low granular filtration for water reuse

A. Adin
Env. Sciences Division, The Hebrew Univ. of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel (E-mail: adin@vms.huji.ac.il) Abstract The slow sand filtration (SSF) design parameters as known for purifying surface water cannot be copied for the treatment of secondary effluents. The objectives of the present research were to examine the possibility of slow granular filtration (SGF) as advanced treatment of secondary effluents for reuse purposes and examine filter performance under various design regimes. Slow granular filtration runs where made with four different filters at rate of 0.15 m/h. 0.6 mm, 0.25 mm sand or tuff grains or their combination were used. Grain size of 0.25 mm gave low impurities concentration in the effluent but short filtration runs. Double layer bed caused longer filtration run as well as lower impurities concentration in the effluent, Combining the tuff as the top bed layer caused longer filtration run, probably due to the morphologic and chemical properties of the tuff. The water column above the bed plays an important role in the filtration process. Intense microbiologic activity in the column changes the TSS and COD concentration as well as the availability of the biodegradable matter. The dissolved oxygen concentration in the water column above the bed, and in the bed depth can serve as a good indicator for ripening of the biological layer. Keywords Effluent reuse; slow granular filtration; slow sand filtration; wastewater filtration

Introduction

SGF (slow granular filtration) is a more comprehensive term than SSF (slow sand filtration) relating to the application of a variety of media types and configurations including sand. SSF is known to be a most simple to operate, low cost, efficient and reliable technique for potable water treatment. 20% of the drinking water in the UK is still slow sand filtered as is 80% of all London water (Ellis, 1991). Among the more important mechanisms for the removal of water impurities through slow sand filtration are: (a) enhanced biological activity on surfaces, (b) mechanical filtration, (c) adsorption, and (d) surface catalyzed degradation. These process features make SSF most attractive for advanced treatment of effluents. The filtered water can be supplied for irrigation either following seasonal storage in open reservoirs or directly, placing the filter ahead of the irrigation system. The latter arrangement is especially important for the protection of drip irrigation systems from clogging (Adin and Alon, 1986; Adin and Elimelech, 1989; Adin and Sacks, 1991). However, the difference in water quality which normally exists between surface water and secondary effluents does not allow direct application of SSF as used for clean-up of potable waters for the treatment of effluents. Secondary effluents are characterized by: (a) high organic contents of differing nature, (b) suspended particulates of various origins, (c) higher concentrations of nutrients, including various nitrogenous compounds, (d) larger number and variety of pathogens bacteria, virus, parasites and (e) industrial contaminants, including heavy metals and toxic organics. Several investigators have shown that the biodegradation of various substances is markedly decreased in the presence of dissolved humics (Speitel and Digiano, 1987). Polysaccharides have been found to posses specific adsorption and complexation affinities for inorganic and organic matter, such as, clays, bacteria and soluble hydrophobic compounds (Kanaani et al., 1992). Very few studies were conducted on the treatment of secondary effluents by slow sand filtration and specifically the microbial quality of slow filtered effluents has not been sufficiently tested.
Water Science and Technology: Water Supply Vol 3 No 4 pp 123130 IWA Publishing 2003
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SGF basics for design

As with rapid gravity sand filters, slow sand filters consist basically of three sections: underdrainage, gravel and filter media, of which only the filter media has any direct role to play in the purification process. Unlike rapid sand filters, the water reservoir above the sand bed in a slow filter plays an active role in the purification process as the settlement of suspended solids and the aerobic biodegradation of organic compounds can occur. However, the key parameters in SSF are the depth of the bed filter media and the effective size of the sand (Visscher, 1990). The effective size of the sand is usually 0.150.4 mm for potable water, and the depth of the sand bed between 0.6 and 1 m. The few studies of SSF of wastewater reported in the literature show an overall removal of 6080% of suspended solids, and a removal of over one order of E. coli bacteria, with superiority to coarser sand (grain size approximately 0.6 mm), while fine size (approximately 0.3 mm) improves filtration only slightly, causing very short filtration runs (Ellis, 1987; Farook and Yousef, 1993; Farooq et al., 1993; Adin et al., 1995; Adin et al., 1998). It is common to use an initial depth of 0.8 to 0.9 m to allow for a sufficient number of scrapings before resanding is needed. In order to improve the efficiency of purification it is better to increase the depth of the sand bed, rather than to reduce the grain size, because if

the sand is too fine it may cause an excessive head loss. Improved purification efficiency can also be achieved by addition of fibers to the beds surface layer, thus providing an additional matrix for the development of the schmutzdecke.
The Schmutzdecke

Submerging a sand bed in a shallow layer of nutrient-rich water for prolonged periods of time leads to the formation of biologically active mats consisting of a mixture of photosynthetic microorganisms and heterotrophic bacteria. These types of mats are in general referred to as Schmutzdecke. The development of a Schmutzdecke and the functioning of its mature form are expected to play a major role in the overall performance of slow filtration systems. In turn, operational measures are expected to have a strong effect on the biological properties of the sand bed. Colonization of particulate matter by individual microorganisms forms the basis for the development of microbial mats. One may expect, even at the early stages of mat formation, that changing surface properties of filter particles may influence filter performance. Mature mats may contain microorganisms capable of excreting copious amounts of exopolymers, in general exopolysaccharides (Katznelson, 1989; Uhlinger and White, 1983). Polysaccharides have been found to posses specific adsorption and complexation affinities for inorganic and organic matter, such as, clays, bacteria and soluble hydrophobic compounds (Kanaani et al., 1992). Thus, the nature of this mass of cells and exudates determine the physiological properties of the Schmutzdecke. Its implications on microbiological/ physiological processes, filter performance and water quality, are addressed below. Wastewater effluents, certainly those originating from oxidation/stabilization ponds, normally contain appreciable amounts of ammonium. This ammonium can be removed by the following processes: (a) stripping to the atmosphere by pH elevation, (b) incorporation into cellular material, and (c) transformation to N2 through nitrification/denitrification. The latter is by far the desirable process, since it avoids the negative side-effects of air pollution or increasing the amount of suspended solids accompanying the other two processes. Both nitrification and denitrification are microbial processes that occur optimally in microbial mats or biofilms (van Rijn and Rivera, 1990). The first process is strictly aerobic whereas the second is strictly anaerobic. However, even anoxic wastewaters are known to contain significant amounts of viable nitrifying bacteria. Depending of the operational conditions of the sand bed filter, the concurrent development of nitrification/denitrification A. Adin 124 may be expected as a result of alternating oxic/anoxic conditions resulting from algal activity in light/dark cycles (Post et al., 1985). Alternatively, operational measures such as regular changes in water level may induce the required alternation of oxic/anoxic conditions. A successful combination of nitrifying and denitrifying activity has been reported for lagoons with dissolved O2-concentrations of >1 mg/L (Constable et al., 1989a,b). The development of microbial mats on a sand bed filter is a function of environmental conditions. The main factors determining the conditions are related to the quantity and quality of the water overlying the filter. Turbidity and water depth will together determine the amount of light available to the water column (Loogman et al., 1980) and whether light will reach the surface of the filter bed. Light conditions are extremely important in determining which type of microalgae develops in the overlying water (Post et al., 1985) and hence determine, through competition for available resources, which type of microalgae will dominate in the microbial mats. Light penetration in and mixing of the water column set the parameters for the DO-regime during the day and night (Loogman et al., 1980). The carbon flux in the microbial mat will be largely determined by the available light and the extent of anaerobiosis. Anoxic conditions will yield partial mineralization of organic matter and the release of organic compounds including organic nitrogen and sulfur compounds, which are less desirable from the point of water quality. Effluent turbidity differs in magnitude and in nature surface water turbidity applied to SSF, making it an important water quality parameter.
Filtering materials

The common medium used for SSF of drinking water is sand. some other materials have also been employed for the filter medium in slow granular filters. Crushed coral has been used; volcanic ash has been employed in Ethiopia, and the use of burnt rice husks have been investigated in South East Asia (Ellis, 1991). The nature of the solid phase will determine to a very large extent the relative importance of each of the above mentioned processes. Thus, the use of local types of sand should

be examined (which is important also from economic viewpoint). Determination of sand grain size is a process of optimization, the larger the grain size the smaller is the head loss (i.e. clogging), however, hydraulic conductivity, as a rule, is inversely related to the surface area and activity.
Bacteria

It is widely accepted that slow sand filtration is a highly effective means of removing bacteria from water. Schuler et al. (1991) showed that slow sand filtration removed more than 90% of the TC bacteria. Huisman (1978) suggested that the total bacteria count in water is reduced by a factor of between 102 and 103 and that the factor for the removal of E. coli varies between 100 and 1,000, with usually none appearing in the filtrate. Van Dijk and Ooman (1978) found that between 99 and 99.9% of pathogenic bacteria are removed during slow filtration. Bowles et al. (1983) studied the effect of temperature on the removal of coliform bacteria by slow sand filtration. Their studies have shown a removal of 98.25% during the summer months, whereas the removal of coliform dropped to 11.5% during the winter months (6C) (Bowles et al., 1983). Paramasivam et al. (1981) recorded the effect of shading on bacterial removal in slow sand filters. They found that 98% of the filtrate samples were free from E. coli with a completely shaded filter, but only 68% being free with a filter open to the sky. These contradictory results require further study. Most studies conducted on the removal of pathogenic agents by slow sand filtration were performed with waters of low turbidity and relatively low organic content that were treated for potable purposes. Very few studies were conducted on the treatment of secondA. Adin
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ary effluents by slow sand filtration and specifically the microbial quality of slow filtered effluents has not bhttp://www.iwaponline.com/ws/00304/0123/003040123.pdfeen sufficiently tested.