SECTION 12

Pumps & Hydraulic Turbines

Pumps
The most common types of pumps used i n gas processi ng
pl ants are centri fugal and posi ti ve di spl acement. Occasi onall y
regenerative turbine pumps, axial -flow pumps, and ejectors
are used.
Modern practi ce is to use centrifugal rather than positive
di spl acement pumps where possi ble because they are usual l y
less costl y, require less maintenance, and less space. Conven-
tional centri fugal pumps operate at speeds between 1200 and
8000 rpm. Very high speed centrifugal pumps, which can operate
A = cross-secti onal area of pl unger, pi ston, or pipe, mm
2
a = cross-secti onal area of pi ston rod, mm
2
AC = al ternati ng current
bbl = barrel (42 U.S. gall ons or 0.1589 m
3
)
bkW = brake ki l owatt
C = constant (Fi g. 12-16)
C
p
= specifi c heat at average temperature, J/(kg C)
D = di splacement of reci procati ng pump, m
3
/h
DC = di rect current
d = impel ler di ameter, mm
e = pump effici ency, fracti on
g = 9.8067 m/s
2
(accelerati on of gravi ty)
H = total equi pment head, m of fl ui d
h = head, m of fl ui d pumped
hyd kW = hydraul ic ki l owatts
k = factor related to fl uid compressi bi l i ty (Fi g. 12-16)
kPa = ki lopascal
kPa (abs) = ki lopascal , absolute
kPa (ga) = ki lopascal , gage
L = length of sucti on pi pe, m
L
s
= stroke l ength, mm
m = number of plungers or pistons
NPSH = net posi tive sucti on head of fl ui d pumped, m
NPSHA = NPSH avail able, m
NPSHR = NPSH requi red, m
n = speed of rotati on, revol uti ons/mi nute (rpm)
n
s
= specifi c speed, rpm
P = di fferenti al pressure, kPa
P = pressure, kPa (abs) or kPa (ga)
P
vp
= li quid vapor pressure at pumpi ng temperature,
kPa (abs)
Q = rate of l iqui d fl ow, m
3
/h
r = ratio of internal volume of fluid between valves,
when the piston or plunger is at the end of the suc-
tion stroke, to the piston or plunger displacement.
RD = rel ati ve densi ty to water at standard temperature
s = slip or leakage factor for reciprocating and rotary pumps
S = suction speci fi c speed (uni ts per Eq 12-7)
sp gr = specifi c gravity at average fl owi ng conditi ons.
Equal to RD
T = torque, N m (Newton meters)
t
r
= temperature ri se, C
u = impel ler peripheral vel oci ty, m/s
VE = vol umetri c effi ci ency, fracti on
VE
o
= overal l vol umetri c effici ency
VE

vol umetric effi ci ency due to densi ty change

VE
l
= vol umetri c effi ci ency due to l eakage
v = li quid mean velocity at a system poi nt, m/s
z = el evati on of a poi nt of the system above (+) or
below () datum of the pump. For pipi ng, the el e-
vati on i s from the datum to the pi pi ng center -
l i ne; for vessels and tanks, the el evati on i s from
the datum to the l i qui d l evel .
Greek:
= densi ty at average fl owing condi ti ons, kg/m
3

i
= inl et density, kg/m
3

o
= outlet densi ty, kg/m
3
Subscripts:
a = accel erati on
bep = best effi ci ency poi nt, for maxi mum i mpel l er
diameter
c = compressi on
d = di scharge of pump
dv = di scharge vessel
D = di splacement
f = fricti on
i = inl et of equi pment
l = leakage
o = outlet of equipment
ov = overal l
p = pressure
r = ri se
s = static, sucti on of pump, speci fi c, or stroke
sv = suction vessel
v = vel oci ty
vp = vapor pressure
w = water
x = poi nt x i n the system
y = poi nt y i n the system
1 = impel ler di ameter or speed 1
2 = impel ler di ameter or speed 2
FIG. 12-1
Nomenclature
12-1
Alignment: The strai ght l i ne rel ati on between the pump
shaft and the dri ver shaft.
Casing, Axially Split: A pump case spl i t paral l el to the
pump shaft.
Casing, Radially Split: A pump case spl it transverse to
the pump shaft.
Cavitation: A phenomenon that may occur al ong the flow
path i n a pump when the absol ute pressure equal s the
li quid vapor pressure at fl owi ng temperature. Bubbl es
then form which later i mpl ode when the pressure ri ses
above the l i qui d vapor pressure.
Coupling: A devi ce for connecti ng the pump shaft to the
dri ver shaft consi sti ng of the pump shaft hub and dri ver
shaft hub, usual ly bol ted together.
Coupling, Spacer: A cyl i ndri cal pi ece i nstal led between
the pump shaft coupl i ng hub and dri ver shaft coupl ing
hub, to provi de space for removal of the mechani cal seal
without movi ng the dri ver.
Cutwater: The poi nt of mi nimum volute cross-secti onal
area, also cal led the vol ute tongue.
Datum Elevation: The reference hori zontal pl ane from
whi ch all el evati ons and heads are measured. The pumps
standards normal l y speci fy the datum posi ti on rel ative to
a pump part, e.g. the i mpell er shaft centerl ine for centrifu-
gal hori zontal pumps.
Diffuser: Pump desi gn in whi ch the i mpel l er i s surrounded
by diffuser vanes where the gradual l y enlarging passages
change the li quid vel oci ty head i nto pressure head.
Displacement: The cal cul ated vol ume di spl acement of a
posi ti ve displ acement pump with no sl i p l osses.
Double Acting: Reci procati ng pump i n whi ch l i qui d i s
di scharged duri ng both the for ward and return stroke of
the pi ston.
Duplex: Pump with two pl ungers or pi stons.
Efficiency, Mechanical: The rati o of the pump hydraul i c
power output to pump power i nput.
Efficiency, Volumetric: The ratio of the pump sucti on or
di scharge capacity to pump di spl acement.
Head: The flowi ng l iqui d col umn hei ght equival ent to the
fl owing l i qui d energy, of pressure, vel oci ty or hei ght above
the datum, whose sum is the total head. Al so used to ex-
press changes of energy such as the fri ction l osses, the
equi pment total head and the accel erati on head.
Head, Acceleration: The head equival ent to the pressure
change due to changes i n velocity i n the pipi ng system.
HPRT: Hydraul i c power recovery turbine.
Impeller: The bl aded member of the rotati ng assembl y of a
centrifugal pump whi ch imparts the force to the li quid.
NPSHA: The total sucti on absol ute head, at the sucti on noz-
zle, referred to the standard datum, minus the l i qui d va-
por absol ute pressure head, at fl owi ng temperature
avai l abl e for a speci fi c appl i cati on. For reci procating
pumps i t i ncl udes the accelerati on head. NPSHA depends
on the system characteristi cs, l iqui d properti es and oper -
ati ng condi ti ons.
NPSHR: The minimum total suction absolute head, at the
suction nozzle, referred to the standard datum, minus the
liquid vapor absolute pressure head, at flowing temperature,
required to avoid cavitation. For positive displacement
pumps it includes internal acceleration head and losses
caused by suction valves and effect of springs. I t does not
include system acceleration head. NPSHR depends on the
pump characteristics and speed, liquid properties and flow
rate and is determined by vendor testing, usually with water.
Pelton Wheel: A turbi ne runner whi ch turns i n reacti on to
the i mpulse i mparted by a l i qui d stream striking a seri es
of buckets mounted around a wheel .
Recirculation Control: Control l i ng the quanti ty of fl ow
through a pump by reci rcul ati ng di scharge l i qui d back to
sucti on.
Rotor: The pump or power recovery turbi ne shaft wi th the
impel ler(s) mounted on i t.
Rotor, Francis-type: A reverse runni ng centrifugal pump
impel ler, used i n a hydraul ic power recovery turbi ne, to
convert pressure energy i nto rotati onal energy.
Run-out: The point at the end of the head-capaci ty per -
formance curve, i ndi cating maximum fl ow quantity and
usual l y maxi mum brake horsepower.
Runner: The shaft mounted device in a power recovery tur-
bine which converts liquid pressure energy into shaft power.
Shut-off: The poi nt on the pump curve where fl ow is zero,
usual l y the poi nt of hi ghest total dynami c head.
Simplex: Pump with one pl unger or piston.
Single Acting: Reci procating pump in which l i qui d i s dis-
charged onl y duri ng the forward stroke of the pi ston.
Slip: The quantity of flui d that l eaks through the inter nal
cl earances of a positi ve di spl acement pump per unit of
ti me. Someti mes expressed on a percentage basi s.
Surging: A sudden, strong fl ow change often causi ng exces-
si ve vibrati on.
Suction, Double: Liquid enters on both sides of the impeller.
Suction, Single: Liqui d enters one si de of the i mpel l er.
Throttling: Controlling the quantity of flow by reducing the
cross-sectional flow area, usually by partially closing a valve.
Triplex: Pump wi th three pl ungers or pi stons.
Vanes, Guide: A seri es of angl ed pl ates (fi xed or vari abl e)
set around the ci rcumference of a turbine runner to con-
trol the fl uid flow.
Volute, Double: Spi ral type pump case wi th two cutwaters
180 apart, di vi di ng the flow i nto two equal streams.
Volute, Single: Spi ral type pump case wi th a si ngl e cutwa-
ter to direct the l i qui d fl ow.
Vortex Breaker: A devi ce used to avoi d vortex formati on in
the sucti on vessel or tank whi ch, if all owed, woul d cause
vapor entrainment in the equi pment inl et pi pi ng.
FIG. 12-1 (Contd)
Nomenclature
12-2
up to 23 000 rpm and higher, are used for low-capacity, high-head
applications. Most centrifugal pumps will operate with an ap-
proximately constant head over a wide range of capacity.
Positive displacement pumps are either reciprocating or rotary.
Reciprocating pumps include piston, plunger, and diaphragm types.
Rotary pumps are: single lobe, multiple lobe, rotary vane, progress-
ing cavity, and gear types. Positive displacement pumps operate
with approximately constant capacities over wide variations in head,
hence they usually are installed for services which require high
heads at moderate capacities. A special application of small recipro-
cating pumps in gas processing plants is for injection of fluids (e.g.
methanol and corrosion inhibitors) into process streams, where their
constant-capacity characteristics are desirable.
Axial-flow pumps are used for services requiring very high ca-
pacities at low heads. Regenerative-turbine pumps are used for
services requiring small capacities at high heads. Ejectors are
used to avoid the capital cost of installing a pump, when a suit-
able motive fluid (frequently steam) is available, and are usually
low-efficiency devices. These kinds of pumps are used infre-
quently in the gas processing industry.
Fig. 12-1 provides a list of symbols and terms used in the text
and also a glossary of terms used in the pump industry. Fig. 12-2
is a summary of some of the more useful pump equations. Fig.
12-3 provides guidance in selecting the kinds of pumps suitable
for common services.
EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEM EQUATIONS
The energy conservation equation for pump or hydraulic
turbine systems comes from Bernoulli s Theorem and relates
the total head in two poi nts of the system, the fri ction losses
between these points and the equi pment total head. El eva-
ti ons are measured from the equipment datum.
The total head at any system poi nt i s:
h z + h
p
+ h
v
z +
1000 P
g
+
v
2
2 g
Eq 12-1
The system fri cti on head i s the inl et system fri cti on head pl us
the outl et system fri ction head:
h
f
h
fx
+ h
fy
Eq 12-2
h
p

P
g RD 0.999

1000 P
g
h
v

v
2

2 g
hyd kW
Q H RD
367.47

Q H g
3 600 000


Q P
3600

bkW
Q H RD
367.47 e

Q H g
3 600 000 e

Q P
3600 e
**
(for pumps)
u
d n
60 000
bkW
hyd kW
e
(for pumps) T
9549 bkW
n
v
Q 277.8
A
bkW hyd kW e (for tur bi nes)
RD = rel ati ve densi ty
Water densi ty at 15C = 999 kg/m
3
n
s

n Qbep
Hbep
3
4


n Hbep
1
4
Qbep
H
bep
1 HP = 0.7457 kW
= 550 ft l bf/s
= 33,000 ft l bf/mi n
Standar d gravi ty accel er ati on:
g = 9.80665 m/s
2
= 32.174 ft/s
2
See Fi g. 1-7 for vi scosi ty rel ati onshi ps
*Standard atmospher i c pr essur e:
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa = 14.696 psi
**See Eq. 12-3 and 12-4.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AFFINITY LAWS
1: Val ues at i ni ti al condi ti ons
2: Val ues at new condi ti ons
CHANGE SPEED DI AMETER SPEED AND DIAMETER
Q2 = Q1 (n2/n1) Q1 (d2/d1) Q1 (d2/d1) (n2/n1)
h2 =
h
1
(n
2
/n
1
)
2
h
1
(d
2
/d
1
)
2
h1 [(d2/d1) (n2/n1)]
2
bkW2 = bkW1 (n2/n1)
3
bkW
1
(d
2
/d
1
)
3
bkW1 [(d2/d1) (n2/n1)]
3
NPSHR2 =
NPSHR
1
(n
2
/n
1
)
2

NPSHR
1
(n
2
/n
1
)
2
FIG. 12-2
Common Pump Equations
FLOW RATE
Gi ven
mul ti pl y by
to get
US gal /mi n UK gal /mi n ft
3
/sec bbl /day l i ters/s kg/h
m
3
/h 0.2271 0.2728 101.9 6.624 10
-3
3.6 1/(999 RD)
PRESSURE
Gi ven
mul ti pl y by
to get
l b/i n
2
ft water
at 39.2F
m water
at 0C
m l i qui d bar
* std atm
760 mm Hg
at 0C
kgf/cm
2
kPa 6.895 2.989 9.8066 g/1000 100 101.325 98.066
DENSITY
Gi ven
mul ti pl y by
to get
l b/ft
3
l b/US gal l b/UK gal kg/l t API gravi ty Baum gravi ty
kg/m
3
16.018 119.83 99.77 1000 See Fi g. 1-3
12-3
The equi pment total head i s the outl et nozzle total head minus
the i nl et nozzle total head:
H h
o
h
i
z
o
z
i
+
1000 (P
o
P
i
)
g
+
v
o
2
v
i
2
2 g
Eq 12-3
When the elevation and size of inlet and outlet nozzles are the
same, the equipment total head (H) equals the difference of pres-
sure heads. H i s positi ve for pumps and negati ve for HPRTs.
When usi ng any sucti on-and-discharge-system poi nts, the fol -
l owing general equati on appli es.
z
x
+
1000 P
x
g
+
v
x
2
2 g
h
fx
+H z
y
+
1000 P
y
g
+
v
y
2
2 g
+ h
fy
Eq 12-4
When the poi nts are l ocated i n tanks, vessel s or l ow vel oci ty
poi nts in the pipi ng, the vel oci ty head i s normal l y negl i gi bl e,
but may not be negl i gibl e in equi pment nozzl es. Note that the
subscri pts "i " and "o" are used for variabl es at pumps and
HPRTs i nl et and outl et nozzles, respecti vely, whi l e the sub-
scri pts "s" and "d" are used onl y for variabl es at pumps sucti on
and di scharge nozzl es. The subscri pts "x" and "y" are used for
vari ables at poi nts i n each i nl et and outl et subsystem and usu-
al ly are sucti on and di scharge vessel s. Al so "x" and "y" are used
for fri cti on head from poi nt "x" to equi pment i nlet nozzl e and
from equipment outl et nozzl e to point "y".
The work done in compressing the liquid is negligibl e for
practically incompressible liquids and it is not included in above
equations. To evaluate the total head more accurately when han-
dling a compressible liquid, the compression work should be in-
cluded. I f a linear relationship between density and pressure is
assumed, the liquid compression head that substitutes for the dif-
ference of pressure heads in above equations is:
H
c

(P
o
P
i
)
2

o
+
1

i
1
1
]
Eq. 12-5
When the differential pressure is sufficiently high to have a
densi ty change of more than 10%, or when the pressure is
near the fl ui ds cri ti cal pressure, the change i n fl ui d densi ty
and other properti es wi th pressure is not linear. I n these cases
Equati ons 12-3 to 12-5 may not be accurate. A specifi c fl uid
properties relationshi p model is required in this case. For pure
substances, a pressure-enthal py-entropy chart may be used
for esti mati ng purposes by assumi ng an i sentropi c process.
The pump manufacturer should be consul ted for the real proc-
ess, including the equipment effi ciency, heat transfer, etc. to
determi ne the equipment performance.
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
See NPSH definiti on in Fig. 12-1. There should be suffici ent
net posi ti ve sucti on head avai l abl e (NPSHA) for the pump to
work properl y, without cavitation, throughout its expected ca-
paci ty range. Usually a safety margin of about 0.6 to 1 m of
NPSHA above NPSHR i s adequate. Cavitation causes noise,
impel ler damage, and impaired pump performance. Consi d-
eration must also be gi ven to any di ssol ved gases which may
affect vapor pressure. For a given pump, NPSHR i ncreases
with increasing fl ow rate.
NPSHA
1000 (P
i
P
vp
)
g
+ z
i
+
v
i
2
2 g


1000 (P
sv
P
vp
)
g
+ z
sv
h
fsv
Eq 12-6
Pump type Standard Datum
elevation
Centr i fugal , hor i -
zontal
API 610
1

Hydr aul i c I nsti tute
5
Shaft center l i ne
Centr i fugal , ver ti -
cal i n-l i ne
API 610
1
Sucti on nozzl e
centerl i ne
Centr i fugal , other
verti cal
API 610
1
Top of the
foundati on
Centr i fugal , ver ti -
cal si ngl e sucti on,
vol ute and di ffused
vane type
Hydr aul i c I nsti tute
5
Entr ance eye to
the fi r st stage
i mpel l er
Centr i fugal , ver ti -
cal doubl e sucti on
Hydr aul i c I nsti tute
5
I mpel l er
di schar ge
hori zontal
centerl i ne
Ver ti cal tur bi ne.
Li ne shaft and sub-
mer si bl e types
AWWA E101
18
Undersi de of the
di schar ge head
or head basepl ate
Reci pr ocati ng Hydr aul i c I nsti tute
5
Sucti on nozzl e
centerl i ne
Rotar y Hydr aul i c I nsti tute
5
Refer ence l i ne or
sucti on nozzl e
centerl i ne
FIG. 12-4
Datum Elevation
FIG. 12-3
Pump Selection Guide
12-4
FIG. 12-6b
Vertical Inline Pump
FIG. 12-6a
Horizontal Single Stage Process Pump
FIG. 12-5
Depropanizer Reflux Pump for Example 12-1
12-5
Datum The pump datum elevation i s a very i mportant
factor to consi der and shoul d be veri fi ed wi th the manufac-
turer. Some common references are shown in Fi g. 12-4. Some
manufacturers provide two NPSHR curves for vertical can
pumps, one for the first stage i mpeller suction eye and the
other for the suction nozzle.
NPSH Correction Factors NPSHR is determined from
tests by the pump manufacturer usi ng water near room tem-
perature and is expressed i n height of water. When hydrocar-
bons or high-temperature water are pumped, less NPSH is
required than when cold water is pumped. Hydraulic I nstitute
correction factors for various liquids are reproduced in Fig. 12-9.
Some users prefer not to use correction factors to assure a greater
design margin of safety.
NPSH and Suction Specific Speed Suction specific
speed is an index describing the suction capabi lities of a first
stage impell er and can be cal culated usi ng Eq. 12-7. Use half
of the fl ow for double suction impellers.
S
n Q
bep
NPSHR
bep
3/4
Eq. 12-7
Pumps with high sucti on speed tend to be suscepti bl e to vi -
bration (which may cause seal and bearing problems) when
they are operated at other than design fl ow rates. As a result,
some users restrict sucti on specifi c speed, and a wi dely ac-
cepted maxi mum i s 11,000. For more detai l s on the si gni fi -
cance of suction speci fic speed, consult pump vendors or
references listed in the References section.
Submergence The sucti on system i nlet or the pump
suction bell should have sufficient height of l iqui d to avoid
vortex formation, whi ch may entrain air or vapor i nto the sys-
tem and cause loss of capacity and efficiency as well as other
problems such as vibration, noise, and ai r or vapor pockets.
I nadequate reservoi r geometry can also cause vortex forma-
ti on, pri mari l y i n verti cal submerged pumps. Refer to the Hy-
draulic I nstitute Standards
5
for more informati on.
CALCULATING THE REQUIRED
DIFFERENTIAL HEAD
The following procedure i s recommended to calcul ate the
head of most pump services encountered in the gas processing
industry. See Example 12-1.
1. Prepare a sketch of the system i n which the pump is to
be instal led, incl uding the upstream and downstream
vessels (or some other point at which the pressure wi ll
not be affected by the operation of the pump). I nclude all
components which might create fri ctional head loss (both
suction and discharge) such as valves, orifices, filters,
and heat exchangers.
2. Show on the sketch:
The datum posi tion (zero elevati on li ne) according
to the proper standard. See Fi g. 12-4.
The pump nozzles si zes and el evations.
The mi ni mum el evati on (referred to the datum) of
l i qui d expected i n the sucti on vessel.
The maximum el evati on (referred to the datum) to
whi ch the l i qui d i s to be pumped.
FIG. 12-6d
Vertical Can Pump
FIG. 12-6c
Horizontal Multi-Stage Pump
12-6
The head l oss expected to result from each compo-
nent whi ch creates a fri cti onal pressure drop at de-
si gn capaci ty.
3. Use appropri ate equations (Eq 12-1 to Eq 12-4).
4. Convert all the pressures, frictional head losses, and static
heads to consistent units (usually kPa or meters of head).
I n 5 and 6 below, any elevation head is negative if the liquid
level is below the datum. Also, the vessel pressures are the
pressures acting on the liquid surfaces. This is very impor-
tant for tall towers.
5. Add the stati c head to the sucti on vessel pressure, then
subtract the fricti onal head l osses in the suction pipi ng.
This gives the total pressure (or head) of li quid at the
pump sucti on fl ange.
6. Add the discharge vessel pressure, the fri ctional head
l osses i n the di scharge pi pi ng system, and the di scharge
static head. This gives the total pressure (or head) of liq-
ui d at the pump discharge. I n order to provide good con-
trol , a discharge control valve should be designed to ab-
sorb at least 30% of the fricti onal head l oss of the
system, at the design flow rate.
7. Calcul ate the required pump total head by subtracting
the cal culated pump sucti on total pressure from the cal -
cul ated pump di scharge total pressure and converti ng to
head.
8. I t is prudent to add a safety factor to the calculated pump
head to allow for inaccuracies in the estimates of heads and
pressure losses, and pump design. Frequently a safety fac-
tor of 10% is used, but the size of the factor used for each
pump should be chosen with consideration of:
The accuracy of the data used to cal cul ate the re-
quired head
The cost of the safety factor
The probl ems whi ch mi ght be caused by i nstal l ing
a pump wi th inadequate head.
Example 12-1 Liquid propane, at its bubble point, is to be
pumped from a reflux drum to a depropanizer. The maximum
flow rate is expected to be 82 m
3
/h. The pressures in the vessels
are 1380 and 1520 kPa (abs) respectively. The relative density of
propane at the pumping temperature (38C) is 0.485. The eleva-
tions and estimated frictional pressure losses are shown on
Fig.12-9. The pump curves are shown in Fig. 12-5. The pump
nozzles el evations are zero and the velocity head at nozzl es i s
negli gi ble.
Requi red differential head i s determined as fol l ows:
Absolute Total Pressure at Pump Suction
Refl ux drum 1380 kPa (abs)
El evation 6m 0.999 0.485 9.807 = +28.5 kPa
Fri cti on pi ping 3.5 kPa
val ves 1.4 kPa
1403.6 kPa (abs)
= 1302.3 kPa (ga)
FIG. 12-7
Pump Selection Guide Centrifugal Pumps
FIG. 12-6e
Vertical, High Pressure, Double Case, Multi-Stage Pump
12-7
Absolute Total Pressure at Pump Discharge
Tower 1520 kPa (abs)
El evati on 22.5 m 0.999 0.485 9.807 = +106.9 kPa
Fricti on pipi ng +20.7 kPa
val ves +13.8 kPa
orifi ce +8.3 kPa
fi l ter +89.6 kPa
check val ve +6.9 kPa
control valve +62.1 kPa
1828.3 kPa (abs)
= 1727.0 kPa (ga)
Di fferenti al pressure 1727 1302.3 424.7 k Pa
Di fferenti al h ead H
(424.7)
(0.485)(0.999)(9.807)
89.4 m
10% safety factor 9 m
Required di fferenti al head (H) 98.4 m
Calculation of NPSHA
Reflux drum
pressure 1380 kPa (abs)
El evation 6 m 0.999 0.485 9.807 = +28.5 kPa
Fri cti on val ves = 1.4 kPa
pi pi ng = 3.5 kPa
Fl ui d vapor
pressure 1380 kPa (abs)
23.6 kPa
NPSHA 23.6/(0.999 0.485 9.807) = 5.0 m
Thi s NPSHA result i s adequate when compared to the 3 m
of NPSHR in the curve shown in Fi g. 12-5.
FIG. 12-8
NPSHR Reduction for Centrifugal Pumps Handling Hydro-
carbon Liquids and High Temperature Water
FIG. 12-10
Example Centrifugal Pump Head Curves
FIG. 12-9
Example 12-1 Depropanizer
12-8
Calculation of Hydraulic Power
hyd k W
Q H RD
367
(from Fig. 12-2)
hyd k W
(82) (98.4) (0.485)
367
10.67 kW
Calculation of Actual Horsepower
bkW
hyd k W
e
(from Fig. 12-2)
Fig. 12-5 is the performance curve of the selected pump. The
effi ci ency at rated capaci ty and requi red head i s 62%, with a
brake kil owatt calculated as follows:
bkW
10.67 kW
0.62
17.2 bk W
Motor Sizing The maximum flow i s 115 m
3
/h with a
head of 75 m for this particul ar pump i mpeller size, which re-
sults in a brake ki lowatt requirement of 19.5 bkW at run-out
(i.e., end of head curve). Therefore a 25 kW motor is sel ected
for the pump driver to provide "full curve" protection.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figs. 12-6a through 12-6e are cross-sectional drawi ngs
showing typical configurati ons for fi ve types of centrifugal
pumps. A gui de to selecting centrifugal pumps is shown in
Fig. 12-7. Horizontal centri fugal pumps are more common;
however, vertical pumps are often used because they are more
compact and, in cold climates, may need less winteri zing than
hori zontal pumps. The total i nstall ed cost of verti cal pumps i s
frequentl y lower than equi val ent horizontal pumps because
they require smaller foundations and si mpl er piping systems.
Vertical can pumps are often used for li quids at thei r bub-
bl e-point temperature because the first stage impeller i s lo-
cated bel ow ground level and therefore requi res less net
positi ve suction head at the sucti on flange. The verti cal dis-
tance from the sucti on fl ange down to the i nl et of the fi rst
stage impeller provides addi tional NPSHA.
Centrifugal Pump Theory
Centri fugal pumps i ncrease the pressure of the pumped
fl uid by acti on of centri fugal force on the fl uid. Si nce the total
head produced by a centri fugal pump i s i ndependent of the
densi ty of the pumped fl uid, i t i s customary to express the
pressure increase produced by centri fugal pumps in feet of
head of fl uid pumped.
Operating characteristics of centrifugal pumps are ex-
pressed in a pump curve si mi lar to Fig. 12-5. Depending on
impel ler design, pump curves may be "drooping," "flat," or
"steep." Fi g. 12-10 shows these curves graphically. Pumps
with drooping curves tend to have the hi ghest efficiency but
may be undesirable because i t is possi ble for them to operate
at ei ther of two fl ow rates at the same head. The influence of
impel ler desi gn on pump curves i s di scussed i n detai l in Hy-
draulic I nstitute Standards.
5
Affinity Laws for Centrifugal Pumps The rela-
ti onshi ps between rotati onal speeds, i mpel l er di ameter, capac-
i ty, head, power, and NPSHR for any parti cular pump are
defi ned by the affini ty laws (See Fig. 12-2 for affini ty laws).
These equations are to predict new curves for changes in im-
pel ler diameter and speed.
The capacity of a centrifugal pump is directly proportional
to i ts speed of rotati on and its i mpeller diameter. The total
pump head devel oped i s proporti onal to the square of i ts speed
and its impell er diameter. The power consumed is propor-
tional to the cube of its speed and its impell er diameter. The
NPSHR is proportional to the square of its speed.
These equations appl y in any consistent set of units but onl y
appl y exactly if there is no change of effici ency when the rota-
tional speed is changed. This i s usuall y a good approximati on
if the change in rotati onal speed i s small.
A different impel ler may be install ed or the existing modi -
fied. The modi fied impeller may not be geometrical ly si mi lar
to the original. An approximati on may be found if it is as-
sumed that the change i n di ameter changes the di scharge pe-
ripheral vel ocity wi thout affecting the effici ency. Therefore, at
equal effici encies and rotational speed, for small vari ations in
impel ler di ameter, changes may be calculated using the affin-
ity laws.
These equations do not apply to geometricall y similar but
di fferent si ze pumps. I n that case di mensi onal analysi s shoul d
be applied.
The affi nity equati ons appl y to pumps with radi al fl ow i m-
pel lers, that is, in the centrifugal range of specific speeds, be-
low 4200. For axial or mi xed flow pumps, consult the
manufacturer. See Fig. 12-2 for specific speed equation.
Viscosity
Most l i quids pumped i n gas processi ng pl ants have vi scosi -
ties in the same range as water. Thus they are consi dered
"nonvi scous" and no viscosity corrections are requi red. Occa-
sionally flui ds with viscosities higher than 5 x 10
-6
m
2
/s are en-
countered (e.g. triethyl ene glycol, 40 x 10
-6
m
2
/s at 20C) and
FIG. 12-11
Example Combined Pump-System Curves
12-9
corrections to head, capacity, and power consumption may be
required.
Viscosity correction charts and the procedures for using
them are i ncluded i n Hydraul ic I nsti tute Standards.
5
Matching the Pump to the System
Requirements
A pump curve depi cts the rel ati onshi p between the head
and capaci ty of a pump. A system curve shows the rel ati onshi p
between the total head di fference across the system and the
flow rate through it. The total head difference consi sts of three
components: stati c (gravity) head, pressure head, and head-
loss due to fri ction. Static and pressure heads do not change
with flow. However, fri ctional l osses usual ly increase approxi -
matel y as the square of the fl ow rate through the system. I f
the system curve i s pl otted with the same uni ts as the pump
curve, it can be superi mposed as shown in Fig. 12-11.
For pump selecti on, the shape and slope of the pump curve
shal l be considered in its positi on with respect to the system
curve. When the curves are approxi mately perpendicular to
each other, the change in the operating poi nt positi on due to
deviati ons in the curves wil l be minimum. I n addition, the
shape and sl ope shall be considered when several pumps are
used in series and/or parall el operati on to produce the desired
range of flow and/or operati ng pressure. Refer to Fig. 12-12
and Fig. 12-13 for series and parallel operation.
Throttling Control I f a centri fugal pump and a sys-
tem were matched as shown i n Fi g. 12-11, the fl ow rate
through the system wi ll be "A" unless some kind of flow con-
trol i s provided. Control usually i s provided by throttli ng a
valve in the discharge pipi ng of the pump, which creates extra
fri cti onal l osses so that pump capaci ty i s reduced to that re-
quired. I n Fig. 12-11, the required flow rate i s represented by
"B." Required amount of extra fri ctional losses to achi eve a
fl ow rate of "B" i s represented on Fi g. 12-11 by the di fference
between "H
B
-PUMP" and "H
B
-SYSTEM." Frequentl y the throt-
tli ng val ve is an automati c control val ve which holds some
plant conditi on constant (such as li quid level , flow rate, or
fluid temperature). This control method consumes energy
since i t artificially i ncreases the system resistance to fl ow.
Recirculation Control Pump capaci ty can al so be
controlled by recirculating a portion of the pumped flui d back
to the suction. This control method i s used more frequently for
posi ti ve di spl acement pumps than for centri fugal pumps,
since the discharge of most positive displacement pumps
should not be throttled. Thi s control method should be used
with cauti on for centri fugal pumps, since a wide-open recircu-
lation may result in a head so low that the pumped fluid wi ll
be circul ated back to the suction at an extremely high rate,
causi ng hi gh power consumption, i ncrease in flui d tempera-
ture, and possibly cavitation, as well as possibly overl oading
the dri ver.
Speed Control Another way of regulating centrifugal
pump capaci ty i s to adjust the rotati onal speed of the pump.
This is frequently not easily done because most pumps are
driven by fixed-speed motors. However, pumps controlled by
adjusting the rotational speed often consume substantiall y
less energy than those controlled in other ways. The changed
power consumption can be cal culated by Eq. 12-8, which as-
sumes that the fri cti onal head i s proporti onal to the square of
the fl ow rate.
bkW
2
bk W
1

e
1
e
2
_

h
s
(Q
2
/Q
1
) + h
f1
(Q
2
/Q
1
)
3
h
s
+ h
f1
1
1
]
Eq 12-8
subscri pt 1 refers to i ni ti al fl ow rate
subscri pt 2 refers to the changed fl ow rate
h
s
(stati c) i s equi val ent to the zero fl ow system total head
On-Off Control Pump capacity can be controll ed by
starti ng and stoppi ng the pump manual ly or by an automati c
control such as pressure, l evel or temperature switches.
Temperature Rise Due to Pumping
When a liquid is pumped, its temperature increases because
the energy resulti ng from the ineffi ciency of the pump appears
as heat.
t
r

9.8067 H

1
e
1
_

,

C
p

Eq 12-9
Usually when the pump is runni ng normally, the tempera-
ture rise i s negligible. However, if the pump discharge is shut
off, all energy is converted to heat and si nce there i s no fl uid
flow through the pump to carry the heat away, the l iqui d in
the pump wil l heat rapidly and eventually vaporize. This can
produce catastrophi c failures, particul arly in large multistage
pumps.
Pump vendors shoul d be requested to provi de data on mi ni -
mum fl ow.
Expensi ve pumps, such as l arge mul ti stage uni ts, can be
protected by install ing minimum fl ow reci rculati on which wi ll
ensure an adequate flow through the pump.
Series and Parallel Operation
Often pumps are install ed in series or in parall el with other
pumps. I n parallel , the capaci ties at any given head are
added; i n seri es, the heads at any gi ven capaci ty are added. A
multi -stage pump is in effect a series of single stage uni ts.
Figs. 12-12 and 12-13 show series and paral lel pumps curves,
a system curve, and the effect of operating one, two or three
pumps i n a system. I n both fi gures, the operati ng poi nts for
both pumps "A" and "B" are the same onl y when one pump i s
operating. For 2 or 3 pumps operating, the points are not the
same because of the pump curve shapes. Hence, due consi d-
eration should be gi ven to the pump curve shape when select-
ing pumps for seri es or parallel operati on.
Parallel operation is most effecti ve with identical pumps;
however, they do not have to be i denti cal , nor have the same
shut-off head or capacity to be parall eled. When pumps are op-
erating in parallel i t i s imperative that their performance
curves rise steadily to shut-off. A droopi ng curve gives two pos-
sibl e points of operati on, and the pump load may oscillate be-
tween the two causing surgi ng.
Drivers
Most pumps used in gas processing service are driven by
el ectric motors, usually fixed speed i nduction motors.
API Standard 610, Secti on 3.1.4. (Drivers), states:
"Motors shall have power ratings, including the service factor
(if any), at least equal to the percentages of power at pump
rated conditions given in. . ." the next table. "However, the
power at rated conditions shall not exceed the motor name-
12-10
FIG. 12-12
Series Pumps Selection
FIG. 12-13
Parallel Pumps Selection
12-11
Troubl e: Possi bl e Causes:
1. Fai l ure to del i ver l i qui d a. Wrong di recti on of rotati on
b. Pump not pri med
c. Sucti on l i ne not fi l l ed wi th
l i qui d
d. Ai r or vapor pocket i n sucti on
l i ne
e. I nl et to sucti on pi pe not
suffi ci entl y submerged
f. Avai l abl e NPSH not suffi ci ent
g. Pump not up to rated speed
h. Total head requi red greater
than head whi ch pump i s
capabl e of del i veri ng
2. Pump does not del i ver rated
capaci ty
a. Wrong di recti on of rotati on
b. Sucti on l i ne not fi l l ed wi th
l i qui d
c. Ai r or vapor pocket i n sucti on
l i ne
d. Ai r l eaks i n sucti on l i ne or
stuffi ng boxes
e. I nl et to sucti on pi pe not suffi -
ci entl y submerged.
f. Avai l abl e NPSH not suffi ci ent
g. Pump not up to rated speed
h. Total head greater than head
for whi ch pump desi gned
j. Foot val ve too smal l
k. Foot val ve cl ogged wi th trash
m. Vi scosi ty of l i qui d greater than
that for whi ch pump desi gned
n. Mechani cal defects:
(1) Weari ng ri ngs worn
(2) I mpel l er damaged
(3) I nternal l eakage resul ti ng
from defecti ve gaskets
o. Di scharge val ve not ful l y
opened
3. Pump does not devel op rated
di scharge pressure
a. Gas or vapor i n l i qui d
b. Pump not up to rated speed
c. Di scharge pressure greater
than pressure for whi ch pump
desi gned
d. Vi scosi ty of l i qui d greater than
that for whi ch pump desi gned
e. Wrong rotati on
f. Mechani cal defects:
(1) Weari ng ri ngs worn
(2) I mpel l er damaged
(3) I nternal l eakage resul ti ng
from defecti ve gaskets
4. Pump l oses l i qui d after
starti ng
a. Sucti on l i ne not fi l l ed wi th
l i qui d
b. Ai r l eaks i n sucti on l i ne or
stuffi ng boxes
c. Gas or vapor i n l i qui d
d. Ai r or vapor pockets i n sucti on
l i ne
e. I nl et to sucti on pi pe not
suffi ci entl y submerged
f. Avai l abl e NPSH not suffi ci ent
g. Li qui d seal pi pi ng to l antern
ri ng pl ugged
h. Lantern ri ng not properl y
l ocated i n stuffi ng box
Troubl e: Possi bl e Causes:
5. Pump overl oads dri ver a. Speed too hi gh
b. Total head l ower than rated
head
c. Excessi ve reci rcul ati on
d. Ei ther or both the rel ati ve
densi ty and vi scosi ty of l i qui d
di fferent from that for whi ch
pump i s rated
e. Mechani cal defects:
(1) Mi sal i gnment
(2) Shaft bent
(3) Rotati ng el ement draggi ng
(4) Packi ng too ti ght
6. Vi brati on a. Starved sucti on
(1) Gas or vapor i n l i qui d
(2) Avai l abl e NPSH not
suffi ci ent
(3) I nl et to sucti on l i ne not
suffi ci entl y submerged
(4) Gas or vapor pockets i n
sucti on l i ne
b. Mi sal i gnment
c. Worn or l oose beari ngs
d. Rotor out of bal ance
(1) I mpel l er pl ugged
(2) I mpel l er damaged
e. Shaft bent
f. I mproper l ocati on of control
val ve i n di scharge l i ne
g. Foundati on not ri gi d
7. Stuffi ng boxes overheat a. Packi ng too ti ght
b. Packi ng not l ubri cated
c. Wrong grade of packi ng
d. I nsuffi ci ent cool i ng water to
jackets
e. Box i mproperl y packed.
8. Beari ngs overheat a. Oi l l evel too l ow
b. I mproper or poor grade of oi l
c. Di rt i n beari ngs
d. Di rt i n oi l
e. Moi sture i n oi l
f. Oi l cool er cl ogged or scal ed
g. Fai l ure of oi l i ng system
h. I nsuffi ci ent cool i ng water
ci rcul ati on
i . I nsuffi ci ent cool i ng ai r
k. Beari ngs too ti ght
m. Oi l seal s too cl ose fi t on shaft
n. Mi sal i gnment
9. Beari ngs wear rapi dl y a. Mi sal i gnment
b. Shaft bent
c. Vi brati on
d. Excessi ve thrust resul ti ng from
mechani cal fai l ure i nsi de the
pump
e. Lack of l ubri cati on
f. Beari ngs i mproperl y i nstal l ed
g. Di rt i n beari ngs
h. Moi sture i n oi l
j. Excessi ve cool i ng of beari ngs
FIG. 12-14
Check List for Centrifugal Pump Troubles and Causes
12-12
plate rating. Where it appears that this procedure will lead
to unnecessary oversizing of the motor, an alternate pro-
posal shal l be submi tted for the purchasers approval."
Motor Namepl ate Rati ng Percentage of
Rated
Pump Power
kW hp
<22 <30 125
22-55 30-75 115
>55 >75 110
Alternatives to electri c motor dri vers are:
internal combustion engines
gas turbines
steam turbi nes
hydraul ic power-recovery turbines
Usually the speed of rotati on of these drivers can be varied
to provide control.
Variable Speed Drives Fig. 12-15 lists vari ous types
of adjustable speed dri ves, thei r characteristics and thei r ap-
pli cation.
Materials of Construction
Pumps manufactured with cast-steel cases and cast-i ron i n-
ternals are most common in the gas processing i ndustry. API
Std 610 i s a good reference for material sel ection. The mate-
rial selections i n this document can be over-ridden as required
to refl ect experience.
Experience is the best gui de to selection of material s for
pumps. Process pump manufacturers can usual ly provi de sug-
gesti ons for materi als, based on thei r experi ence and knowl -
edge of pumps.
Shaft Seals
Mechani cal seals are the most common sealing devices for
centrifugal pumps in process service. The purpose of the seal
is to retai n the pumped liquid inside the pump at the point
where the dri ve shaft penetrates the pump body. Mechani cal
seal s consist of a stationary and a rotating face, and the actual
seal ing takes place across these very smooth, precision faces.
Seal faces may require cool ing and lubri cation. API Std 610
describes seal flush systems used to cool the seal faces and re-
move foreign material. Seal manufacturers can provide appli -
cati on and design information.
Alignment, Supports, and Couplings
The alignment of the pump and driver should be checked and
adjusted in accordance with the manufacturers recommenda-
tions before the pump is started. I f the operating temperature is
greatly different from the temperature at which the alignment
was performed, the alignment should be checked, and adjusted if
necessary, at the operating temperature.
Pump and pi pi ng supports shoul d be desi gned and i nstal l ed
so that forces exerted on the pump by the pi ping will not cause
pump misalignment when operating temperature changes or
other conditi ons occur.
The shaft coupl i ng shoul d be sel ected to match the power
transmi tted and the type of pump and dri ver. A spacer type
coupling should be used i f it i s inconvenient to move either the
pump or the dri ver when the seal (or other component) re-
quires maintenance.
Piping
Pump requirements, nozzle size, type of fluid, temperature,
pressure and economics determine materials and size of piping.
Suction l ines shoul d be designed to keep fricti on losses to a
mini mum. Thi s is accomplished by using an adequate li ne
size, long radius elbows, full bore valves, etc. Pockets where
ai r or vapor can accumulate should be avoided. Suction l ines
should be sloped, where possibl e, toward the pump when it is
below the source, and toward the source when it i s below the
pump. Vertical downward sucti on pipes require special care to
avoid pulsati on and vibrations that can be caused by air or va-
por entrainment. Elbows enteri ng double sucti on pumps
should be instal led in a position paral lel to the impel ler. Suffi -
cient liquid height above the suction pipi ng inlet, or a vortex
breaker, should be provided to avoi d vortex formation which
may result in vapors entering the pump.
For discharge piping, sizi ng i s determined by the available
head and economic consi derations. Velocities range from 1 to
5 m/s. A check valve shoul d be installed between the dis-
charge nozzle and the block val ve to prevent backfl ow.
Auxili ary pipi ng (cooling, seal flushing and lubrication) i s a
small but extremely important item. API Standard 610, Cen-
trifugal Pumps for General Refi nery Service, or applicable
national standard should be fol lowed. Provisions for piping of
stuffing box leakage and other drainage away from the pump
should be provided.
Pump Protection
The following protection may be consi dered:
low suction pressure
hi gh discharge pressure
low suction vessel (or tank) level
hi gh discharge vessel (or tank) level
low flow
flow reversal
hi gh temperature of bearings, case, etc.
vibrati ons
lack of lubricati on
overspeed
Protection may be considered for the pump driver and may
be combi ned with pump protecti ons.
Installation, Operation, Maintenance
I nstallati on, operation, and maintenance manual s should be
provided by the pump manufacturer and are usually applica-
tion specific. See Fi g. 12-14 for a checkli st of pump troubles
and causes.
Driver rotation and alignment shoul d be checked before the
pump is operated.
A typi cal starting sequence for a centrifugal pump is:
Ensure that al l val ves i n auxi l iary seali ng, cool i ng, and
flushi ng system pipi ng are open, and that these systems
are functi oning properl y.
Cl ose di scharge valve.
Open sucti on valve.
Vent gas from the pump and associ ated pi pi ng.
Energi ze the dri ver.
Open di scharge val ve sl owly so that the fl ow i ncreases
gradual l y.
12-13
Note that, on l arger mul tistage pumps, it i s very i mpor -
tant that flow through the pump i s establ ished i n a mat-
ter of seconds. Thi s i s frequently accompl i shed by the
previ ousl y mentioned mini mum fl ow reci rcul ati on.
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The most common reci procati ng pump i n gas pl ants i s the
single-acting plunger pump whi ch i s general ly employed in
services with moderate capaci ty and high differential pres-
sure. These pumps fi l l on the backstroke and exhaust on the
forward stroke. They are available wi th single (simplex) or
multi -plungers (duplex, tri plex, etc.), operati ng ei ther hori zon-
tal ly or vertically. Examples of plunger pump service in gas
plants are: high pressure chemical or water injecti on, glycol
circulation, and low capacity, hi gh pressure amine circulation,
and pi peline product pumps.
Double-acting pi ston pumps which fil l and exhaust on the
same stroke have the advantage of operating at l ow speeds
and can pump high viscosity liquids which are diffi cult to han-
dl e with normal centri fugal or higher speed pl unger pumps.
Pump Calculations
Power requi rement bkW: see equati on in Fi g. 12-2.
Di splacement for si ngle-acti ng pump
D 60 10
9
A m L
s
n Eq 12-10
Di splacement for double-acti ng pump
D 60 10
9
(2 A a) m L
s
n Eq 12-11
Notes:
1. Actual capaci ty (Q) del ivered by pump i s cal cul ated by
mul ti plyi ng displ acement by the vol umetri c effi ci ency.
2. The combi nati on of mechanical and volumetri c effi ci ency
for reci procating pumps i s normal l y 90% or hi gher for
noncompressi ble fl ui ds.
3. I n doubl e-acti ng pumps wi th gui ded piston (rod in both
si des), change a to 2a in Eq 12-11.
Example 12-2 Cal cul ate the power requi red for a si mplex
plunger pump deli veri ng 2.3 m
3
/h of l iqui d of any rel ati ve den-
si ty at 20 000 kPa di fferenti al pressure and mechani cal effi -
ciency of 90%.
Type Characteristics Applications
Electric Drivers
Sol i d State AC dri ves high effi ci ency 50 to 2500+ bhp
good speed regul ati on l arger pumps where good speed regul ati on
over not too wide a range i s requi red
l ow maintenance
hazardous areas
compl ex control s
high cost
can be expl osi on proof
can retrofit
Sol i d State DC dri ves si mi l ar to AC except speed regul ati on good
over a wi der range
50 to 500+ bhp
non-hazardous areas
Electromechanical
Eddy Current Cl utch effici ent, proporti onal to sl ip 5 to 500+ bhp
poor speed regulation smal l er centri fugal pumps where speed i s
usual l y near design
require cool ing
non-hazardous areas
Wound-Rotor Motor poor speed regulation 50 to 500+ bhp
reasonabl e effici ency l arger pumps non-hazardous areas
Mechanical
Rubber Bel t wi de range of speed regulation possi bl e fractional to 100 bhp
smal l centri fugal and posi tive di spl acement
pumps
Metal Chain l ow to medium effi ciency chemi cal feed pumps
non-hazardous areas
Hydraulic medi um effi ci ency avai l abl e hydraul i c head
Power Recovery conti nuousl y variabl e speed
Turbines reversibl e use as pump
FIG. 12-15
Adjustable Speed Drives
3
and Power Transmissions
12-14
bkW
(2.3) (20 000)
(3600) (0.90)
14.2 kW
Volumetric Efficiency, Compressible Fluids
Unl ike water, lighter hydrocarbon l iqui ds (e.g. ethane, pro-
pane, butane) are suffi ci entl y compressi bl e to affect the
performance of reciprocating pumps.
The theoretical flow capaci ty is never achieved in practice
because of l eakage through pi ston packing, stuffing boxes, or
valves and because of changes in fluid density when pumping
compressibl e fluids such as light hydrocarbons.
The rati o of real fl ow rate to theoreti cal fl ow rate (pump dis-
placement) is the volumetri c effi ciency. The volumetric effi -
ciency depends on the size, seals, valves and internal
configuration of each pump, the fluid characteristics and oper-
ati ng conditions.
When pumping compressi ble li quids, the volumetric effi -
ciency should be stated with reference to the flow rate meas-
ured i n a speci fi c si de of the pump (sucti on or di scharge si de).
The relati onship of overall sucti on and discharge vol umetric
effi ciency, displacement, and suction and discharge fl ow rate
of a reciprocating pump is defined in Eq 12-12. When the leak-
age is not considered, the overall efficiencies may be substi -
tuted by the densi ty change effi ci enci es.
D
Q
s
VE
sov

Q
d
VE
dov
Eq 12-12
The following equati ons are based on the di scharge flow
rate. Si mi l ar equati ons may be wri tten for the sucti on si de,
and conversions may be made by multipl ying them by the dis-
charge to suction densities rati o.
The overall discharge volumetric effi ciency is a combinati on
of volumetric effici ency due to leakage and di scharge volumet-
ric effi ciency due to flui d density change.
VE
dov
VE
l
VE
d
Eq 12-13
The volumetri c effi ciency due to leakage is related to sl ip as
fol lows:
VE
l
1 s Eq 12-14
The effect of the difference i n the leakage flow rate meas-
ured at suction pressure vs discharge pressure is negl ected
here, assuming that al l leakages are internal.
The discharge volumetric efficiency due to density change i s:
VE
d
1 r

o

1
1
]
Eq 12-15
When the change i n fluid densi ty i s linear with the change
i n pressure and i s smal l er than 10%, and the temperature
change is negligible, Equation 12-16 may be used to calcul ate
hydraul ic power. H
c
comes from Eq 12-5. Addi ti onall y, approxi -
matel y 2 to 5% of power may be required for the work done
duri ng the pi ston cycle, in compressing and in decompressing
the flui d that is hel d in the pump chamber without flowing
through the pump.
hyd kW
Q
d

o
g H
c
3 600 000
Eq 12-16
When the differential pressure is suffi cientl y high to cause a
densi ty change of more than 10%, or when the pressure is
near the fl ui ds cri ti cal pressure, or when temperature change
is not negli gible, thi s equation may not be accurate. I n such
cases the pump manufacturer shoul d be consulted. See Equi p-
ment and System Equations last paragraph.
Data on densi ty change with pressure and temperature can
be found in Secti on 23, "Physical Properti es."
Example 12-3 For a 75 mm di ameter and a 125 mm stroke
tri pl ex pl unger pump pumpi ng propane wi th a sucti on densi ty
505 kg/m
3
and a di scharge densi ty 525 kg/m
3
and gi ven that
r = 4.6 and s = 0.03, fi nd the overal l discharge volumetri c ef-
fici ency.
Di scharge vol umetri c effi ci ency due to densi ty change:
VE
d
1 4.6

1
505
525
_

,
0.824
Volumetri c effi ciency due to l eakage:
VE
l
1 0.03 0.97
Overal l di scharge volumetri c effi ciency:
VE
d ov
(0.824) (0.97) 0.799
Suction System Considerations
The suction pi ping is a cri tical part of any reci procating
pump i nstallation. The suction line shoul d be as short as pos-
sibl e and sized to provide not more than three feet per second
fluid veloci ty, with a minimum of bends and fittings. A cen-
trifugal booster pump is often used ahead of a reci procating
pump to provide adequate NPSH which woul d also allow
hi gher sucti on line vel ocities.
C = 0.200 for si mplex doubl e-acti ng k = a factor rel ated to the fl uid compressi bi l i ty
= 0.200 for duplex singl e-acti ng hot oi l 2.5
= 0.115 for duplex doubl e-acti ng most hydrocarbons 2.0
= 0.066 for tri pl ex si ngle or double-acti ng ami ne, gl ycol , water 1.5
= 0.040 for qui ntuplex singl e or doubl e-acti ng deaerated water 1.4
= 0.028 for septupl ex si ngle or double-acti ng l i qui d wi th smal l amounts of entrai ned gas 1.0
= 0.022 for nonupl ex si ngl e or doubl e-acting
Note: "C" wil l vary from the listed values for unusual ratios of connecting rod length to crank radi us over 6.
FIG. 12-16
Reciprocating Pump Acceleration Head Factors
12-15
NPSH required for a reciprocati ng pump is cal culated in the
same manner as for a centri fugal pump, except that addi ti onal
al lowance must be made for the requirements of the recipro-
cati ng action of the pump. The additi onal requirement is
termed accel eration head. This is the head requi red to acceler-
ate the fl uid col umn on each sucti on stroke so that thi s col -
umn wi ll, at a minimum, catch up with the receding face of
the pi ston during its fi lling stroke.
Acceleration Head Acceleration head is the fluctua-
tion of the suction head above and below the average due to
the inertia effect of the fluid mass i n the suction line. With the
hi gher speed of present-day pumps or with relatively long suc-
tion li nes, this pressure fluctuation or acceleration head must
be taken into account if the pump i s to fil l properly without
forming vapor whi ch will cause pounding or vi bration of the
suction line.
With the sl ider-crank dri ve of a reciprocati ng pump, maxi -
mum pl unger accel erati on occurs at the start and end of each
stroke. The head required to accelerate the flui d column (h
a
) is
a function of the l ength of the suction l ine and average veloc-
i ty i n thi s l i ne, the number of strokes per mi nute (rpm), the
type of pump and the relati ve elasti city of the fluid and the
pipe, and may be calculated as foll ows:
h
a

L v n C
k g
Eq 12-17
where C and k are gi ven i n Fig. 12-16.
Example 12-4 Cal cul ate the accelerati on head, gi ven a
50 mm di ameter x 125 mm stroke tri plex pump runni ng at
360 rpm and di spl aci ng 16.5 m
3
/h of water wi th a sucti on pi pe
made up of 1.2 m of 4" and 6.1 m of 6" standard wall pi pe.
Average Vel oci ty in 4" Pi pe = 0.56 m/s
Average Vel oci ty in 6" Pi pe = 0.25 m/s
Accel erati on Head i n 4" Pi pe
h
a4

(1.2) (0.56) (360) (0.066)
(1.5) (9.8067)
1.085 m
Accel erati on Head i n 6" Pi pe
h
a6

(6.1) (0.25) (360) (0.066)
(1.5) (9.8067)
2.463 m
Total Accelerati on Head
h
a
1.085 + 2.463 3.548 m
Karassik et al
9
recommend that the NPSHA exceed the
NPSHR by 20 to 35 kPa for reci procati ng pumps.
Pulsation A pulsation dampener (suction stabi lizer) is
a devi ce installed in the suction pi ping as close as possibl e to
the pump to reduce pressure fl uctuati ons at the pump. I t con-
sists of a small pressure vessel containing a cushion of gas
(someti mes separated from the pumped fl uid by a di aphragm).
Pulsation dampeners shoul d be considered for the suction side
of any reci procati ng pump, but they may not be requi red i f the
sucti on pi pi ng i s oversi zed and short, or i f the pump operates
at l ess than 150 rpm. A properly install ed and maintained pul -
sation dampener should absorb the cycli cal flow vari ations so
that the pressure fl uctuati ons are about the same as those
that occur when the suction pi ping i s less than 4.5 m l ong.
Similar pressure fluctuations occur on the di scharge side of
every reci procati ng pump. Pul sati on dampeners are al so effec-
tive i n absorbing flow variati ons on the discharge side of the
pump and should be considered if piping vibration caused by
pressure fl uctuati ons appears to be a probl em. Pul sati on dam-
pener manufacturers have computer programs to analyze this
phenomenon and shoul d be consulted for reci procati ng pump
appl ications over 35 kW. Discharge pulsati on dampeners
mi ni mi ze pressure peaks and contri bute to l onger pump and
pump val ve life. The need for pulsation dampeners is in-
creased i f mul tiple pump instal lations are involved.
Ensure that bladder type pul sati on dampeners contain the
correct amount of gas.
Capacity Control Manual or automati c capacity control
for one pump or several parallel pumps can be achieved by one
or a combi nation of the foll owi ng methods:
on-off control
reci rculati on
variable speed driver or transmissi on
variable displacement pump
Drivers Two types of mechani sms are commonly used
for dri ving reci procating pumps; one i n which the power of a
motor or engine i s transmi tted to a shaft and there i s a
mechani sm to convert i ts rotati ve movement to alternati ng
li near movement to dri ve the pumping pi ston or plunger. I n
the other type, there i s a power fl uid, such as steam, com-
pressed air, or gas acti ng on a piston, di aphragm or bellow
li nked to the pumping piston or plunger.
Piping Suction and discharge piping considerations are
similar to those for centrifugal pumps. I n addition, accelera-
tion head must be incl uded for pi pe si zing. For pipi ng materi -
al s and thickness selection, pressure pulsations ampli tude
and fatigue life should be considered.
ROTARY PUMPS
The rotary pump i s a posi ti ve di spl acement type that de-
pends on the close clearance between both rotating and sta-
ti onary surfaces to seal the di scharge from the sucti on. The
most common types of rotary pumps use gear or screw rotat-
i ng el ements. These types of posi ti ve di spl acement pumps are
commonl y used for viscous l iqui ds for which centrifugal or re-
ciprocating pumps are not suitabl e. Low vi scosi ty liquids with
poor lubricati ng properties (such as water) are not a proper
appl i cati on for gear or screw pumps.
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
Diaphragm pumps are reciprocating, positive displacement
type pumps, util izi ng a val ving system similar to a plunger
pump. These pumps can deliver a small, precisely control led
amount of li quid at a moderate to very high discharge pres-
sure. Diaphragm pumps are commonl y used as chemi cal i njec-
tion pumps because of thei r controllable meteri ng capabil ity,
the wide range of material s in which they can be fabricated,
and their inherent leakproof design.
MULTIPHASE PUMPS
Multiphase pumps can pump i mmiscible liquids such as oil
and water with gas. There are screw types and rotodynami c
12-16
types. A progressi ve cavity desi gn i s used al ong the fl ow path
to accommodate gas volume reducti on caused by increased
pressure. A full range of gas/li quid ratios can be handl ed. This
class of pumps is of interest i n applicati ons where conven-
ti onal pumps and separate compressors with or without sepa-
rate pi pelines are not economicall y feasible.
LOW TEMPERATURE PUMPS
Two types of centri fugal pumps have been devel oped for
cryogenic applications: the external motor type and the sub-
merged motor type.
External motor type These pumps are of conven-
tional configuration wi th a coupled driver and can be single or
multi -stage. The pump assembly is usually mounted i n a ves-
sel from which it pumps.
Submerged motor type Thi s type of pump i s char-
acteri zed by bei ng di rectl y coupl ed to i ts motor, with the com-
plete unit being submerged in the fluid.
Hydraulic Turbines
Many industrial processes i nvolve liquid streams which flow
from hi gher to l ower pressures. Usuall y the flow is control led
with a throttling val ve, hence the hydraulic energy i s wasted.
Up to 80% of this energy can be recovered by passi ng the liq-
ui d through a hydraulic power recovery turbine (HPRT). To
justify the instal lation of an HPRT, an economic analysis of
the power savings versus added equipment and i nstal l ati on
costs should be performed.
TYPES OF HPRTs
Two major types of centri fugal hydraul ic power recovery
turbines are used.
1. ReactionSi ngl e or multistage Franci s-type rotor with
fixed or variabl e gui de vanes.
2. ImpulsePelton Wheel, usuall y specified for relati vel y
hi gh differential pressures.
HPRTs with Francis-type rotors are similar to centrifugal
pumps. I n fact, a good centri fugal pump can be expected to op-
erate with hi gh effici ency as an HPRT when the direction of
flow is reversed.
The Pelton Wheel or impulse runner type HPRT i s used in
hi gh head applications. The impul se type turbine has a nozzle
whi ch di rects the high pressure fl ui d against bowl -shaped
buckets on the impulse wheel. Thi s type of turbi nes perform-
ance is dependent upon back pressure, while the reaction type
i s l ess dependent upon back pressure.
Power Recovered by HPRTs
The theoretical energy which can be extracted from a high
pressure l i quid stream by droppi ng i t to a l ower pressure
through an HPRT can be calculated using the hydraulic horse-
power. See Fig. 12-2 for bkW equation. Since some of the en-
ergy will be lost because of fri ction, the hydraul ic horsepower
must be multipl ied by the efficiency of the HPRT.
The amount of power recovered by an HPRT is directl y pro-
porti onal to the effici ency rather than inversel y proportional
as is the case when calculating the power requi red by a pump.
Thus, i f a fl ui d i s pumped to a high pressure and then reduced
to i ts ori ginal pressure using an HPRT, the proportion of the
pumping energy which can be suppli ed by the HPRT i s equal
to the effici encies of the pump and turbine multipli ed together.
Typi cal l y, good centri fugal pumps and good HPRTs have effi -
ciencies of between 70% and 80%. Thus, the HPRT can be ex-
pected to provi de between 50% and 60% of the energy
required for pumping.
Usually the high-pressure li quid contains a substanti al
amount of dissolved gas. The gas comes out of soluti on as the
l i qui d pressure drops. Thi s does not cause damage to the
HPRT, presumably because the flui d veloci ty through the
HPRT is high enough to mai ntain a froth-flow regime. The
term NPSHR does not appl y to HPRTs.
Applications
HPRTs may be used to drive any ki nd of rotating equipment
(e.g. pumps, compressors, fans, el ectri cal generators). The
main problems are matchi ng the power required by the driven
load to that available from the HPRT and speed control . Both
the power producer and the speed can be control led by:
throttling the li quid flow, either downstream or up-
stream from the HPRT
al lowing a portion of the l iqui d to bypass the HPRT
adjusting inlet guide vanes installed in the HPRT
Sometimes HPRTs are i nstalled with a "helper" driver. I f
thi s is an electri c motor, the speed wil l be controll ed by the
motor speed.
Typical gas-processing streams for which HPRTs should be
consi dered are:
Rich sweetening solvents (e.g. amines, etc.)
Rich absorpti on oil
High-pressure crude oi l.
The lower l imit of the power recovery which can be economi -
cal ly justified with single-stage HPRTs is about 22 kW and
with multistage, about 75 kW. HPRTs usually pay out their
capi tal cost in from one to three years.
Frequentl y, when an HPRT i s to be used to drive a pump,
both devices are purchased from one manufacturer. Thi s has
the advantage of ensuring that the responsibi lity for the en-
tire i nstallation is assumed by a single suppli er.
The available pressure di fferenti al across the HPRT i s cal -
cul ated using a technique similar to that used to calculate the
differential head of centrifugal pumps.
Example 12-5Specify an HPRT dri ven pump for a gas sweet-
ening process.
Gi ven:
l ean DEA fl ow 227 m
3
/h
l ean DEA temperature 43C
12-17
FIG. 12-18
Lean Amine Charge Pump
FIG. 12-17
Rich DEA Pressure Letdown
12-18
l ean DEA relative density 1.00
l ean DEA vapor pressure at 49C 11.7 kPa (abs)
ri ch DEA fl ow 227 m
3
/h
ri ch DEA temperature 71C
ri ch DEA rel ati ve densi ty 1.01
pump sucti on total pressure 517 kPa (ga)
pump discharge total pressure 6791 kPa (ga)
HPRT i nl et total pressure 6619 kPa (ga)
HPRT outl et total pressure 586 kPa (ga)
Solution:
For thi s exampl e, the sucti on and di scharge pressures have
al ready been calculated using a technique simil ar to that sug-
gested for centrifugal pumps.
NPSHA for pump
(517 + 101.3 11.7)
(9.807)(1.00)(0.999)
61.9 m
Requi red head for pump
(6791 517)
(9.807)(1.00)(0.999)
640.4 m
The pump sel ected i s a 5-stage unit. From the pump curve
(Fi g. 12-18), the expected effi ci ency of the pump i s 78.5%.
Hence, the required power will be:
bkW for pump
(227) (640.4) (1.00)
(367) (0.785)
504.6 kW
Available head for HPRT
(6619 586 )
(9.807 )(1.01 )(0.999)
609.7 m
The HPRT selected i s a 3-stage unit. From the performance
curve (Fi g. 12-17), the expected effi ciency of the HPRT i s 76%.
Hence, the avai labl e power will be:
bkW from HPRT
(227) (609.7) (1.01) (0.76)
367
289.5 kW
Another dri ver, such as an el ectric motor, would be required
for the pump to make up the di fference i n bkW between the
pump and HPRT. The other dri ver woul d have to be capabl e of
providing at l east 215 kW. I t is good practice to provide an
el ectric motor driver large enough to drive the pump by itself
to facilitate startups. The pump, HPRT, and el ectric motor
driver (helper or full si ze) woul d usuall y be direct connected.
I n some cases, a cl utch i s used between the pump and HPRT,
so the unit is i ndependent of the HPRT.
The pump and HPRT are simil ar in hydraulic design except
that the pump has fi ve stages and the HPRT, three stages. I n
thi s case, the HPRT is a centrifugal pump running backwards.
CODES & ORGANIZATIONS
API Std 610 8th Editi onCentri fugal Pumps for General
Refi nery Service
ANSI B73.1Hori zontal End-Suction Centrifugal Pumps
ANSI B73.2Verti cal I nl i ne Centri fugal Pumps
Hydraul ic I nsti tuteCentri fugal , Reci procati ng & Rotary
Pumps
API Std 674Posi ti ve Di splacement Pumps Reci procati ng
API Std 675Positive Displacement pumps Controlled Volume
API Std 676Posi ti ve Di splacement Pumps Rotary
API Std 682Shaft Seali ng Systems for Centri fugal and
Rotary Pumps.
ANSI /AWWA E101-88Verti cal Turbi ne Pumps Li ne
Shaft and Submersi bl e Types
NEMA, EMMAC, UL, CSAEl ectri c Motor Dri vers
UL, ULC, NFPA, FMFi re Water Pumps
AI ChEAmeri can I nsti tute of Chemical Engi neers
API Ameri can Petrol eum I nsti tute
ANSI Ameri can Nati onal Standards I nsti tute
AWWAAmeri can Water Works Associ ati on
CSACanadi an Standards Associ ati on
EMMACEl ectri cal Manufacturers Association of Canada
FMFactory Mutual
NEMANati onal Electrical Manufacturers Association
NFPANati onal Fire Preventi on Associ ati on
ULUnderwriters Laboratory
ULCUnderwriters Laboratory of Canada
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3. Dol l , T. R., "Maki ng the Proper Choi ce of Adjustabl e-speed
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and Chemi cal Pl ants." Gul f Publ i shi ng Company, Houston,
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no. 19, Sept. 1981, p. 105-123.
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& Sons, I nc., 1948, 1957.
14. Tennessee Gas Tr ansmi ssi on Co., "Oper ator s Handbook for Gaso-
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1959, p. 307-308.
15. Westaway, C. R. and Loomi s, A. W., Edi tor s, Camer on Hydr aul i c
Data, Fi fteenth Edi ti on, I nger sol l Rand Company, 1977.
12-19
16. Cody, D. J., Vandel l , C. A., and Spr att, D., "Sel ecti ng Posi ti ve-
Di spl acement Pumps." Chem. Engr., v. 92, no. 15, Jul y 22, 1985,
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ver, 1988.
12-20