Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

al-Mamlakah al-Arabyah as-Sudyah

Motto:" , "
[1]
"There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." (Shahada)
Anthem:"as-Salm al-Malakiyy""Long live the King"

Capital
(and largest city)

Riyadh
2439N 4646E
[2]

Official language(s)

Arabic

Demonym

Saudi Arabian, Saudi (informal)

Government

Unitary Islamic
absolute monarchy

King

Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz

Crown Prince

Nayef bin Abdul Aziz

Legislature

None legislation by king's decree.[a]

Establishment

Kingdom founded

23 September 1932

[3]

Area
-

Total

2250000km2(12th)
870,000sqmi

Water(%)

0.7

Saudi Arabia

2
Population
[4]

2010estimate

27,136,977

Density

12/km2(216th)
31/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

(46th)

2012estimate
[5]

Total

$733.143 billion

Per capita

$25,465.97

GDP (nominal)

[5]

2012estimate
[5]

Total

$651.652 billion

Per capita

$22,635.35

HDI(2011)

0.770

[5]

[6]

(high)(56th)

Currency

Saudi riyal (SR) (SAR)

Time zone

AST (UTC+3)

Summer(DST)

(not observed)(UTC+3)

Drives on the

Right

ISO3166code

SA

Internet TLD

.sa, .

Calling code

+966

a. Consultative Assembly exists only with an advisory role to the king.

Saudi Arabia ( i/sadirebi./ or i/sdirebi./; Arabic: as-Sudyah or incorrectly as-Sadyah,

officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: al-Mamlakah al-Arabyah
as-Sudyah Arabic pronunciation), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the
Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the
north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and
Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of
approximately 2250000 km2 (unknown operator: u'strong' sqmi), and it has an estimated population of 27
million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi
nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.[7]
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in
1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured
Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian
government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being
Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam.
The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in
Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
Saudi Arabia has the world's second largest oil reserves and is the second largest oil exporter.[8] Oil accounts for
more than 95% of exports and 70% of government revenues, facilitating the creation of a welfare state[9] although
the share of the non-oil economy is growing recently. It has also the world's sixth largest natural gas reserves.

Saudi Arabia

Etymology
Following the unification of the Kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-Arabyah
as-Sudyah (a transliteration of in Arabic) by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder,
King Abdul Aziz Al Saud. This is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[10] although it
literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom".[11]
The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Sudyah in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of
adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of Al Saud () . Its inclusion indicated that the
country's ruler viewed it as the personal possession of the royal family.[12][13] Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by
adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[14] to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of the Al
Saud, this is the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud).[15]
For the etymology of Arabia, see Arabian Peninsula and Arab (etymology).

History
From the earliest times to the foundation of Saudi Arabia
Apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as
Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the Arabian
Peninsula, most of what was to become Saudi Arabia was
populated by nomadic tribal societies in the uninhabitable
desert.[16] The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born in Mecca
in about 571. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the
various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic
religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly
expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia,
conquering huge swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula
in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In
so doing, Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region of the
Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed
conquered lands.[17] From the 10th century to the early 20th
century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab
ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif
owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires
based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of
what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[18][19]

The Ottoman Empire in 1914, including nominal and

vassal Ottoman territories the position in Arabia had
largely been the same for the previous 400 years

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Hasa) to their
Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. The degree of control over these lands varied over the next four
centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.[20][21] The emergence of what
was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when
Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd
al-Wahhab,[22] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[23] This alliance formed
in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian
dynastic rule today.[24] The first 'Saudi State' established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and
briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[25] but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman
viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[26] A much smaller second Saudi state, located mainly in Nejd, was
established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what

Saudi Arabia
was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were
victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile.[18]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have suzerainty (albeit nominal)
over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers[27][28]
(including the House of Saud who had returned from exile in 1902[18]) with the Sharif of Mecca having
pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.[29] In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting
the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman
Empire to create a united Arab state.[30] Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, Arabia was
freed from Ottoman suzerainty and control by the latter's defeat in World War I.[31]
In 1902, Abdul-Aziz bin Saud, leader of the
House of Saud, had seized Riyadh in Nejd
from the Al Rashid the first of a series of
conquests ultimately leading to the creation
of the modern state of Saudi Arabia in
1932.[18] The main weapon for achieving
these conquests was the Ikhwan, the
Wahhabist-Bedouin tribal army led by
Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish.[32]
From the Saudi core in Nejd, and aided by
the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after
World War I, the Ikhwan had completed the
conquest of the territory that was to become
Saudi Arabia by the end of 1925.[33] On 10
Arabia about 1923. Expandable map: Abdul Aziz's domain is in blue with dates of
conquest. The Kingdom of the Hejaz, conquered in 1925, is in light green. (The
January 1926 Abdul-Aziz declared himself
other Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Transjordan are also in shades of green)
King of the Hejaz and, then, on 27 January
1927 he took the title of King of Nejd (his
[18]
previous title having been 'Sultan').
After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leaders wanted to continue the
expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding
those territories. Abdul-Aziz, however, refused to agree to this, recognizing the danger of a direct conflict with the
British. The Ikhwan therefore revolted but were defeated in the Battle of Sabilla in 1930, where the Ikhwan
leadership were massacred.[34]
In 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[18]

From the foundation of the State to the present

The new kingdom was one of the poorest countries in the world, reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage
revenues.[35] However, in 1938 vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Hasa region along the coast of the
Persian Gulf and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic
prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz,
which was the center for newspapers and radio. But the large influx of foreigners to work in the oil industry
increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly
wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign
borrowing.[18]

Saudi Arabia

King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However,
an intense rivalry between the King and his half-brother, Prince Faisal
emerged, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. As
a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964. The major
event of King Faisal's reign was the 1973 oil crisis, when Saudi Arabia,
and the other Arab oil producers, tried to put pressure on the US to
withdraw support from Israel through an oil embargo.[18] Faisal was
assassinated in 1975 by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid.[36]
Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid during whose reign
economic and social development progressed at an extremely rapid rate,
transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[18]
in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.[36] In 1979, two
events occurred which greatly concerned the Al Saud regime,[37] and had a
Abdul Aziz bin Saud first king of Saudi
long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was
Arabia
the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite
minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their
Iranian co-religionists. In fact, there were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979 and 1980. The
second event, was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in
part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi regime.[38] Part of the
response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the
country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the Ulema a greater role in government.[39] Neither
entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.[40]

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia after unification in 1932

Khalid was succeeded by his brother King Fahd in

1982 who continued the close relationship with the
United States and increased the purchase of American
and British military equipment.[18] From 1976 Saudi
Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the
world.[41] The Saudi regime spent $25 billion in
support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran-Iraq War.[42]
The vast wealth generated by oil revenues and
channeled through the government had a profound
impact on Saudi society. It led to urbanization, mass
public education, and the creation of new media. This
and the presence of large numbers of foreign workers
greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values.
Although there was dramatic change in the social and
economic life of the country, political power continued
to be monopolized by the royal family[18] leading to
discontent among many Saudis who began to look for

wider participation in government.[43]

Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 Saudi Arabia joined the anti-Iraq Coalition. King Fahd, fearing an
attack from Iraq, invited American and coalition soldiers to be stationed in Saudi Arabia.[18] This action concerned
some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamic terrorism in
Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamic terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals the 9/11 attacks in New
York being the most prominent example.[44] But also many Saudis who did not necessarily support the Islamist

Saudi Arabia
terrorists were deeply unhappy with the government stance.[45]
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the regime. Although now extremely wealthy, the country's economy
was near stagnant, which, combined with high taxes and a growth in unemployment, contributed to disquiet in the
country, and was reflected in a subsequent rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a
number of limited 'reforms' were initiated (such as the Basic Law). However, the royal family's intent was to respond
to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have
democracy in mind: A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of]
government by consultation [shr].[18]
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Prince Abdullah assumed the role of acting King,
albeit his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").[46]
Abdullah continued the policy of mild reform and greater openness,[47] but in addition, adopted a foreign policy
distancing the kingdom from the US. In 2003, Saudi Arabia refused to support the US and its allies in the invasion of
Iraq.[18] However, terrorist activity increased dramatically in 2003, with the Riyadh compound bombings and other
attacks, which prompted the government to take much more stringent action against terrorism.[48]
In 2005, King Fahd died and his half-brother, Abdullah ascended to the throne. The king subsequently introduced a
new program of moderate reform which included a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's
reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. He has taken
much more vigorous action to deal with the origins of Islamic terrorism, and has ordered the use of force for the first
time by the security services against some extremists. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of
governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including
the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate
indiviuals and the appointment of the countrys first female deputy minister.[18]
In early 2011, King Abdullah indicated his opposition to the protests and revolutions affecting the Arab world by
giving asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and by telephoning President Hosni
Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[49] Saudi Arabia has also been affected by its own
protests.[50] In response, King Abdullah announced a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $10.7 billion. These
included funding to offset high inflation and to aid young unemployed people and Saudi citizens studying abroad, as
well as the writing off of some loans. State employees will see their incomes increase by 15 per cent, and additional
cash has also been made available for housing loans. No political reforms were announced as part of the package,
though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[51]

Politics
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[52] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal
decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah
(the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution, but no written modern constitution has
ever been written for Saudi Arabia, and Saudi Arabia remains the only Arab Nation where no national elections have
ever taken place, since its creation.[53] No political parties or national elections are permitted[52] and according to
The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among
the 167 countries rated.[54]
On 25 September 2011, Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah has announced that women will have the right to stand and
vote in future local elections and join the advisory Shura council as full member and be able to run as candidates in
the municipal election.[55]

Saudi Arabia

Monarchy and royal family

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions[56] and royal decrees to form the basis of the
country's legislation.[57] The king is also the prime minister, and presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis
al-Wuzar), which comprises the first and second deputy prime.
The royal family dominates the political system. The familys vast numbers allow it to control most of the kingdoms
important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.[58] The number of princes is
estimated to be at least 7,000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of
King Abdul Aziz.[59] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,[52] as are the thirteen regional
governorships.[60] Long term political and government appointments, such as those of King Abdullah, who had been
Commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him)[61]), former
Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation from 1962 to his death in 2011, new crown prince Prince
Nayef who has been the Minister of Interior since 1975, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since
1975[62] and current Minister of Defence and Aviation Prince Salman, who was Governor of the Riyadh Province
from 1962 to 2011,[63] have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes.[64]
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption.[65] In a country
that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,[13] the lines between state assets and the personal
wealth of senior princes are blurred.[59] The extent of corruption has been described as systemic[66] and endemic,[67]
and its existence was acknowledged[68] and defended[69] by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal
family[70]) in an interview in 2001.[71] Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad
undocumented accusations,[72] specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence
contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US$2 billion in bribes relating to the Al-Yamamah arms deal.[73]
Prince Bandar denied the allegations.[74] Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea
bargain agreements with the company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.[75]
Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on
a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[76]
Since the 9/11 attacks in 2001, there has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an
agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative
Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National
Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current
national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the
Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[77] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes
to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post.[78] However,
the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic,[79] and the royal family is reportedly divided
on the speed and direction of reform.[80]

Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in
government,[81] the only other example being Iran.[82] The ulema have also been a key influence in major
government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to
Saudi Arabia in 1990.[83] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems[84] and a
monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.[85]

Saudi Arabia

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the

country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society
were under way and the power of the ulema was in decline.[87]
However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in
Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[88] The government's response to
the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing
their financial support:[39] in particular, they were given greater control
over the education system[88] and allowed to enforce stricter
observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[39] Since
his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah has taken steps to
rein back the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring their
control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[89]

Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh, Grand

Mufti of Saudi Arabia, the country's most senior
[86]
religious authority.

The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[90] the country's leading religious family.[85] The Al
ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of
Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[91] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the
royal family)[92] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[93] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300
years ago.[83] The pact, which persists to this day,[93] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's
authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support
the Al Saud's political authority[94] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[95]
Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[96] they still hold the most
important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[85]

Political process and opposition

In the absence of national elections and political parties,[52] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct
arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[97] The royal
family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and ideological differences.[97]
The most powerful clan faction is known as the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers
and their descendants.[98] Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform,[80] and whether
the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There are also divisions within the family over who should
succeed to the throne after the accession or earlier death of Prince Sultan (the current Crown Prince) has
occurred.[98][99]
Outside of the Al-Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population
and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs and members of important
commercial families on major decisions.[56] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[100] In theory, all males
of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[101] In
many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains
strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal
sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.[56] As mentioned earlier, in
recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the
Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[77]
The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the
underground Green Party of Saudi Arabia; the Shi'ite minority particularly in the Eastern Province; and
long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[102] Of these, the Islamic
activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent
or terrorist acts in the country.[48] However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.
On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the

Saudi Arabia
city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people.[103] Police stopped the
demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.[104] As part of the wave of protests and
revolutions affecting the Middle East and North Africa in early 2011, a number of incidents and protests occurred in
Saudi Arabia

Law and human rights

The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived
from the teachings of the Qu'ran and the Sunnah (the
traditions of the Prophet).[57] Sharia is not codified and
there is no system of judicial precedent. Saudi judges tend
to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of
jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in pre-modern texts[106] and
noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qu'ran and
hadith.[107] Nevertheless, because the judge is empowered
to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other
judges) and will apply his personal interpretation of Sharia
to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in
Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of
apparently identical cases.[108] Royal decrees are the other
the country and a primary source of law. Arabia is unique in
main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather
[105]
enshrining a religious text as a political document
[57]
than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia.
Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labor,
commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.[109]
The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges and lawyers form part of the
ulema, the country's religious leadership. However, there are also extra-Sharia government tribunals which handle
disputes relating to specific royal decrees.[110] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to
the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[111] The Saudi system of justice
has been criticized for being slow, arcane,[112] lacking in some of the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with
the modern world.[113] In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new court
system, although the reforms have yet to be implemented.[108] The capabilities and reactionary nature of the judges
have, in particular, been criticized[114] and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary's
personnel at the most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.[112] Saudi Arabia has long been criticized for
its human rights record, with Western-based organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
condemning both the criminal justice system and its severe punishments. However, most Saudis reportedly support
the system and say that it maintains a low crime rate.[115] There are no jury trials in Saudi Arabia and courts observe
few formalities.[116] Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a criminal procedure code had been
introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked some basic protections and, in any case, had been routinely
ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crime of which they are accused or given access to a
lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they do not confess. At trial, there is a presumption of guilt
and the accused is often unable to examine witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in
secret.[117]

Saudi Arabia

The physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading,

stoning, amputation and lashing, and the number of executions have
been strongly criticized.[119] The death penalty can be imposed for a
wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery,
repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can
be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad,
followed by crucifixion.[120][121] The 345 reported executions between
2007 and 2010 were all carried out by public beheading. The last
Deera Square, central Riyadh. Known locally as
reported execution for sorcery took place in 2011[122] and three
"Chop-chop square", it is the location of public
subsequent convictions for witchcraft did not result in execution.
[118]
beheadings.
Although repeated theft can be punishable by amputation of the right
hand, only one instance of judicial amputation was reported between
2007 and 2010. Gay rights are not recognised. Homosexual acts are
punishable by flogging or death.[120][123] Lashings are a common form
of punishment[124] and are often imposed for offences against religion
and public morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and
fasting obligations.[120] Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are
practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the
A road sign for a bypass used to restrict
insistence
of a victim who lost his own eye.[114] Families of someone
non-Muslims from Mecca
unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or
granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya, or blood money, by the perpetrator.[125] Other human rights
issues that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of women (see Women in
Saudi society below), religious discrimination, the lack of religious freedom and the activities of the religious police
(see Religion below).[119] Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to four UN human rights conventions and,
in 2004, the government approved the establishment of the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by
government employees, to monitor their implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and
doubts remain over its neutrality and independence.[126] Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few countries in the
world not to accept the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to the continuing criticism of its
human rights record, the Saudi government points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this
justifies a different social and political order.[127]

Foreign relations
Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945[10][128] and is a founder member of the Arab League, Persian Gulf Cooperation
Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation).[129] It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005
joined the World Trade Organization.[10] Saudi Arabia supports the intended formation of the Arab Customs Union
in 2015 and an Arab common market[130] by 2020, as announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.[131] As a
founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to
moderate sharp price movements so as to not jeopardise the Western economies.[10]

10

Saudi Arabia

King Abdullah with former US President George

W. Bush.

11
Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70
billion in "overseas development aid".[132] However, there is evidence
that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending
the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of
Islam.[133] There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid
and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries.[134]
The two main allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism
encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism.[135] Former CIA
director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda
and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[136] However, the
Saudi government strenuously denies these claims or that it exports

religious or cultural extremism.[137]

In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American,[138] and it is
certainly a long-term ally of the United States.[139] However, this[140] and Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Persian
Gulf War, particularly the stationing of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile
Islamist response internally .[141] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S. and, for
example, refused to support or to participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[56] Relations with the United
States became strained following 9/11.[142] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of
supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.[143] Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out of the nineteen
9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia.[144] According to the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia
remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups.... Donors in
Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."[145]
Saudi Arabia's increasing alarm at the rise of Iran is reflected in the reported private comments of King Abdullah[146]
urging the US to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".[147] Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating
influence in the Arab-Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians
and condemning Hezbollah.[148] Following the wave of protests and revolutions affecting the Arab world in early
2011 Saudi Arabia offered asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah
telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[49]

Military
Further information: Al-Yamamah arms deal
The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the
Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard the 'SANG' (an independent military force), and
paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active-duty personnel. In 2005 the armed forces had the following
personnel: the army, 75,000; Royal Saudi Air Force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; Royal Saudi Navy, 15,500
(including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. And Saudi Special
Forces. [149] In addition, there is a Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service.
The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and
originated out of Abdul Azizs tribal military-religious force, the
Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being
effectively Abdullahs private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest
of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and
Aviation. The SANG has been a counter-balance to the Sudairi faction
HMS Makkah, an Al Riyadh class frigate.

Saudi Arabia

12

in the royal family: Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called Sudairi Seven and
controls the remainder of the armed forces.[150]
Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-90s and was about US$25.4 billion in
2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about
7 percent of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the
worlds most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and
Britain.[149] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi
military.[151] On 20 October 2010, U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms
sale in American history an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package
represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces.[152] The UK has also
been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[153] Since 1985, the UK has supplied
military aircraft notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft and other equipment as part of
the long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth 43 billion by 2006 and thought to be worth a
further 40 billion.[154]
In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a 1.9bn ($3bn) deal to supply Hawk trainer jets to Saudi
Arabia.[155]

Geography
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80 percent of the Arabian
peninsula,[157] lying between latitudes 16 and 33 N,
and longitudes 34 and 56 E. Because the country's
southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and
Oman are not precisely defined or marked, the exact
size of the country remains unknown.[157] The CIA
World Factbook's estimate is 2250000 km2 (unknown
operator: u'strong' sqmi) and lists Saudi Arabia as
the world's 13th largest state.[158]
Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian
Desert and associated semi-desert and shrubland (see
satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of
linked deserts and includes the 647500 km2 (unknown
operator: u'strong' sqmi) Rub' al Khali (Empty
Quarter) in the southern part of the country, the
worlds largest contiguous sand desert.[56][159] There
are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis
are numerous. The few fertile areas are to be found in
the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[56] The
main topographical feature is the central plateau which
rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends
into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red
Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the
Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing
escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is
mountainous, and contains the 3133m (unknown

Saudi Arabia Regions

Ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. The yellow line encloses the

ecoregions Arabian Desert, East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands
[156]
and two other smaller desert areas

Saudi Arabia

13

operator: u'strong'ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.[56]

The Nejd landscape: desert and the Tuwaiq

Escarpment near Riyadh

Except for the south western province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a
desert climate with extremely high day-time temperatures and a sharp
temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around
45C, but can be as high as 54C. In the winter the temperature rarely
drops below 0C. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate,
temperatures average around 29C. Annual rainfall is extremely low.
The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean
monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average
of 300mm of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of
the annual precipitation.[160]

Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand

rats, and jerboas. Larger animals such as gazelles, oryx, and leopards were relatively numerous until the 1950s, when
hunting from motor vehicles reduced these animals almost to extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and
trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sand grouse and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of
which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine life in the Persian Gulf.
Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens. Reflecting the country's desert
conditions, Saudi Arabias plant life mostly consists of small herbs and shrubs requiring little water. There are a few
small areas of grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.[56]

Administrative divisions
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces[161] (manatiq idriyya, singular mintaqah idariyya). The regions are
further divided into governorates (Arabic: manatiq idriyya, , ), 118 in total. This number contains the
regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (amanah) headed by mayors (amin). The
governorates are further sudivided into sub-governorates (marakiz, sing. markaz).
Region

Capital

Al Bahah (or Baha) Al Bahah city

Provinces of Saudi Arabia

Northern Border

Arar

Al Jawf (or Jouf)

Sakaka city

Al Madinah

Medina

Al Qasim

Buraidah

Ha'il

Ha'il city

Asir

Abha

Eastern Province

Dammam

Al Riyadh

Riyadh city

Tabuk

Tabuk city

Najran

Najran city

Makkah

Makkah

Jizan

Jizan city

Saudi Arabia

Economy
Saudi Arabia's command economy is
petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget
revenues and 90% of export earnings come
from the oil industry. The oil industry
comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's
gross domestic product, compared with 40%
from the private sector (see below). Saudi
Arabia officially has about 260 billion
barrels
(expected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
10
3
operator10
m ) of oil reserves,
comprising about one-fifth of the world's
proven total petroleum reserves.[162]
Saudi Arabia is the largest exporter of petroleum in the world
The government is attempting to promote
growth in the private sector by privatizing
industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity
companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. Shortages of
water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural
products.

In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of
population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in
1998.[163] Increases in oil prices since 2000 have helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars, or about
$7,400 adjusted for inflation.[164]
Oil price increases of 20082009 have triggered a second oil boom, pushing Saudi Arabia's budget surplus to $28
billion (110SR billion) in 2005. Tadawul (the Saudi stock market index) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23% to
close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14% from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion
(589.93SR billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their
"proven reserves." The higher their reserves, the more OPEC allows them to produce. Saudi Arabia's published
reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels
(expected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected
operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected
operatorexpected operatorexpected operator1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[165] Matthew Simmons has
suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak
oil).[166]
Saudi Arabia is one of only a few fast-growing countries in the world with a relatively high per capita income of
$24,200 (2010). Saudi Arabia will be launching six "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City)[167]
which are planned to be completed by 2020. These six new industrialized cities are intended to diversify the
economy of Saudi Arabia, and are expected to increase the per capita income. The King of Saudi Arabia has

14

Saudi Arabia
announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in 2020.[168] The cities will
be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are
projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP.
However the urban areas of Riyadh and Jeddah are expected to contribute $287 billion dollars by the year 2020.[169]

Demographics
Further information: BedouinandTribes of Arabia

Population and language

The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2010 is estimated to be
25,731,776 including 5,576,076 non-nationals[2] In 1950, Saudi Arabia
had a population of 3 million.[170] The ethnic composition of Saudi
nationals is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Asian.[171] Until the 1960s, a
majority of the population was nomadic; but presently more than 95%
of the population is settled, due to rapid economic and urban growth.
As recently as the early 1960s, the Saudi Arabias slave population was
estimated at 300,000.[172] Slavery was officially abolished in
1962.[173][174] The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic. The
three main regional variants spoken by Saudis are Hejazi Arabic (about
6 million speakers), Nejdi Arabic (about 8 million speakers) and
Saudi Arabia population density (person per km2)
Persian Gulf (about 1.5 million speakers). The large expatriate
communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous being
Malayalam (1 million), Tagalog (700,000), Urdu (380,000), and Egyptian Arabic (300,000).[175]
About 31% of the population is made up of foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia.[176] Indian: 1.3 million,
Pakistani: 900,000, Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000, Bangladeshi: 500,000, Filipino: 500,000,
Jordanian/Palestinian: 260,000, Indonesian: 250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese: 250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and
Turkish: 100,000.[177] There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of whom live in compounds or
gated communities.
Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991.[178] An estimated 240,000 Palestinians are living in
Saudi Arabia. They are not allowed to hold or even apply for Saudi citizenship, because of Arab League instructions
barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Palestinians are the sole foreign group that cannot benefit
from a 2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers, which entitles expatriates of all nationalities who
have resided in the kingdom for ten years to apply for citizenship with priority being given to holders of degrees in
various scientific fields.[179] The Articles 12.4 and 14.1 of the Executive Regulation of Saudi Citizenship System can
be interpreted as requiring applicants to be Muslim.[180]
In a 2011 news story, Arab News reported, "Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the Kingdom
in the next few years as the Labor Ministry has put a 20 percent ceiling on the countrys guest workers."[181]

Social issues
Saudi society has a number of issues and tensions. A rare independent opinion poll published in 2010 indicated that
Saudis main social concerns were unemployment (at 10% in 2010[182]), corruption and religious extremism.[183][184]
Crime is not a significant problem.[149] However, Saudi Arabias objective of being both a modern and Islamic
country, coupled with economic difficulties, has created deep social tensions, including the following. Connections
to the West have caused some Saudis to desire the overthrow of the Al Saud. Others want a reformed and more open
government and to have more influence in the political process. On the other hand, juvenile delinquency, drug-use

15

Saudi Arabia
and use of alcohol are getting worse. High unemployment and a generation of young males filled with contempt
toward the Royal Family is a significant threat to Saudi social stability. Some Saudis feel they are entitled to
well-paid government jobs, and the failure of the government to satisfy this sense of entitlement has led to
considerable dissatisfaction.[185][186][187] Additionally, the Shiite minority, located primarily in the Eastern Province,
and who often complain of institutionalized inequality and repression, have created civil disturbances in the past.
Terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia have made it clear that Saudi Arabia does harbor indigenous terrorists.[186]
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department communication by Hillary Clinton, United States Secretary of State,
(disclosed as part of the Wikileaks U.S. 'cables leaks' controversy in 2010) "donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the
most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide".[188] Part of this funding arises through the
zakat (an act of charity dictated by Islam) paid by all Saudis to charities, and amounting to at least 2.5 percent of
their income. Although many charities are genuine, others, it is alleged, serve as fronts for money laundering and
terrorist financing operations. While many Saudis contribute to those charities in good faith believing their money
goes toward good causes, it has been alleged that others know full well the terrorist purposes to which their money
will be applied.[136]
According to a study conducted by Dr. Nura Al-Suwaiyan, director of the family safety program at the National
Guard Hospital, one in four children are abused in Saudi Arabia.[189] The National Society for Human Rights reports
that almost 45% of the country's children are facing some sort of abuse and domestic violence.[190] It has also been
claimed that trafficking of women is a particular problem in Saudi Arabia as the country's large number of female
foreign domestic workers, and loopholes in the system cause many to fall victim to abuse and torture.[191]
Widespread inbreeding in Saudi Arabia, resulting from the traditional practice of encouraging marriage between
close relatives, has produced high levels of several genetic disorders including thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal
muscular atrophy, deafness and muteness.[192][193]
Reporting of poverty remains a state taboo. In December 2011, days after the Arab Spring uprisings, the Saudi
interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two colleagues and held them for almost two weeks for
questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[194][195] Statistics on the issue are not available
through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures.[196] Observers researching
the issue prefer to stay anonymous[197] because of the risk of being arrested. Three journalists: Feras Boqna, Hussam
al-Drewesh and Khaled al-Rasheed were detained after posting 10-minute film 'Mal3ob 3alena', or 'We are being
cheated'[198] on Saudis living in poverty to YouTube.[199] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis are
considered to be poor (2009) and 70% of Saudis do not own their houses.[200]

Religion
There are about 25 million people who are Muslim, or 97% of the total
population.[201] Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general
population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale
demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority
ratios.[201] About 8590% of Saudis are Sunni, while Shias represent
around 1015% of the Muslim population.[202] The official and
dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as
Wahhabism (a name which some of its proponents consider
derogatory, preferring the term Salafism[203]), founded in the Arabian
The tomb of Muhammad in Medina
Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth
century, is often described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant' or
'ultra-conservative'. However, proponents consider that its teachings seek to purify the practise of Islam of any
innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and his
companions[204] Approximately 40% of Saudi nationals consider themselves Wahhabis.[205]

16

Saudi Arabia

17

In 2010, the U.S. State Department stated that in Saudi Arabia "freedom of religion is neither recognized nor
protected under the law and is severely restricted in practice" and that "government policies continued to place
severe restrictions on religious freedom".[206] No faith other than Islam is permitted to be practised, although there
are nearly a million Christians nearly all foreign workers in Saudi Arabia.[207] There are no churches or other
non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country.[206] Even private prayer services are forbidden in practice
and the Saudi religious police reportedly regularly search the homes of Christians.[207] Foreign workers have to
observe Ramadan but are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter.[207] Conversion by Muslims to another
religion (apostasy) carries the death penalty, although there have been no confirmed reports of executions for
apostasy in recent years.[206] Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal,[206] and the last Christian priest was expelled
from Saudi Arabia in 1985.[207] There are some Hindus in Saudi Arabia. Compensation in court cases discriminates
against non-Muslims: once fault is determined, a Muslim receives all of the amount of compensation determined, a
Jew or Christian half, and all others a sixteenth.[207]
According to Human Rights Watch, the Shia minority face systematic discrimination from the Saudi government in
education, the justice system and especially religious freedom.[208] Restrictions are imposed on the public
celebration of Shia festivals such as Ashura and on the Shia taking part in communal public worship.[209]

Women in Saudi society

The U.S. State department considers that discrimination against women is a
significant problem in Saudi Arabia and that women have few political or social
rights.[210] After her 2008 visit, the UN special reporter on violence against
women noted the lack of women's autonomy and the absence of a law
criminalizing violence against women.[210] The World Economic Forum 2010
Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 129th out of 134 countries for
gender parity.[211]
Every adult woman has to have a close male relative as her "guardian".[210] As a
result, Human Rights Watch has described the position of Saudi women as like
that of a minor, with little authority over their own lives.[212] The guardian is
entitled to make a number of critical decisions on a woman's behalf.[212] These
include giving approval for the woman to travel, to hold some types of business
licenses, to study at a university or college and to work if the type of business is
not "deemed appropriate for a woman."[210] Even where a guardians approval is
not legally required, some officials will still ask for it.[213]

A woman wearing a niqb

Women also face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women, and in
family and inheritance law.[210] Polygamy is permitted for men,[214] and men have a unilateral right to divorce their
wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification.[215] A woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her
husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her.[216] In practice, it is very difficult for a Saudi woman to obtain a
judicial divorce.[216] With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's
estate must be left to the Qu'ranic heirs.[217] Generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.[217] A
Sunni Muslim can bequeath a maximum of a third of his property to non-Qu'ranic heirs. The residue is divided
between agnatic heirs.[217]
Cultural norms impose restrictions on women when in public,[210] and these are enforced by the religious police, the
mutawa.[218] They include requiring women to sit in separate specially designated family sections in restaurants, to
wear an abaya (a loose-fitting, full-length black cloak covering the entire body) and to conceal their hair.[210] There
is also effectively a ban on women driving.[219]

Saudi Arabia
Men marry girls as young as ten in Saudi Arabia[220][221] Child marriage is believed to hinder the cause of women's
education. The drop-out rate of girls increases around puberty, as they exchange education for marriage. Roughly
25% of college-aged young women do not attend college, and in 20052006, women had a 60% dropout rate.[222]
Female literacy is estimated to be around 70% compared to male literacy of around 85%.[2]
Leading Saudi feminist and journalist, Wajeha al-Huwaider, has said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high
their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone.
The oppression of women and the effacement of their selfhood is a flaw affecting most homes in Saudi Arabia."[223]
Although many Saudis would like more freedom in Saudi Arabia, there is evidence that many women do not want
radical change.[224] Even many advocates of reform reject foreign critics, for "failing to understand the uniqueness of
Saudi society."[225][226] A number of Saudi women have risen to the top of some professions or otherwise achieved
prominence, for example Dr. Ghada Al-Mutairi, heads a medical research center in California[227] and Dr. Salwa
Al-Hazzaa, head of the ophthalmology department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late
King Fahads personal ophthalmologist.[228] On 25 September 2011, King Abdullah announced that Saudi women
would gain the right to vote (and to be candidates) in municipal elections, following the next round of these
elections. However, a male guardian's permission is required in order to vote.[229][230]

Education
Education is free at all levels. The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. A
large part of the curriculum at all levels is devoted to Islam, and, at the secondary level, students are able to follow
either a religious or a technical track. Girls are able to attend school, but fewer girls attend than boys. This
disproportion is reflected in the rate of literacy, which exceeds 85 percent among males and is about 70 percent
among females.[2] Classes are segregated by gender. Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of
Universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include the
country's first University, King Saud University founded in 1957, the Islamic University at Medina founded in 1961,
and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah founded in 1967. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula
in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in
particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.[56]
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large parts of
the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at
the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all University
students.[231] As a consequence, Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector
needs" according to the CIA.[2] Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs
educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not
generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious
instruction."[232]
A further criticism of the religious focus of the Saudi education system is the nature of the Wahhabi-controlled
curriculum. The Islamic aspect of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House
which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate
toward the unbeliever, that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine,
Hindus, atheists and others"[233][234] The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the Kingdom in
madrasah throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as medieval and that its primary goal
is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at
war with other faiths and cultures.[235]
The approach taken in the Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to
reform efforts.[236] To tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's
university education for a modern economy, the government is aiming to slowly modernise the education system

18

Saudi Arabia
through the Tatweer reform program.[236] The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately
US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote
learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system
which will provide a more secular and vocationally-based training.[232][237]

Culture
Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab tribal civilization. This culture has
been bolstered by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now
predominates in the country. The many limitations on behaviour and dress are strictly enforced both legally and
socially. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no theatre or public exhibition of films.
Nevertheless, as reported by the UK Mail, within the Saudi royal family homosexuality is permitted so long as it is
not the subject of public attention (Daily Mail: "A gay Saudi prince has been jailed for beating and strangling his
servant.").[238] However, the Daily Mail and Wikileaks indicate that the Saudi Royal family applies a different moral
code to itself ("WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex. Royals flout puritanical
laws to throw parties for young elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.")[239] Public expression of
opinion about domestic political or social matters is discouraged. There are no organizations such as political parties
or labour unions to provide public forums.
Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets
of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend begins on
Thursday.[56][240] In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays are publicly recognized, d
al-Fir and d al-A. Celebration of other Islamic holidays, such as the Prophets birthday and shr (an
important holiday for Shites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Public observance of
non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited, with the exception of 23 September, which commemorates the
unification of the kingdom.[56]

Islamic heritage sites

Saudi Arabia, and specifically the Hejaz, as the cradle of Islam, has
many of the most significant historic Muslim sites including the two
holiest sites of Mecca and Medina.[241] One of the King's titles is
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, the two mosques being Masjid
al-Haram in Mecca, which contains Islam's most sacred place, the
Kaaba, and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina which contains
Muhammad's tomb.[242][243]
However, Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to
historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give
Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram, Mecca
rise to 'shirk' (that is, idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, the
Hejaz cities have suffered from considerable destruction of their physical heritage and, for example, it has been
estimated that about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.[244]
These include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu
Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first Caliph), Umar (the second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and
the fourth Caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).[245] Other historic buildings that have
been destroyed include the house of Khadijah, the wife of the Prophet, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the
local Hilton hotel; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of the Prophet, and the Mosque of abu-Qubais, now the
location of the King's palace in Mecca.[246]

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Saudi Arabia
Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that over the last 50 years 300 historic sites linked to
Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost.[247] It has been reported that there now are fewer than 20
structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.[246]

Dress
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress).
The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate.
Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle length garmet woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a
keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of
finer cotton, also held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair
cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and
appliques. Women are required to wear an abaya or modest clothing when in public.
Ghutrah (Arabic: )is a traditional headdress typically worn by Arab men. It is made of a square of cloth
("scarf"), usually cotton, folded and wrapped in various styles around the head. It is commonly worn in areas with
an arid climate, to provide protection from direct sun exposure, and also protection of the mouth and eyes from
blown dust and sand.
Agal (Arabic: )is an Arab headdress constructed of cord which is fastened around the Ghutrah to hold it in
place. The agal is usually black in colour.
Thawb (Arabic: )is the standard Arabic word for garment. It is ankle length, usually with long sleeves similar
to a robe.
Bisht (Arabic: )is a traditional Arabic mens cloak usually only worn for prestige on special occasions such as
weddings.
Abaya (Arabic: )is a women's garment. It is a black cloak which loosely covers the entire body except the
head. Some women choose to cover their faces with a niqb and some do not.

Entertainment, the arts, sport and cuisine

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the Kingdom and were not considered un-Islamic, although they were
seen as contrary to Arab tribal norms.[248] During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political
response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the
government closed all cinemas and theaters. However, with King Abdullah's reforms from 2005, some cinemas have
re-opened.[249]
From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its
teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts,
which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of
oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and
clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry
and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabbah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various
types of percussion instruments, such as the abl (drum) and the r (tambourine). Of the native dances, the most
popular is a martial line dance known as the arah, which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or
rifles, dancing to the beat of drums and tambourines. Bedouin poetry, known as naba, is still very popular.[56]
Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets have achieved
critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These
include Ghazi Algosaibi, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea.[250][251][252]
Football (soccer) is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and basketball are also
popular, played by both men and women, with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the
1999 Asian Championship.[253][254][255] More traditional sports such as camel racing became more popular in the

20

Saudi Arabia
1970s. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the
sports most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry, another
traditional pursuit, is still practiced.[56]
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding Arab countries in the Persian Gulf, and has been heavily
influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not consumed and other
animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb, known as khz, is the
traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shwarm (shawarma), a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb,
mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, machbs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp,
is popular. Flat, unleavened bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in
the Turkish style, is the traditional beverage.[56]

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28

Saudi Arabia

Further reading
Al Farsy, Fouad (2004) Modernity and Tradition: The Saudi Equation: Panarc International Ltd: ISBN
0-9548740-1-3
Gardner, Andrew (2004) The Political Ecology of Bedouin Pastoralism in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In
Political Ecology Across Spaces, Scales, and Social Groups, Lisa Gezon and Susan Paulson, eds. Rutgers:
Rutgers University Press.
Jones, John Paul. If Olaya Street Could Talk: Saudi Arabia- The Heartland of Oil and Islam. The Taza Press
(2007). ISBN 0-9790436-0-3
Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004)
ISBN 0-8133-4052-7
Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0-395-41165-3
Matthew R. Simmons, Twilight in the Desert The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, John Wiley
& Sons, 2005, ISBN 0-471-73876-X
Mnoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1-84277-605-3
al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-521-64335-X
Robert Lacey, THE KINGDOM: Arabia & The House of Sa'ud, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc, 1981 (Hard
Cover) and Avon Books, 1981 (Soft Cover). Library of Congress: 81-83741 ISBN 0-380-61762-5
Roger Owen, State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, 3rd Edition (Routledge, 2006)
ISBN 0-415-29713-3
T R McHale, A Prospect of Saudi Arabia, International Affairs Vol. 56 No 4 Autumn 1980 pp622647
Turchin, P. 2007. Scientific Prediction in Historical Sociology: Ibn Khaldun meets Al Saud. History &
Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies. (http://edurss.ru/cgi-bin/db.
pl?cp=&page=Book&id=53185&lang=en&blang=en&list=Found) Moscow: KomKniga, 2007. ISBN
5-484-01002-0
Carmen Bin Laden, Inside the Kingdom: My Life in Saudi Arabia (http://books.google.com/
books?id=9o80JAAACAAJ), Grand Central Publishing, 2005, SBN 0446694886
Robert Lacey, Inside the Kingdom, Hutchinson, 2009.
Weston, Mark, "Prophets and Princes," Wiley, 2008.
Haghshenas, Seyyed Ali, Saudi Arabia social and political structure and religious minorities.Iran, Tehran, Ettelaat
newspaper, June 2010.

External links
Saudi Arabia (http://www.saudi.gov.sa/wps/portal/espp) official government website
Saudi Arabia (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sa.html) entry at The
World Factbook
Saudi Arabia (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Saudi_Arabia/) at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia travel guide from Wikitravel
Saudi Arabia (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/saudiarabia.htm) web resources provided by
GovPubs at the University of ColoradoBoulder Libraries
Key Development Forecasts for Saudi Arabia (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.
aspx?Country=SA) from International Futures

29

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Saudi Arabia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=496880167 Contributors: 000peter, 13telhai, 28bytes, 2tuntony, 334a, 478jjjz, 48Lugur, 5faizan, 621PWC, 7keem, 867xx5209,
A bit iffy, A.h. king, A.zoubi, A8UDI, AA, ALL YOUR OIL RESERVE ARE BELONG TO US, ARUNKUMAR P.R, ARUenergy, AYousefzai, Aafour, Aaljuma, Aalnuaim, Aazp18, Aazzaa,
Abangmanuk, Abdulaziz444, Abeg92, Abesaid, Abgm18, Aboabdullah90, Abrnkak, Abu mohammed, Abutaza, Abuubayda, AceTracer, Aceleo, Active cardiologist, Adam Zivner, Adamdaley,
Adashiel, Add3993, AdjustShift, Admiral Norton, Adrian J. Hunter, Aeusoes1, Agathoclea, Agentbla, Ahavat, Ahmadaattar, Ahoerstemeier, Ahuskay, Aivazovsky, Ajfigurelli, Ajraddatz,
Akamad, Akanemoto, Akiftariq, Akramsoldier, Akwatik pengwin, Al-Maghamsi, Al-Mujahid Fi Sabil Allah, Alaa462, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alawadhi3000, AlbertR, AlefZet, Alensha,
Alex43223, AlexanderKaras, Alexf, Alfio, Alhamaqi, Ali K, Alihmo, Alite, Aljohani, Allens, Allmtl, Alphaboi867, Alphachimp, Alqasimo, Als7imy, Alsrlv, Alsubhi, Aluchko, Alyssalover,
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File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
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