudi Arabia and Governorates of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces[170] (manatiq idriyya, singular mintaqah
idariyya). The provinces are further divided into 118 governorates (Arabic: manatiq
idriyya, , ). This number includes the 13 provincial capitals, which have a
different status as municipalities (amanah) headed by mayors (amin). The governorates
are further sudivided into sub-governorates (marakiz, sing. markaz).
No.

Province

Capital

Provinces of Saudi Arabia

1

Al Jawf (or Jouf)

Sakaka city

Northern Borders

Arar

Tabuk Tabuk city

Ha'il

Al Madinah

Medina

Al Qasim

Buraidah

Ha'il city

Makkah

Mecca

Al Riyadh

Riyadh city

Eastern Province

Dammam

10

Al Bahah (or Baha)

Al Bahah city

11

Asir

12

Jizan Jizan city

13

Najran Najran city

Abha

Economy

Main article: Economy of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia Export Treemap

Skyline of Riyadh.
Saudi Arabia's command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget revenues
and 90% of export earnings come from the oil industry. The oil industry comprises about
45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross domestic product, compared with 40% from the
private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about 260 billion barrels (4.11010
m3) of oil reserves, comprising about one-fifth of the world's proven total petroleum
reserves.[171]
The government is attempting to promote growth in the private sector by privatizing
industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans to
begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing
privatization of the telecommunications company. Shortages of water and rapid
population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in
agricultural products.
In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues
combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of
$11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in 1998.[172] Increases in oil
prices since 2000 have helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars, or

about $7,400 adjusted for inflation.[173] Taking into account the impact of the real oil
price changes on the Kingdom's real gross domestic income, the real command-basis
GDP was computed to be 330.381 billion 1999 USD in 2010.[174]
Oil price increases of 20082009 have triggered a second oil boom, pushing Saudi
Arabia's budget surplus to $28 billion (110SR billion) in 2005. Tadawul (the Saudi stock
market index) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23% to close at 4437.58 points. Market
capitalization was up 110.14% from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (589.93SR
billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil
production based on their "proven reserves." The higher their reserves, the more OPEC
allows them to produce.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown
little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion
barrels (1.61010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[175] Matthew Simmons has suggested
that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production
declines (see peak oil).[176]

Saudi Arabia is the largest exporter of petroleum in the world

Saudi Arabia is one of only a few fast-growing countries in the world with a relatively high
per capita income of $24,200 (2010). Saudi Arabia will be launching six "economic cities"
(e.g. King Abdullah Economic City)[177] which are planned to be completed by 2020.
These six new industrialized cities are intended to diversify the economy of Saudi
Arabia, and are expected to increase the per capita income. The King of Saudi Arabia
has announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to
$33,500 in 2020.[178] The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote
diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to
contribute $150 billion to the GDP.
However the urban areas of Riyadh and Jeddah are expected to contribute $287 billion
dollars by the year 2020.[179]
Gold mining is carried out in the Mahd adh Dhahab region (also known as the "Cradle of
Gold"). Saudi Arabian stores suffered a significant decrease in Gold sales in 2012.[180]
Reporting of poverty remains a state taboo. In December 2011, days after the Arab
Spring uprisings, the Saudi interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two
colleagues and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a
video on the topic to YouTube.[181][182] Statistics on the issue are not available through
the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures.[183]
Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous[184] because of the risk of
being arrested. Three journalists: Feras Boqna, Hussam al-Drewesh and Khaled al-

Rasheed were detained after posting 10-minute film 'Mal3ob 3alena', or 'We are being
cheated'[185] on Saudis living in poverty to YouTube.[186] Authors of the video claim
that 22% of Saudis are considered to be poor (2009) and 70% of Saudis do not own
their houses.[187]
Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Saudi Arabia

This section appears to contradict itself. Please see the talk page for more information.
(February 2012)

Saudi Arabia population density (person per km2)

The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2010 is estimated to be 25,731,776 including
5,576,076 non-nationals[5] In 1950, Saudi Arabia had a population of 3 million.[188] The
ethnic composition of Saudi nationals is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Arab.[189] Until the
1960s, a majority of the population was nomadic; but presently more than 95% of the
population is settled, due to rapid economic and urban growth. As recently as the early
1960s, the Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300,000.[190] Slavery was
officially abolished in 1962.[191][192]
About 31% of the population is made up of foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia.[193]
Indian: 1.3 million, Pakistani: 900,000, Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000,
Bangladeshi: 500,000, Filipino: 500,000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260,000, Indonesian:
250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese: 250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and Turkish:
100,000.[194] There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of whom live
in compounds or gated communities.
Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991.[195] An estimated 240,000
Palestinians are living in Saudi Arabia. They are not allowed to hold or even apply for
Saudi citizenship, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from
granting them citizenship. Palestinians are the sole foreign group that cannot benefit
from a 2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers, which entitles
expatriates of all nationalities who have resided in the kingdom for ten years to apply for
citizenship with priority being given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields.[196]
The Articles 12.4 and 14.1 of the Executive Regulation of Saudi Citizenship System can
be interpreted as requiring applicants to be Muslim.[197]
In a 2011 news story, Arab News reported, "Nearly three million expatriate workers will

have to leave the Kingdom in the next few years as the Labor Ministry has put a 20%
ceiling on the country's guest workers."[198]
Languages
The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic. The three main regional variants spoken
by Saudis are Hejazi Arabic (about 6 million speakers), Nejdi Arabic (about 8 million
speakers) and Gulf Arabic (about 1.5 million speakers). The large expatriate
communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous being Tagalog
(700,000), Rohingya (400,000), Urdu (380,000), and Egyptian Arabic (300,000).[199]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Saudi Arabia
See also: Islam in Saudi Arabia and Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia, Wahhabism,
and Salafism

The "Mosque of the Prophet" in Medina containing the tomb of Muhammad.

There are about 25 million people who are Muslim, or 97% of the total population.[200]
Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less
reliable than censuses or large-scale demographic and health surveys for estimating
minority-majority ratios.[200] About 8590% of Saudis are Sunni, while Shias represent
around 1015% of the Muslim population.[201] The official and dominant form of Sunni
Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as Wahhabism (a name which some of its
proponents consider derogatory, preferring the term Salafism[202]), founded in the
Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth century, is often
described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant' or 'ultra-conservative'. However, proponents
consider that its teachings seek to purify the practise of Islam of any innovations or
practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Islamic Prophet
Muhammad and his companions[203] Shias face persecution in employment and
religious ceremonies.[204]
In 2010, the U.S. State Department stated that in Saudi Arabia "freedom of religion is
neither recognized nor protected under the law and is severely restricted in practice" and
that "government policies continued to place severe restrictions on religious freedom".
[205] No faith other than Islam is permitted to be practiced, although there are nearly a
million Christians nearly all foreign workers in Saudi Arabia.[206] There are no
churches or other non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country.[205] Even
private prayer services are forbidden in practice and the Saudi religious police reportedly
regularly search the homes of Christians.[206] Foreign workers have to observe
Ramadan but are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter.[206]

Conversion by Muslims to another religion (apostasy) carries the death penalty, although
there have been no confirmed reports of executions for apostasy in recent years.[205]
Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal,[205] and the last Christian priest was expelled
from Saudi Arabia in 1985.[206] There are some Hindus and Buddhists in Saudi Arabia.
Compensation in court cases discriminates against non-Muslims: once fault is
determined, a Muslim receives all of the amount of compensation determined, a Jew or
Christian half, and all others a sixteenth.[206]
According to Human Rights Watch, the Shia minority face systematic discrimination from
the Saudi government in education, the justice system and especially religious freedom.
[207] Restrictions are imposed on the public celebration of Shia festivals such as Ashura
and on the Shia taking part in communal public worship.[208] According to a 2012 poll,
5% of Saudis are atheists.[209]
Largest cities
v t e Largest cities or towns of Saudi Arabia
Central Department of Statistics & Information [1]
Rank City name

Province

Pop.

Rank City name

Province

11

Tabuk Tabuk 569,797

Pop.

Riyadh

Jeddah
1

Riyadh Riyadh 5,328,228

Mecca

Medina
2

Jeddah

Makkah

Mecca Makkah
389,993

Medina
378,949

Al Madinah

1,180,770

14

Jubail Eastern

Al-Ahsa
376,325

Eastern

1,063,112

15

Al-Kharj

Riyadh

Ta'if

Qatif

Eastern

371,182

Makkah

3,456,259

1,675,368

987,914

13

16

12

Ha'il

Ha'il

412,758

Hafar Al-Batin Eastern

Dammam

Eastern

Khamis Mushait

Buraidah
298,675

10

KhobarEastern
272,424

'Asir

Al-Qassim

903,597

17

Abha 'Asir

630,000

18

Najran Najran 329,112

614,093

19

Yanbu Al Madinah

578,500

20

366,551

Al Qunfudhah Makkah

Culture

Main article: Culture of Saudi Arabia

Stoning of the Devil in Mina

Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab tribal
civilization. This culture has been bolstered by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of
Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now predominates in the country. The
many limitations on behaviour and dress are strictly enforced both legally and socially.
Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no theatre or public
exhibition of films. Nevertheless, as reported by the UK Mail, within the Saudi royal
family homosexuality is permitted so long as it is not the subject of public attention (Daily
Mail: "A gay Saudi prince has been jailed for beating and strangling his servant.").[210]
However, the Daily Mail and Wikileaks indicate that the Saudi Royal family applies a
different moral code to itself ("WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting
drink, drugs and sex. Royals flout puritanical laws to throw parties for young elite while
religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.")[211] Public expression of opinion about
domestic political or social matters is discouraged. There are no organizations such as
political parties or labour unions to provide public forums.
Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to
prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday
is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend begins on Thursday.[65][212] In accordance
with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays are publicly recognized, d al-Fit r and
d al-Adh . Celebration of other Islamic holidays, such as the Prophet's birthday and
shr (an important holiday for Shites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally
and on a small scale. Public observance of non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited,
with the exception of 23 September, which commemorates the unification of the
kingdom.[65]
Islamic heritage sites

See also: Mecca, Medina, and Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites

Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram, Mecca

Saudi Arabia, and specifically the Hejaz, as the cradle of Islam, has many of the most
significant historic Muslim sites including the two holiest sites of Mecca and Medina.[213]
One of the King's titles is Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, the two mosques being
Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, which contains Islam's most sacred place, the Kaaba, and AlMasjid al-Nabawi in Medina which contains Muhammad's tomb.[214][215]
However, Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious
places of significance for fear that it may give rise to 'shirk' (that is, idolatry). As a
consequence, under Saudi rule, the Hejaz cities have suffered from considerable
destruction of their physical heritage and, for example, it has been estimated that about
95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been
demolished.[216] These include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter
Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the
first Caliph), Umar (the second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth
Caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).[217] Other historic
buildings that have been destroyed include the house of Khadijah, the wife of the
Prophet, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the local Hilton hotel; the house of AliOraid, the grandson of the Prophet, and the Mosque of abu-Qubais, now the location of
the King's palace in Mecca.[218]
Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that over the last 50 years
300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost.[219] It
has been reported that there now are fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that
date back to the time of Muhammad.[218]
Dress
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of
modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering,
garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear an
ankle length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a
large checkered square of cotton held in place by an agal) or a ghutra (a plain white
square made of finer cotton, also held in place by an agal) worn on the head. For rare
chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are
decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. Women are
required to wear an abaya or modest clothing when in public.
Ghutrah (Arabic: )is a traditional headdress typically worn by Arab men. It is made of
a square of cloth ("scarf"), usually cotton, folded and wrapped in various styles around

the head. It is commonly worn in areas with an arid climate, to provide protection from
direct sun exposure, and also protection of the mouth and eyes from blown dust and
sand.
Agal (Arabic: )is an item of Arab headgear constructed of cord which is fastened
around the Ghutrah to hold it in place. The agal is usually black in colour.
Thawb (Arabic: )is the standard Arabic word for garment. It is ankle length, usually
with long sleeves similar to a robe.
Bisht (Arabic: )is a traditional Arabic men's cloak usually only worn for prestige on
special occasions such as weddings.
Abaya (Arabic: )is a women's garment. It is a black cloak which loosely covers the
entire body except the head. Some women choose to cover their faces with a niqb and
some do not.
Entertainment, the arts, sport and cuisine
Main articles: Cinema of Saudi Arabia, Music of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian cuisine,
and Sport in Saudi Arabia
During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the Kingdom and were not considered unIslamic, although they were seen as contrary to Arab tribal norms.[220] During the
Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in
Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the
government closed all cinemas and theaters. However, with King Abdullah's reforms
from 2005, some cinemas have re-opened.[221]
From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic
development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of
creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be
dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent
of oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western
housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of
Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively.
Instruments include the rabbah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and
various types of percussion instruments, such as the t a
bl (drum) and the t
r
(tambourine). Of the native dances, the most popular is a martial line dance known as
the ardah, which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or rifles, dancing
to the beat of drums and tambourines. Bedouin poetry, known as nabat , is still very
popular.[65]
Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi
novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world albeit
generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi,
Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea.[222][223][224]

Football (soccer) is the national sport in Saudi Arabia.[citation needed] Scuba diving,
windsurfing, sailing and basketball are also popular, played by both men and women,
with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian
Championship.[225][226][227] More traditional sports such as camel racing became
more popular in the 1970s. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. The annual
King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and
attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry, another traditional
pursuit, is still practiced.[65]
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding Arab countries in the Persian
Gulf, and has been heavily influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Islamic
dietary laws are enforced: pork is not consumed and other animals are slaughtered in
accordance with halal. A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb, known as khz, is the
traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shwarm (shawarma), a marinated
grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Persian
Gulf, machbs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp, is popular. Flat, unleavened bread
is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in the
Turkish style, is the traditional beverage.[65]
Society
Saudi society has a number of issues and tensions. A rare independent opinion poll
published in 2010 indicated that Saudis' main social concerns were unemployment (at
10% in 2010[228]), corruption and religious extremism.[229][230] Crime is not a
significant problem.[158] However, Saudi Arabia's objective of being both a modern and
Islamic country, coupled with economic difficulties, has created deep social tensions.
Connections to the West have caused some Saudis to desire the overthrow of the Al
Saud. Others want a reformed and more open government and to have more influence
in the political process. On the other hand, juvenile delinquency, drug-use and use of
alcohol are getting worse. High unemployment and a generation of young males filled
with contempt toward the Royal Family is a significant threat to Saudi social stability.
Some Saudis feel they are entitled to well-paid government jobs, and the failure of the
government to satisfy this sense of entitlement has led to considerable dissatisfaction.
[231][232][233] Additionally, the Shiite minority, located primarily in the Eastern Province,
and who often complain of institutionalized inequality and repression, have created civil
disturbances in the past. Terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia have made it clear that Saudi
Arabia does harbor indigenous terrorists.[232]
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department communication by Hillary Clinton, United
States Secretary of State, (disclosed as part of the Wikileaks U.S. 'cables leaks'
controversy in 2010) "donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of
funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide".[234] Part of this funding arises through the
zakat (an act of charity dictated by Islam) paid by all Saudis to charities, and amounting
to at least 2.5% of their income. Although many charities are genuine, others, it is
alleged, serve as fronts for money laundering and terrorist financing operations. While
many Saudis contribute to those charities in good faith believing their money goes

toward good causes, it has been alleged that others know full well the terrorist purposes
to which their money will be applied.[144]
According to a study conducted by Dr. Nura Al-Suwaiyan, director of the family safety
program at the National Guard Hospital, one in four children are abused in Saudi Arabia.
[235] The National Society for Human Rights reports that almost 45% of the country's
children are facing some sort of abuse and domestic violence.[236] It has also been
claimed that trafficking of women is a particular problem in Saudi Arabia as the country's
large number of female foreign domestic workers, and loopholes in the system cause
many to fall victim to abuse and torture.[237]
Widespread inbreeding in Saudi Arabia, resulting from the traditional practice of
encouraging marriage between close relatives, has produced high levels of several
genetic disorders including thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy,
deafness and muteness.[238][239]
Women

A woman wearing a niqb

See also: Women's rights in Saudi Arabia
The U.S. State department considers that "discrimination against women is a significant
problem" in Saudi Arabia and that women have few political or social rights.[240] After
her 2008 visit, the UN special reporter on violence against women noted the lack of
women's autonomy and the absence of a law criminalizing violence against women.[240]
The World Economic Forum 2010 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 129th
out of 134 countries for gender parity.[241]
Every adult woman has to have a close male relative as her "guardian".[240] As a result,
Human Rights Watch has described the position of Saudi women as like that of a minor,
with little authority over their own lives.[242] The guardian is entitled to make a number
of critical decisions on a woman's behalf.[242] These include giving approval for the
woman to travel, to hold some types of business licenses, to study at a university or
college and to work if the type of business is not "deemed appropriate for a
woman."[240] Even where a guardian's approval is not legally required, some officials
will still ask for it.[243]
Women are also said to have faced discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of
one man equals that of two women, and in family and inheritance law.[240] Polygamy is
permitted for men,[244] and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (talaq)
without needing any legal justification.[245] A woman can only obtain a divorce with the
consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her.[246] In practice, it is

very difficult for a Saudi woman to obtain a judicial divorce.[246] With regard to the law
of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be
left to the Qu'ranic heirs.[247] Generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male
heirs.[247] A Sunni Muslim can bequeath a maximum of a third of his property to nonQu'ranic heirs. The residue is divided between agnatic heirs.[247]
Cultural norms impose restrictions on women when in public,[240] and these are
enforced by the religious police, the mutawa.[248] They include requiring women to sit in
separate specially designated family sections in restaurants, to wear an abaya (a loosefitting, full-length black cloak covering the entire body) and to conceal their hair.[240]
There is also effectively a ban on women driving.[249]
Men marry girls as young as ten in Saudi Arabia;[250][251] Child marriage is believed to
hinder the cause of women's education. The drop-out rate of girls increases around
puberty, as they exchange education for marriage. Roughly 25% of college-aged young
women do not attend college, and in 20052006, women had a 60% dropout rate.[252]
Female literacy is estimated to be around 70% compared to male literacy of around
85%.[5]
Leading Saudi feminist and journalist, Wajeha al-Huwaider, has said "Saudi women are
weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because
they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone. The oppression of women and
the effacement of their selfhood is a flaw affecting most homes in Saudi Arabia."[253]
Although many Saudis would like more freedom in Saudi Arabia, there is evidence that
many women do not want radical change.[254] Even many advocates of reform reject
foreign critics, for "failing to understand the uniqueness of Saudi society."[255][256] A
number of Saudi women have risen to the top of some professions or otherwise
achieved prominence, for example Dr. Ghada Al-Mutairi, heads a medical research
center in California[257] and Dr. Salwa Al-Hazzaa, head of the ophthalmology
department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late King Fahad's
personal ophthalmologist.[258] On 25 September 2011, King Abdullah announced that
Saudi women would gain the right to vote (and to be candidates) in municipal elections,
following the next round of these elections. However, a male guardian's permission is
required in order to vote.[259][260]
Education

Main article: Education in Saudi Arabia

Laboratory buildings at KAUST

Education is free at all levels. The school system is composed of elementary,

intermediate, and secondary schools. A large part of the curriculum at all levels is
devoted to Islam, and, at the secondary level, students are able to follow either a
religious or a technical track. Girls are able to attend school. This disproportion is
reflected in the rate of literacy, which exceeds 85% among males and is about 70%
among females.[5] Classes are segregated by gender. Higher education has expanded
rapidly, with large numbers of Universities and colleges being founded particularly since
2000. Institutions of higher education include the country's first University, King Saud
University founded in 1957, the Islamic University at Medina founded in 1961, and the
King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah founded in 1967. Other colleges and universities
emphasize curricula in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine.
Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive
college instruction in segregated institutions.[65]
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the
memorization by rote of large parts of the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding
(Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at the core of the
curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all University
students.[261] As a consequence, Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and
technical skills the private sector needs" according to the CIA.[5] Similarly, The Chronicle
of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with
marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not
generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote
learning and religious instruction."[262]
A further criticism of the religious focus of the Saudi education system is the nature of
the Wahhabi-controlled curriculum. The Islamic aspect of the Saudi national curriculum
was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi
public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate toward the
'unbeliever', that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow
Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others".[263][264] The Saudi religious studies
curriculum is taught outside the Kingdom in madrasah throughout the world. Critics have
described the education system as "medieval" and that its primary goal "is to maintain
the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that
Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures".[265]
The approach taken in the Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging
Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts.[266] To tackle the twin problems of
encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a
modern economy, the government is aiming to slowly modernise the education system
through the "Tatweer" reform program.[266] The Tatweer program is reported to have a
budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the
traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging
students to analyze and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which
will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.[262][267]

See also

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