A2.

2NP1 Environmental Practical 1 TOPIC 1 TECHNIQUES IN BASIC SURVEYING

Basic ideas
Surveying - the creation of a scale representation of the ground surface - is a basic activity in many areas of environmental management. A survey will be one of of two types:
Primary survey - to establish the position of objects in three dimensions when no previous information exists
Secondary survey - to add extra information to existing data or to measure changes over an interval of time

Basic ideas
The task of three dimensional position fixing is normally broken into two parts:

Determining plan position

Determining elevation

Basic ideas
Each of these determinations may be either:
absolute - made in terms of a fixed co-ordinate system relative - made in terms of local co-ordinates which may later be converted to absolute coordinates if required.

The majority of surveys carried out for environmental management are thus secondary relative surveys

Plan Position Fixing

The plan position of a station can be established in a number of ways:

 By reference to the apparent positions of astronomical objects when viewed from that station
This method gives the absolute location of the station in terms of latitude and longitude, which can be converted to local systems such as the National Grid.

 By the measurement of the angles between lines of sight to the unknown station from other known positions By the intersection of lines of sight from the unknown station to other objects whose positions are already known
These two methods both rely on the simple Euclidean geometry of the plane. (Hence the term plane surveying). The first procedure is termed triangulation and the second resection.

The basic principle of triangulation

Measured angle

Measured angle

Baseline

The basic principle of resection

Known position

Known position

Measured angle

Unknown position
Measured angle Measured angle

Known position

 By measurement of distances between the unknown station and other objects of known positions
This last method includes a number of particular cases:

 measurements of offset distances from a base line.

trilateration - the distance equivalent of triangulation. tacheometry - an optical method of distance measurement along a known bearing

The basic principle of trilateration

Measured side

Measured side

Baseline

Plane Surveying: Theory

Plane surveying relies on the basic concepts of Euclidean geometry, and in particular the properties of triangles. The most important (for our purposes) of these are:

Plane Surveying: Theory

The internal angles of a triangle sum to 180 The sides of an equilateral triangle are equal and the internal angles are all 60 The base angles and opposing sides of an isosceles triangle are equal

60 The equilateral triangle All sides equal in length All angles equal (= 60)

60

60

The isosceles triangle Two sides equal in length Two angles equal

Plane Surveying: Theory

If the respective angles in two triangles are equal then the triangles are similar and their sides are all in the same proportion If two triangles have two angles and one side equal (or vice versa) then they are congruent and all their other respective angles and sides are equal.

Two triangles are also congruent if all their sides are equal.

Similar triangles have corresponding angles equal but are of differing size

Conguent triangles are identical two angles and one side equal two sides and one angle equal all three sides equal

Plane Surveying: Theory

Congruent triangles are unique - you cannot draw two different triangles from the same set of measurements

This means that a complete set of survey data must define the positions of objects uniquely.

Plane Surveying: Theory

Any closed polygon can be subdivided into a series of contiguous triangles These properties are repeatedly used in the procedure of triangulation in which stations are surveyed in a pattern of contiguous triangles.

Any closed polygon can be subdivided into contiguous triangles These should be chosen to make as many of the triangles as close to equilateral as possible

Plane surveying: practical aspects

In practice, most plane surveys are carried out in a straightforward way following an established sequence: 1. A reconnaisance survey will establish the dimensions of the area, relative levels, significant features, accessibility, obstacles etc

Plane surveying: practical aspects

2. Establish an accurate baseline by measurement from existing survey points, natural features, buildings etc. If none are available then the baseline must be fixed by absolute methods. 3. Establish as required any further control points by triangulation or trilateration from the base-line.

Plane surveying: practical aspects

4. Incorporate detail by tacheometry, traversing, tape & offset or whatever other method is appropriate. 5. The intermediate stations should where appropriate be cross-checked with the control points by resection and all traverses should be closed at a control point. 6. Inaccessible detail should be incorporated by triangulation or plane tabling from the ends of the baseline.

ILLUSTRATION OF THE USE OF OFFSETS

Baseline

Plane surveying: practical aspects

7. If a topographic survey is being undertaken, levelling traverses should be carried out around the survey stations and the baseline tied to the local benchmark by a closed traverse.

8. The use of a theodolite or total station will enable both the position and the elevation of stations to be found simultaneously by combined tacheometry and triangulation or by trilateration

THE CHAIN SURVEY

How to establish relative plan positions

Chain survey
Simplest of all survey techniques Relies on linear measurements; slopes >3o require some adjustment to technique Usually requires a clear line of sight The triangles used should be equilateral or approximately so

Terminology
Trilateration is the measurement of sides of a triangle whereas triangulation refers to the measurement of the angles of the triangle

Basic equipment
Ranging poles Survey pegs and arrows Chain & tape measure or other distance measuring instrument Plumb line Compass

Chain survey components

Base line: the longest line Chain /survey lines Survey stations Offset lines

Order of events
Range out survey stations with ranging rods Establish base line and measure accurately Measure remaining distances between other survey stations Measure offset lines whilst measuring between survey stations

Sloping ground
If the ground slopes by more than about 3, this must be allowed for in the survey. The measured distances are thus slant distances and must be corrected to true horizontal distances. This requires that the vertical angle between the stations is known

Ground distance determined

X h

Sloping ground
For an approximate survey, it may be sufficient to step up or downhill using a series of horizontal and vertical lines If the drop is measured at the same time, some estimate of the slope profile can be obtained

Chain surveying (stepping)

w x

b
c y

Sloping ground
If stepping is not appropriate, more sophisticated methods must be used to measure the slant distance and the vertical angle simultaneously Requires optical sighting equipment: usually either a clinometer, Abney level or theodolite

Basic levelling in chain surveys

a
h

Correcting for horizontal distance: the hypotenusal allowance

correction factor = xy - yz x = xy(1 - cosa)

h a
z

LEVELLING
How to destermine relative elevations

Levelling: accounting for slopes

Unlike chain surveys, levelling surveys account directly for slope and incorporate this data into the whole measurement exercise AIMS: to determine height differences between two points to determine elevations for sections

 The elevation of a station can be established by:

inclined line of sight from chain survey stations

levelling from another point of known height

by inclined tacheometry

 Levelling is the more accurate method but is also the slower. Modern instruments are capable of cm accuracy under normal conditions over distances of 100s metres.

The keys to successful levelling lie in the setting up of the instrument, in the closure of the traverses and in the careful recording (booking) of the results.

 Inclined tacheometry relies on the combined measurement, by theodolite, of the slant distance to the new station and the angle relative to the horizontal.

The elevation change and horizontal distance can then be found by simple trigonometry.
The accuracy of the method, using normal instruments, is around 10s cms in 100s metres.

Direct levelling
Most typical form used Relies upon: a horizontal line of sight, also termed the line of collimation a fixed datum level

Measurements to be taken

Backsight Foresight Intermediate sights

Booking your results

The rise and fall method
This method records the relative change in level between successive stations The changes are converted to the reduced level of each station The reduced level is relative to the local datum

Booking the results

The method relies on recording your results in a survey book in a standard format This allows you to check your work and to identify any errors systematically

Reduced levels
The absolute (datum) level of point A is 100.522m The change of level is 2.312m - 2.533m = -0.221m The reduced level of point B is 100.301m
B 2.533m
IP 1

A 2.312 m

Datum line: 100.522m (from OS Benchmark)

Rise and fall booking

Backsight Interm. Foresight Rise Fall R.L. Distance Remarks
Point A Point B

2.312

2.533 0.221

100.522 100.301

1.2

Transfer of level
At the next stage, B becomes the backsight and C is the new foresight

The new change of level is 1.674m - 1.631m = + 0.043m The absolute level of point C is 100.344m
C 1.631m
IP 2

B 1.674 m

Rise and fall booking (cont)

Backsight Interm. Foresight Rise Fall R.L. Distance Remarks
Point A Point B Point C

2.312 1.674

2.533 1.631 - 0.221 + 0.043

100.522 100.301 100.344

1.2

 Continuing this process, suppose we end up with a set of results as follows: This will enable us to check our working

Rise and fall booking (cont)

Backsight Interm. Foresight Rise --+ 0.043 + 1.548 + 0.994 -Fall -- 0.221 ----0.305 R.L. Distance Remarks
Point A Point B Point C

2.312 1.674 2.504 3.010 2.413 --

-2.533 1.631 0.956 2.016 2.718

100.522 100.301 100.344 101.892 102.886 102.581

11.913 9.854

9.854

2.585 - 0.526

- 0.526

102.581 - 100.522

2.059

2.059

2.059

CHECKS OK

Using an intermediate sight

Sometimes we wish to include a specific feature but it is not convenient to set up a new instrument position for this
The solution is to take a sighting onto the staff when it is placed on this feature - this is called an intermediate sight

Intermediate sight
The intermediate sight is taken at the base of the channel between B and C

The new change of level is 1.674m - 2.988m = -1.314m The absolute level of the intermediate point C is 98.987m
C
Intermediate sight

B
1.674m

2.988m
IP 2

Rise and fall booking (intermediate sight)

Backsight Interm. Foresight Rise Fall R.L. Distance Remarks
Point A Point B channel Point C

2.312 1.674
2.988

2.533 1.631 + 0.043 - 0.221 -1.314

Next FS

100.522 100.301 98.987 100.344

1.2

Optical distance measurement

It is often convenient to use the levelling instrument itself to calculate the distance between the instrument and staff positions This is done using the stadia lines that are visible in the viewfinder These are arranged such that the distance to the staff is 100x the stadia interval that is read on the staff between the two lines This procedure is known as tacheometry

Tacheometry
The viewfinder:
Multiply vertical distance by 100 to obtain horizontal distance

Stadia lines

Inclined tacheometry
If the level can be swung in a vertical arc, the distance up an inclined sight line can be obtained. If the vertical angle is also measured, the slant distance can be converted to give both the change in height and the true horizontal distance.

Inclined tacheometry

Tacheometric distance

Change of height
Measured angle

a
True horizontal distance

The theodolite
If such an instrument can also be swung in a horizontal arc, and the angle of rotation can be measured, we are able to determine the angles of the sight lines between stations. This allows both trilateration and triangulation with the same instrument. Such a versatile instrument exist and is called a theodolite.

Summary
Chain surveys are suited to planimetric surveys on low slopes. They rely upon trilateration. Levelling is used where terrain is more uneven. Levelling surveys often use tacheometry to fix station positions. A theodolite survey permits levelling, tacheometry or triangulation as required.