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Light is an electromagnetic radiation we can see with our eyes light has the
properties of a wave. One of these properties is interference, caused by the addition of
waves
Introduction:
If two or more waves cross one another in the same medium, each wave produces
its own effect totally independent of the effects due to the other. Principle of
superposition tells that at any instance the resultant displacement is equal to the
vector sum of the individual displacements produced by each wave. This is based on
the theory of interference of light discovered by Thomas Young in 1801.
With single source of light the energy distribution in the surrounding medium is
uniform. But when there are two adjacent sources of light giving out light waves of the
same wavelength, amplitude and having zeroed or constant phase difference, the
distribution of energy is no longer uniform. At some points where the crest of one wave
falls upon the crest of the other or the trough of one wave falls on the trough of the other,
the resultant amplitude is large and hence the intensity become maximum. At other points
where the crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other wave and vice versa, the
resultant amplitude is reduced to zero and intensity is minimum.
Concepts:
Principles:
Since light has wave properties, it will experience interference (the addition of
waves).
This interference is like that seen with water waves.
Whether you get constructive or destructive interference depends on the
wavelength (color) of the light.
White light is made up of many colors. These different colors have different
wavelengths.
We can see the many colors of light on bubbles.
The separation of white light into many colors on a bubble happens because of
interference.
Thomas Young’s double slit Experiment:
One of the most important experiments of wave theory is that of Young's double
slits. It is a clear example of the diffraction of light conducted with essentially basic
scientific equipment.
Thomas Young was a not only a physicist but also a physician and Egyptologist, who was
responsible for deciphering the Rosetta stone. He devised an experiment in the early
1800's that proved that light is a wave. The experiment has been used subsequently to
show that wave behaviors exists in many other areas of nature and therefore it is worth
spending a little time going into the experiment in detail.
When two light beams interact they create interference which can be constructive or
destructive as we have discussed earlier. The places where constructive and destructive
interference occur are subject to constant change, since electromagnetic waves emitted
are capable of varying phase. Using one light source and splitting it into two beams you
can create two coherent sources, meaning they are of identical frequencies and have a
constant phase difference (the distance between a peak of wave 1 and wave 2 is always
the same) It is also important to use monochromatic light for this experiment as the
location of interference occurs is wavelength dependent.
Interference
pattern on
completely
flat surface
The apparatus consists of a source matching the above requirements, a screen with two
very thin identical slits or the order of a wavelength in width, and a screen to view the
interference on.
In principle, a light bulb, or lamp can be used, but the light must be reduced to a
monochromatic source with filters. It can also be done by splitting the light into its
various frequencies using a prism, a frequency can be selected by channeling the light
with a further screen with only a pin prick in it to allow the light out. These days’ lasers
are used to provide the light source.
When the light is switched on, it travels up to the first screen and is split into two beams
by the slits, we have seen that when this happens waves are diffracted and bulge outwards
causing two curved wave fronts to propagate the other side of the slits, at many places
between the slits and the viewing screen there are areas of constructive interference and
by moving the viewing screen it is possible to get a picture of where they are occurring
Conditions for Sustained Interference:
Light waves from two sources can form a sustained (well defined and observable)
interference pattern where they meet, only if they satisfy the following conditions:
Two light waves superposing at a point must have the same wavelength or
frequency
The amplitude of superimposing light waves should be equal or almost equal.
Two light waves superposing at a point should either have the same phase or
constant phase difference.
The two sources emitting light waves should be very narrow.
The sources emitting light waves should be very close to each other.
Coherent Sources:
Any two sources of light continuously emitting light waves having zeroed or
constant phase difference are called coherent sources. Thus coherent sources have a
definite phase relationship between them and emit light waves of equal frequency or
wavelength.
Interference can occur only with coherent sources. But two independent sources
cannot be coherent because even though they may emit light waves of equal wavelength
and equal amplitude, they may not have constant phase difference. Therefore, to obtain
two interfering beams, a single source is used and its beam is split into two by following
ways:
Division of Amplitude:
In this case the wave front is split up into two parts by partial refraction and
reflection at a surface and these two parts are later made to reunite to produce
interference.
(Example: Air wedge, Newton’s Rings)
Air Wedge:
Newton’s Rings:
Newton’s Rings Explanation:
(1)
(2)
plane gives a phase change of . The phase difference between rays reflected off
the plane and hemisphere is therefore
(3)
so
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
Theory of Interference (Mathematical Model):
Consider two light waves of same frequency, wavelength traveling in same
directions. Let a1 and a2 be the amplitudes of the two waves. The displacements of any
particle in the medium due to these waves at any instance of time t are
y1 = a1 sin ωt and y2 = a2 sin (ωt + δ)
Where δ is phase difference between the waves and ω = 2πf is the angular frequency of
the waves.
Thus the resultant displacement of the particle is the sum of both equations
Equation (4) represents the a simple harmonic vibration of amplitude R and angular
frequency ω. Thus the resultant wave is also a simple harmonic wave with same
frequency as those individual waves.
For constructive interference the phase difference between the two light waves must be
equal even multiple of π or the path difference between the waves must be equal to even
multiple of λ/2 where λ is wave length of light.
Rmax = (a12 + a22 + 2a1a2)1/2 = a1 + a2.
The maximum intensity is I max α (a1 + a2)2
If a1 = a2 = a then I max α 4a2
Condition of destructive interference:
When there is destructive interference the amplitude is minimum and hence the
intensity is also minimum.
From equation (5) the resultant amplitude is R is minimum when
cos δ = -1. δ = (2n + 1)π where n= 0, 1, 2, 3………
Thus R will be minimum when the phase difference between the two waves is
δ = π, 3π, 5π, 7π………………. That is the odd multiple of π
If Δ is the path difference between the waves corresponding to the phase difference δ,
Δ = (λ/2 π) δ = (λ/2 π)(2n+1) π = (2n+1) λ/2
For destructive interference the phase difference between the two waves must be equal to
odd multiple of π or the path difference between the waves must be equal to odd multiple
of λ/2 where λ is wavelength of light.
The minimum amplitude R min = (a12 + a22 - 2a1a2)1/2 = a1 + a2.
The minimum intensity is I max α (a1 - a2)2
If a1 = a2 = a then I max = 0 and R min = 0
Width of Interference Fringes:
A x Q
B
R
In figure A and B represents the two coherent sources (slits in young’s double slit
experiment) of light separated by a distance d. let a screen be placed at a distance D from
light source. Then the point O on the screen is equidistant from A and B so that the path
difference between the two light waves from A and B reaching O is zero. Thus the point
O has the maximum intensity.
Consider a point P at a distance x from O. The path difference between the light
waves from A and B reaching the point P is
Δ = BP – AP
From the figure
BP2 = BR2 + PR2 = D2 + [x + (d/2)] 2
AP2 = AQ2 + PQ 2 = D2 + [x - (d/2)] 2
BP2 - AP2 = {D2 + [x + (d/2)] 2} – {D2 + [x - (d/2)] 2}
= [x + (d/2)] 2 - [x - (d/2)] 2
= 2xd
Or (BP-AP) (BP+AP) = 2xd
(BP-AP) = {(BP+AP)/2xd}
Since P is very close to O, (BP+AP) = 2D
Therefore path difference Δ = (BP-AP) = 2xd/2D = xd/D …………. (1)
Thus the equation (1) represents the path difference between light waves from A
and B interfering at the point P.
For Bright Fringes:
For bright fringes or maximum intensity at P, the path difference must be an even
multiple of λ/2 where λ is the wavelength of light used.
xd/D = 2nλ/2 or x = nλD/d ……………………… (2)
Equation (2) gives the position of bright fringes from the point O
For n = 0, x0 = 0
For n = 1, x1 = λD/d
For n = 2, x2 = λD/d
For n = 3, x3 = λD/d and so on.
The distance between the centers of any two consecutive bright fringes is called fringe
width of bright fringes. It is given by
β = x1 – x0 = x2 – x1 = x3 – x2 = …………. = λD/d
Therefore β = λD/d ……………….. (3)
Thus the widths of all the bright fringes are same.
From the equation (3) and (5), it is found that the fringe widths for bright fringes
and the dark fringes are equal.
Interferometry has got a wide range of applications following are some of the
important applications of interferometry.
1. Optical Testing:
Generally applications of interferometry used in testing are Measurement
of surface quality.
a. Flat surfaces
b. Spherical surfaces
c. Surface roughness
d. Aspherical surfaces
2. Inspection:
Interferometry has following applications in the field of inspection.
a. Inspection of slip gauges
b. Inspection of measurement standards
4. Aligning very high quality lenses, like those in cameras, telescopes, and photo-
lithography tools called steppers, which are used in the fabrication of the intricate
circuit patterns.
6. Space applications
a. Radio Astronomy.
b. Measuring light intensity
c. Used in retrieving images from telescope.
7. To measure angular sizes as small as 0.0005 arc seconds from distant stars.
Interferometer:
Types of Interferometers:
Michelson Interferometer:
Fabry-Perot Interferometers
Spherical Interferometers
Fringe Counting Interferometers
Goge Block Interferometers
Correlation Interferometer
Intensity Interferometer
Stellar Interferometer
Sagnac Interferometer
Pohl Interferometer
Martin-Puplett Interferometer
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Single Frequency DC interferometer
Twyman-Green Interferometer
N.P.L. Flatness Interferometer
Mercury
Mercury 198
Cadmium
Krypton
Krypton 86
Thallium
Sodium
Helium
Neon
Gas lasers
Michelson Interferometer:
This is the oldest type of all interferometers, which has subsequently been
modified in several resects and lot of sophistication introduced. However Michelson
using this interferometer, established exact relationship between meter and red
wavelengths of Cadmium lamps. The Michelson interferometer used in the Michelson-
Morley experiment of 1887 to determine the velocity of light had a half-silvered mirror to
split an incident beam of light into two parts at right angles to one another. The two
halves of the beam were then reflected off mirrors and rejoined. Any difference in the
speed of light along the paths could be detected by the interference pattern. The failure of
the experiment to detect any such difference threw doubt on the existence of the ether and
thus paved the way for the special theory of relativity. Another type of interferometer
devised by Michelson has been applied in measuring the diameters of certain stars.
Fabry-Perot Interferometer:
(1)
where r is a Fresnel reflection coefficient from the Fresnel equations, so that the
reflection and transmission ratios may be simply expressed as
(2)
(3)
where
(4)
with d the thickness of the glass the light is transmitted through, n is its index of
refraction, and is the wavelength of the light.
EYE
OPTICAL
FLAT
FLAT
SURFACE
In the figure the angle θ the two flats shown exaggerated too much. S is the source
of monochromatic light. At point A, the wave of incident beam from S is partially
reflected along AB and is partially transmitted across the air gap along AC. At C, again
the ray is reflected along CD and passes out towards the eye along CDE. Thus two
reflected components, reflected at A and C are collected and recombined by the eye,
having traveled paths whose lengths differ by an amount ACD.
If the path lengths of the two components differ by an odd number of half wavelengths,
then the condition for complete interference is achieved. If the surface is completely flat
then condition of complete interference is satisfied in a straight line across the flat surface
as the surface at right angles to the plane of the paper is parallel to the optical flat.
Therefore a straight dark line will be seen passing through point C. Consider another ray
passing along path SFH. Again this ray is also spitted in two components. It is obvious
that the path difference of two component rays will keep on increasing along the surface
due to angle θ. Thus if path difference FHI be 3λ/2 or the next odd number of half
wavelengths, then interference will occur and similar fringe will be seen. Next when the
path difference is 5λ/2, again there will be another dark fringe. At the intermediate point
between the points C and H, the path difference will be an even number of half
wavelengths and the two components will be in phase producing a light band.
Thus, in case of perfectly flat surface, we will have pattern of alternate dark and
bright straight lines on the surface, any deviation from this pattern will be a measure of
error in the flatness of surface being inspected.
Interference
pattern on
completely
flat surface
Convex
Surface
Convex Optical
Surface Flat
Specimen
As the distance from the centre increases the separation between the optical flat
and the surface keeps on increasing and the fringes become narrow and more closely
spaced.
Optical
Flat
New
Contact Specimen
Position
Optical
Flat
From the above illustrations we can use this application of optical flats and
Interferometry for studying various surface contours, optical flat is kept at certain
inclination over the surface to be tested.
By applying
Concave surface will Fringes produced by pressure at points
show such fringes the convex surface the surfaces with
gauge. high and low spots
will be observed.
Once it is assured that surface of the two gauges are flat and parallel to each other,
then it is possible to check the height of the two gauges also. Let the number of fringes on
the reference gauge block be N in the width of l units.
This is however a rough method and meant to explain principle only. For this
purpose the use of interferometer is best.
N.P.L. Flatness interferometer:
This instrument mainly used for checking the flatness of flat surfaces. This
interferometer is designed by National Physical Laboratory. The flatness of any surface is
judged by comparing with an optical flat surface which is generally the base plate of the
instrument. This instrument essentially consists of a mercury vapor lamp. As we are
interested in having single monochromatic source of light, the radiations of the mercury
lamp are passed through a green filter. This radiation is then brought to focus on pinhole
in order to obtain an intense point source of light. A mirror is used in order to deflect the
light beam through 900. The pinhole is placed in the focal plane of collimating lens, thus
the radiation out of the lens will be parallel beam of light. This beam is directed on the
gauge to be tested via an optical flat. The fringes formed are viewed directly above by
means of a thick glass plate semi-reflector set at 45o to the optical axis.
The gauge to be tested is wrung on the base plate whose surface is finished to a
degree comparable to that of the highest quality gauge face. As the optical flat is placed
above it in a little tilted position, interference fringes are formed; one between rays
reflected from the under surface of the optical flat and those reflected from the surface of
the gauge, and the other between rays reflected from the undersurface of the optical flat
and those reflected from the base plate.
(4) (5)