Alcohol

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 What is Alcohol?

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), the active ingredient in alcoholic beverages, is

almost always produced by fermentation - the metabolism of
carbohydrates by certain species of yeast in the absence of oxygen.
The process of culturing yeast under alcohol-producing conditions is
referred to as brewing.

It has been suggested that alcoholic impurities (congeners) are the

cause of hangovers. However, it is more likely that they are caused by
ethanal, a toxic breakdown intermediate naturally produced by the liver
as the alcohol is metabolised.

It should be noted that in chemistry, alcohol is a general term for any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-
OH) is bound to a carbon atom, which in turn is bound to other carbon atoms and further hydrogens. Other alcohols
such as propylene glycol and the sugar alcohols may appear in food or beverages regularly, but these alcohols do not
make them "alcoholic".

Alcoholic content

The concentration of alcohol in an alcoholic beverage may be specified in percent alcohol by volume (ABV), in
percentage by weight (sometimes abbreviated w/w for weight for weight), or in proof. The 'proof' measurement roughly
corresponds in a 2:1 ratio to percent alcoholic content by volume (e.g. 80 proof ≈ 40% ABV). Common distillation
cannot exceed 192 proof because at that point ethanol is an azeotrope with water. Alcohols of this purity are commonly
referred to as grain alcohol and are not meant for human consumption, with the notable exception of neutral grain
spirits.

Most yeasts cannot grow when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18% by volume, so that is a practical
limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as wine, beer, and sake. Strains of yeast have been developed that
can survive in solutions of up to 25% alcohol by volume, but these were bred for ethanol fuel production, not beverage
production. Spirits are produced by distillation of a fermented product, concentrating the alcohol and eliminating some
of the by-products. Many wines are fortified wines with additional grain alcohol to achieve higher ABV than is easily
reached using fermentation alone.

Flavoring

Ethanol is a moderately good solvent for many "fatty" substances and essential "oils", and thus facilitates the inclusion
of several coloring, flavoring, and aromatic compounds to alcoholic beverages, especially to distilled ones. These
flavoring ingredients may be naturally present in the starting material, or may be added before fermentation, before
distillation, or before bottling the distilled product. Sometimes the flavour is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand
for months or years in barrels made of special wood, or in bottles where scented twigs or fruits — or even insects —
have been inserted.

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 The History of alcohol

Alcoholic beverages have been widely consumed since prehistoric times by

people around the world, seeing use as a component of the standard diet, for
hygienic or medical reasons, for their relaxant and euphoric effects, for
recreational purposes, for artistic inspiration, as aphrodisiacs, and for other
reasons. Some have been invested with symbolic or religious significance
suggesting the mystical use of alcohol, e.g. by Greco-Roman religion in the
ecstatic rituals of Dionysus (also called Bacchus), god of drink and revelry; in the
Christian Eucharist; and at the Jewish Passover.

Fermented beverages

Chemical analyses of organics absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the Neolithic village of Jiahu, in Henan
province, Northern China, have revealed that a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit was being produced
as early as 9,000 years ago. This is approximately the same time that barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be
made in the Middle East. Recipes have been found on clay tablets and art in Mesopotamia that show individuals using
straws to drink beer from large vats and pots.

Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, and in the

1st century BC it was part of the diet of most Roman citizens. However, both
Greeks and Romans generally consumed their wine watered (from 1 parts of
wine to 1 part of water, to 1 part of wine to 4 parts of water). The transformation
of water into wine at a wedding feast is one of the miracles attributed to Jesus in
the New Testament, and his use of wine in the Last Supper led to it becoming an
essential part of the Eucharist rite in most Christian traditions.

In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer was consumed by the whole family, thanks to a triple fermentation process —
the men had the strongest, then women, then children. A document of the times mentions nuns having an allowance of
six pints of ale a day. Cider and pomace wine were also widely available, while grape wine was the prerogative of the
higher classes. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, wine production in Europe appears to have been sustained
chiefly by monasteries.

By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, several
native civilizations had developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-
Conquest Aztec document, consumption of the local "wine" (pulque) was
generally restricted to religious ceremonies, but freely allowed to those over 70
years old (possibly the all-time record for legal drinking age). The natives of
South America manufactured a beer-like product from cassava or maize (cauim,
chicha), which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the starch
into sugars. (Curiously, the same technique was used in ancient Japan to make
sake from rice and other starchy crops.)

The medicinal use of alcoholic beverages was mentioned in Sumerian and

Egyptian texts dated from 2100 BC or earlier. The Hebrew Bible recommends
giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can
forget their misery.

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Distilled beverages

Beer and wine are typically limited to a maximum 15 percent alcohol,

although brewers have reached 25% alcohol. Beyond this limit yeast
is adversely affected and cannot ferment. Since the fourth millennium
BC in Babylonia, higher levels of alcohol have been obtained in a
number of ways. It was not until the still was invented by Islamic
alchemists in the 8th or 9th centuries that the history of distilled
beverages began. Distilled alcohol appeared first in Europe in the mid
12th century and by the early 14th century it had spread throughout
Europe. It also spread eastward, mainly by the Mongols, and was
practiced in China by the 14th century. However, recent archeological
evidence has supported the idea that China has had wines and
distilled beverages dating back to 5000 BC. Paracelsus gave alcohol
its modern name, taking it from the Arabic word which means "finely
divided", a reference to distillation.

Uses

In places and eras with poor public sanitation, such as Medieval Europe, consumption of alcoholic beverages
(particularly weak or "small" beer) was one method of avoiding water-borne diseases such as the cholera. Though
strong alcohol kills bacteria, the low concentration in beer or even wine will have only a limited effect. Probably the
boiling of water, which is required for the brewing of beer, and the growth of yeast, which would tend to crowd out other
micro-organisms, were more important than the alcohol itself. In any case, the ethanol (and possibly other ingredients)
of alcoholic beverages allows them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling,
which was certainly a major factor in their popularity.

A recent study indicated that ethanol has been found to stimulate the virulence of Acinetobacter baumannii. Tests on
infected nematode worms that were dosed with ethanol found that the worms laid fewer eggs and their life spans were
only 80% of worms infected with a version of A. baumannii that didn't respond to ethanol. This study suggests that the
common misconception that drinking alcohol kills infections is false and drinking alcohol may actually help the infection
to grow.

In colder climates, strong alcoholic beverages such as vodka are popularly seen as a way to "warm up" the body,
possibly because ethanol is a quickly absorbed source of food energy and dilates peripheral blood vessels
(Peripherovascular dilation). This however is a dangerous myth, and people experiencing hypothermia should avoid
alcohol. Although a drunk may feel warmer, the body loses heat and body temperature decreases, which may cause
hypothermia, and eventually death. This is because of the dilation of blood vessels not in the core of the body; because
of this increased bloodflow, the body loses its heat out of its less protected outer extremities.

In many cultures, both contemporary and historical, alcoholic beverages — mostly because of their neurological effects
have also played an important role in various kinds of social interaction, providing a form of "liquid courage" (those who
consume it "gain" confidence and lose discretion). While other psychoactive drugs (such as opium, coca, khat,
cannabis, kava-kava, etc.) also have millennial traditions of social use, only coffee, tea and tobacco have been as
universally used and accepted as ethanol is today.

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 Alcohol consumption and health

Moderate consumption

Moderate consumption of alcohol is defined by the U.S. Department of

Agriculture and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans as no more than two drinks
for men and one drink for women per day. It is defined as four drinks per day, not
to exceed 14 per week for a man and three per day, not to exceed 14 per week
for a woman.

An exhaustive review of all major heart disease studies has found that "alcohol
consumption is related to total mortality in a J-shaped manner, where moderate
consumers have a reduced total mortality compared with total non-consumers
and heavy consumers" (La Porte et al.). Abstaining from alcohol is a risk factor
for heart attack.

A logical possibility is that many of the alcohol abstainers in research studies previously drank excessively and had
undermined their health, thus explaining their high levels of risk. To test this hypothesis, some studies have excluded all
but those who had avoided alcohol for their entire lives. However, the conclusion remained the same: moderate
drinkers are less likely to suffer heart disease.

Another possibility is that moderate drinkers have more healthful lifestyles (making them healthier), higher economic
status (giving them greater access to better foods or better healthcare), higher educational levels (causing them to be
more aware of disease symptoms), etc. However, when these and other factors are considered, the conclusion again
remains the same: moderate drinkers are less likely to suffer heart disease.

In addition, research has clearly demonstrated many of the mechanisms whereby alcohol significantly reduces
cardiovascular disease (Dairdron et al.; Ely & Berne; Facchini et al.; Langer et al.; Mennen et al,; Paassilta et al.; Rimm
et al.; Thun et al,; Wang & Barker; Zhang et al.), the major cause of death in North America and much of the world.

Excess consumption

Excess consumption is sometimes detrimental to an alcohol abuser's health. The

neurological effects of alcohol use are often a factor in deadly motor vehicle
accidents and fights. People under the influence of alcohol sometimes find
themselves in dangerous or compromising situations where they would not be
had they remained sober. Operating a motor vehicle or heavy machinery under
the influence of alcohol is a serious crime in almost all nations.

Some people are predisposed to developing a chemical dependency to alcohol,

alcoholism. The results of alcoholism are considered a major health problem in
many nations. The development of alcoholism does not take place in the
absence of alcohol, but neither does the presence of alcohol cause it.

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 Types of alcoholic beverages

Alcoholic beverages include low-alcohol-content beverages produced

by fermentation of sugar- or starch-containing products, and high-
alcohol-content beverages produced by distillation of the low-alcohol-
content beverages. Sometimes, the alcohol content of low-alcohol-
content beverages is increased by adding distilled products, particularly
in the case of wines. Such fortified wines include Port wine and Sherry.

The process involved (as well as the resulting alcohol content) defines
the finished product. Beer involves a relatively short (incomplete)
fermentation process and an equally short aging process (a week or
two) resulting in an alcohol content generally between 3-8%, as well as
natural carbonation. Wine involves a longer (complete) fermentation
process, and a relatively long aging process (months or years --
sometimes decades) resulting in an alcohol content between 7-18%.

Sparkling wine is generally made by adding a small amount of sugar before bottling, which causes a secondary
fermentation to continue in the bottle. Distilled products are generally not made from a "beer" that would normally be
palatable as fermentation is normally completed, but no aging is involved until after distillation. Most are 30% or greater
alcohol by volume. Liqueurs are characterized by the way in which their flavors are infused and typically have high
sugar content. Spirits typically contain 37.5% alcohol or greater and are not infused with flavors during the distilling
process, however some modern spirits are infused with flavors after distilling (the Swedish vodka Absolut, for instance).
Standard drinks of alcoholic beverages in the United States all contain equivalent amounts of alcohol, about 0.6 fl. oz.
(American) each (17.75ml). A U.S. standard drink is a 12 ounce can or bottle of beer, a five ounce glass of dinner wine,
or a 1.5 ounce drink of 40% distilled spirits (either straight or in a mixed drink).

Note that in common speech, wine or brandy is made from grapes unless the fruit is specified: "plum wine" or "cherry
brandy" for example, although in some cases grape-derived alcohol is added.

In the USA and Canada, cider often means unfermented apple juice (see the article on cider), while fermented cider is
called hard cider. Unfermented cider is sometimes called sweet cider. Also, applejack was originally made by a freezing
process described in the article on cider which was equivalent to distillation but more easily done in the cold climate of
New England. In the UK, cider is always alcoholic, and in Australia it can be either.

Beer is generally made from barley, but can sometimes contain a mix of other grains. Whisky is sometimes made from
a blend of different grains, especially Irish whiskey which may contain several different grains. The style of whisky
(Scotch, Rye, Bourbon) generally determines the primary grain used, with additional grains usually added to the blend
(most often barley, and sometimes oats).

Two common distilled beverages are vodka and gin. Vodka can be distilled from any source (grain and potatoes being
the most common) but the main characteristic of vodka is that it is so thoroughly distilled as to exhibit none of the
flavors derived from its source material. Gin is a similar distillate which has been flavored by contact with herbs and
other plant products, especially juniper berries. The name comes from the Dutch liquor genever, which in turn takes its
name from the Dutch word for juniper.

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 Name of
Source fermented Name of distilled beverage
beverage

barley beer, ale Scotch whisky

rye rye beer Rye whisky

corn corn beer Bourbon whiskey

wheat wheat beer Wheat whisky, Korn (Germany)

sake, sonti,
rice shochu (Japan), soju (Korea), Huangjiu and Baijiu (China)
makkoli, tuak

juice of fruits, wine (most

other than apples commonly from brandy, Cognac (France), Branntwein (Germany), Pisco (Peru/Chile)
or pears grapes)

("hard") cider,
juice of apples applejack (or apple brandy), Calvados, cider, lambig
apfelwein

perry, or pear
juice of pears pear brandy
cider

juice of
basi, betsa-
sugarcane, or rum, cachaça, aguardiente, guaro
betsa (regional)
molasses

juice of agave pulque tequila, mezcal

juice of plums plum wine slivovitz, tzuica, palinca

pomace pomace wine grappa (Italy), Trester (Germany), marc (France)

honey mead distilled mead ("mead brandy" or "honey brandy")

vodka: potato mostly used in Ukraine, otherwise grain or potato. A strong drink
potato and/or called aquavit or brännvin in Sweden, akvavit in Denmark and akevitt in Norway,
potato beer
grain and brennivín in (Iceland) is made from potato or grain. In Ireland, Poitín (or
poteen) is a recently legalised drink made from potatoes.

Milk Kumis Araka

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 Effects of alcohol on the body

An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol. Ethanol is a drug,

and depressant, and even though alcohol is a legal drug, most
societies regulate or restrict the sale and use of it.

The effects of alcohol on the human body take several forms.

Alcohol, specifically ethanol, is a potent psychoactive drug with a

range of side effects. The amount and circumstances of consumption
play a large part in determining the extent of intoxication; e.g.,
consuming alcohol after a heavy meal is less likely to produce visible
signs of intoxication than consumption on an empty stomach.
Hydration also plays a role, especially in determining the extent of
hangovers. The concentration of alcohol in blood is usually given by
BAC.

Alcohol has a biphasic effect on the body, which is to say that its effects change over time. Initially, alcohol generally
produces feelings of relaxation and cheerfulness, but further consumption can lead to blurred vision and coordination
problems.

Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream it can diffuse into nearly every
tissue of the body. After excessive drinking, unconsciousness can occur and extreme levels of consumption can lead to
alcohol poisoning and death (a concentration in the blood stream of 0.55% will kill half the population).

Death can also be caused by asphyxiation when vomit, a frequent result of overconsumption, blocks the trachea and
the individual is too inebriated to respond. An appropriate first aid response to an unconscious, drunken person is to
place them in the recovery position.

Intoxication frequently leads to a lowering of one's inhibitions, and intoxicated people will do things they would not do
while sober, often ignoring social, moral, and legal considerations. The term intoxication is typically used in legal
proceedings when some crime has been committed during a state of inebriation.

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