STUDENTS NAME: Platon Oana Madalina COURSE: American Urban Studies (Structurile urbanului n SUA Studii Americane, An I) DEADLINE

E for Test submission: June 28, 2012

TEST
1. Provide five characteristics of the first established towns in North America after the European colonization. (5p) Early urban settlements are evidently based on a grid shape design. Towns are polarized, having distinct economic and community districts. Most American cities, from the very beginning, were built upon large surfaces. New York and Philadelphia were founded during the 17th century, and both, as cities before them, were founded in the vicinity of water. 2. Describe a revival style in American architecture and specify its characteristics in aesthetic and political senses. (5p) The Rococo Revival style, which was limited to interiors and furniture, was thought to be elegantly French, and was the most popular style for the design of drawing rooms or parlors (traditionally feminine rooms), no matter the exterior style of the house. These drawing rooms, often painted in a color scheme of white and gold, contained elaborately carved suites of Rococo Revival furniture, usually consisting of two sofas, two armchairs, four side chairs (all upholstered in matching silk), a center table, and an tagre. Gothic Revival furniture, with it references to medieval universities and cloisters, was always considered preferable for home libraries, again regardless of the exterior of the home. With its formal high-backed chairs, Gothic Revival furniture might also be found in the dining room. The Museum owns a Renaissance Revival parlor suite that once furnished the music room in a Second Empire housea style, derived from the French architecture popular during the reign of Napoleon III that was thought to indicate affluence and authority. Renaissance Revival furniture could be used in bedrooms as well as reception rooms. Egyptian Revival furniture was probably always made to function as occasional or highlight piecesno complete suites of furniture in this colorfully exotic style are known. After the Civil War, Americans began to look more closely at the most current high-style designs coming from Europe. While European design had always been influential, ordinary Americans began to tour Europe more often, and young American architects and designers entered the schools and ateliers there. The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 was instrumental in bringing beautifully designed objects from all over the world to the attention of the American consumer. After the 1870s, taste in furniture grew still more eclectic, and particular styles were no longer so rigidly prescribed for particular rooms. At this time also, home design became the purview of professionally trained architects and designers, who, at their best, created their own more innovative designs rather than depending so heavily on the styles of the past. 3. Explain in which way suburbanization appears as a solution to some urban problems and how, on the other hand, suburban living can generate new urban problems. (5p) Suburbanization can be linked to a number of different push and pull factors. Push factors include the congestion and population density of the cities, pollution caused by industry and high levels of traffic and a general perception of a lower quality of life in inner city areas. Pull factors include more open spaces and a perception of being closer to "nature", lower suburban house prices and property taxes in comparison to the city, and the increasing number of job opportunities in the suburban areas. Improvements in transportation

infrastructure encourage suburbanization, as people become increasingly able to live in a suburb and commute in to the nearby town or city to work. Developments in railways, bus routes and roads are the main improvements that make suburbanization more practical. The increase in the number and size of highways is a particularly significant part of this effect. Government policies can have a significant effect on the process. In the United States, for instance, policies of the Federal government in the post-World War II era, such as the building of an efficient network of roads, highways and superhighways, and the underwriting of mortgages for suburban one-family homes, had an enormous influence on the pace of suburbanization in that country. In effect, the government was encouraging the transfer of the middle-class population out of the inner cities and into the suburbs, sometimes with devastating effects on the viability of the city centers. However, some argue that the effect of Interstate Highway Systems on suburbanization is overstated. Researchers of this vein believe city center populations would have declined even in the absence of highway systems, contending that suburbanization is a long-standing and almost universal process. They primarily argue that as incomes rise, most people want the range and choice offered by automobiles. In addition, there is no significant evidence directly linking the development of highway systems to declining urban populations. Insurance companies also fueled the push out of cities, as in many cases, it redlined innercity neighborhoods, denying mortgage loans there, and instead offering low rates in the suburban areas. More recently, some urban areas have adopted "green belt" policies which limit growth in the fringe of a city, in order to encourage more growth in the urban core. It began to be realized that a certain amount of population density in the center city is conducive to creating a good, working urban environment. Race also played a role in American suburbanization. During World War I, the massive migration of African Americans from the South resulted in an even greater residential shift toward suburban areas. The cities became seen as dangerous, crime-infested areas, while the suburbs were seen as safe places to live and raise a family, leading to a social trend known in some parts of the world as white flight. This phenomenon runs counter to much of the rest of the world, where slums mostly exist outside the city, rather than within them. With the increasing population of the older, more established suburban areas, many of the problems which were once seen as purely urban ones have manifested themselves there as well. Some social scientists suggest that the historical processes of suburbanization and decentralization are instances of white privilege that have contributed to contemporary patterns of environmental racism. Recent developments in communication technology, such as the spread of broadband services, the growth of e-mail and the advent of practical home video conferencing, has enabled more people to work from home rather than commuting. Although this can occur either in the city or in the suburbs, the effect is generally decentralizing, which works against the largest advantage of the center city, which is easier access to information and supplies due to centralization. Similarly, the rise of efficient package express delivery systems, such as (in the United States) FedEx and UPS, which take advantage of computerization and the availability of an efficient air transportation system, also eliminates some of the advantages that were once to be had from having a business located in the city. Industrial, warehousing, and factory land uses have also moved to suburban areas. Cheap telecommunications removes the need for company headquarters to be within quick courier distance of the warehouses and ports. Urban areas suffer from traffic congestion, which creates costs in extra driver costs for the company which can be reduced if they were in a suburban area near a highway. As with residential, lower property taxes and low land prices encourage selling industrial land for profitable brownfield redevelopment. Suburban areas also offer more land to use as a buffer between industrial and residential and retail space to avoid NIMBY sentiments and gentrification pressure from the local community when residential and retail is adjacent to industrial space in an urban area. Suburban municipalities can offer tax breaks, specialized zoning, and regulatory incentives to attract industrial land users to their area, such as City of Industry, California. The overall effect of these developments is that businesses as well, and not just individuals, now see an advantage to

locating in the suburbs, where the cost of buying land, renting space, and running their operations, is cheaper than in the city. This continuing dispersal from a single city center has led to other recent phenomena in American suburbs, the advent of edge cities and exurbs, arising out of clusters of office buildings built in suburban commercial centers around shopping malls and higher density developments. With more and more jobs for suburbanites being located in these areas rather than in the main city core that the suburbs grew out of, traffic patterns, which for decades centered on people commuting into the center city to work in the morning and then returning home in the evening, have become more complex, with the volume of intra-suburban traffic increasing tremendously. By 2000, half of the US population lived in suburban areas. Historically it was believed that living in highly urban areas resulted in social isolation, social disorganization, and psychological problems, and that living in suburbs would be more conducive to overall happiness, due to lower population density, lower crime, and a more stable population. A study based on data from 1974, however, found this not to be the case, finding that people living in suburbs had neither greater satisfaction with their neighborhood nor greater satisfaction with the quality of their lives as compared to people living in urban areas. 4. Explain the expression urbanism as a way of life (Louis Wirth) and briefly comment on some characteristics Wirth found in urban personality. (5p) Wirth begins with a warning not to pay too much attention to population, density or form of government when trying to determine what constitutes an urban environment. Although each of these is a factor, Wirth cautions that none by itself is sufficient to describe the many ways in which urban environments differ from their rural counterparts. People living in a small town near an urban center, for example, might exhibit more similarities to their urban neighbors than to small-town folks from farther away. (As an aside, I note that the Census Bureau at the time categorized a community of 2,500 or more to be urban and that I learned while editing a law journal article this summer that the Census Bureau still uses that same number to distinguish urban from rural.) In a nutshell, Wirth says that the state of being urban is not just these disjointed things, but that cumulative accentuation of the characteristics distinctive of the mode of life which is associated with the growth of cities the disassociation from land and place that comes with a society where fewer people own land and more pay rent; the economic specialization that results from an economy in which one no longer does everything for oneself, but does a single thing over and over and over again; the demographic heterogeneity that is so rarely found in rural places. Wirth also addresses the ways in which the characteristically urban lifestyle affects communication. At the individual level, a larger population means people have less connection with their immediate surroundings, such as the people in their neighborhood. Unable to communicate one-on-one, it becomes necessary to communicate through indirect mediums and to articulate individual interests by a process of delegation. Individuals have a harder time knowing their place in the grand scheme of the city, which makes it harder for them to analyze complex issues. 5. Explain why Upton Sinclairs title The Jungle could be seen as both a metaphor of capitalism and a metaphor of the city. Discuss this aspect in the contexts of industrialization and immigration (at least 10 sentences). (10p) As a metaphor, jungle denoted the ferocity of dog-eat-dog competition, the barbarity of exploitative work, the wilderness of urban life, the savagery of poverty, the crudity of political corruption, and the primitiveness of the doctrine of survival of the fittest, which led people to the slaughter as surely as cattle. This animalistic jungle, Sinclair held, should be replaced by a more humane, civilized, cooperative society. Socialism was the answer to modern-day barbarism. Sinclairs point may have been appreciated by his working-class readers, but the primary response of middle-class readers of The Jungle was not sustained political sympathy for

immigrants or solidarity with the working class. Rather, they were shocked and appalled by what might be in their food. The novels tales of rat feces ground up in sausages, gangrenous cattle butchered and sold, and preservatives and dyes used to disguise malodorous decomposition in tinned meat prompted a general outcry. I aimed at the publics heart, Sinclair remarked, and by accident I hit it in the stomach. Domestic meat consumption fell, and Europeans their revulsion fanned by their own meat producers promptly stopped consuming American meat. With sales plummeting, and fear rising that proponents of nationalization of the meatpacking industry might gain from the scandal, American packing companies and the government were compelled to act. The meat-packing industry in Chicago flourished in the 19th century, creating several processes: - agriculture => manufactures - rural => urban - Eastern Europe => US - South => North Several problems emerge: - poor working conditions - low wages - poverty - unemployment - no protection against work-accidents - lack of hygiene - diseases - general hopelessness prevails among the poor, contrasted with the corruption of the rich The American city is used as an expression of capitalism, and its effects and results. 6. Present some themes of the Chicago School of urban sociology and comment on the theoretical and methodological approaches of studying the city proposed and adopted by the same school. (10p) -spatial patterns of urban expansion are studied -the formation and background of marginal groups within cities is observed -inter-group interactions within cities raise questions -organization and disorganization of urban life -methodology of researching the city through its experience The current of the Chicago School of Sociology emerged within the University of Chicago, during the first half of the 20th century. Its mostly related to the fact that the professors of the University lived and experienced the urban life within Chicago. The city was seen as a social laboratory. Due to the urban growth and population growth, an understanding had to be formed. The founder of the department was Albion W. Small. William I. Thomas, and more significantly, Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess, highlighted the aspects of city life. The City is their most important work, focusing on individuals and their mentality within the city. The Second Chicago School emerged after the 1950s, with names such as Howard Becker. The idea of qualitative methodology emerged, containing the following theories: -naturalistic observation -ethnographic closeness -the city as a laboratory of the study of social interaction The idea of the ecological model thus formed, studying the parallels between natural and social systems. City, land, culture and population became and inseparable whole. The concentric zone model also emerged, focusing on loops, ghettos, workers, middle-class members and commuters alike.

7. Comment on the roles of urban communities and public space in the functioning, policies, life and culture of cities (at least 10 sentences). (10p) Michael Moffat, the author of Ethnographic Writing about American Culture, treats problems related to urban communities. Problems such as mixed urban neighborhoods are touched, with events such as street festivals or community civic actions. In contrast, the author debates tactics of living together with strangers, but without interaction. Concepts such as avoidance of conflict or coexistence without contact emerge. Lastly, we have the concept of virtual communities, a tendency in recent decades. This concept does not only refer to online internet communities, but also to groups defined by gender, age, sexual preference, class or interests. So, reviewing, we have 3 types of communities: residentially defined communities (ex. : neighborhood) space is given non-residentially defined communities (ex. : band) space is constructed virtual communities (ex.: online communities) space is not relevant

As opposed to rural communities, urban communities are considered to be modern. The idea that community is lost, and instead, society is born, also appears. From German philosophy, we have the confrontation between Gemeinschaft (community, togetherness) vs. Gesellschaft (Society, organization) F. Toennies. L. Wirth stated that in the modern city the spirit of the community was lost. Others argued the contrary. H. Gans stated that on the contrary, in the modern city there are more communities than in the traditional village. Types of urban communities: street-corner groups ethnic communities suburban communities subcultures social networks

BENEFITS OF PUBLIC SPACES Quality of life for people in cities and towns is directly related to public spaces - how clean the environment is, how safe they feel and how close they are to green space and trees. Public spaces improve our quality of life by:

providing spaces for social interaction enhancing the local environment encouraging a more outdoor lifestyle fostering a sense of belonging and pride in an area reducing road accidents through appropriately managing different transport modes and prioritizing the pedestrian increasing perceptions of safety through attracting a large cross section of people at all times of day enhancing the attractiveness of routes for walking and cycling

Providing an appropriate setting for social and economic activity.

Healthier community Quality public spaces improve our health by: providing opportunities for physical activity and play making walking more attractive reducing stress and providing a calming environment through better green spaces The annual cost of inactivity and obesity in England is estimated at over 10 billion.

Stronger local economy Well designed and managed public spaces add economic value to places. Public space can strengthen the local economy by:

attracting investment through high-quality street improvements enhancing rental and capital value through good urban design increasing property values through tree-lined streets and good parks increasing spending through increased footfall in city centres and local neighbourhoods.

Protection from climate change Public space can help mitigate climate change by: linking places together, making it easier and more attractive to move around by walking and cycling improving the environment around public transport hubs, encouraging people to use public transport minimizing carbon emissions through the choice of materials and construction technologies. Public space can also help adapt to the effects of climate change by acting as a: sustainable drainage system solar temperature moderator source of cooling corridors wind shelter wildlife habitat.

8. Describe and comment on some characteristics of street art and creative protests in the context of urban culture, and explain how they rely on the experience of living in the city (at least 15 sentences). (15p) Street art is art, specifically visual art, developed in public spaces that is, "in the streets" though the term usually refers to unsanctioned art, as opposed to government sponsored initiatives. The term can include traditional graffiti artwork, sculpture, stencil graffiti, sticker art, wheat pasting and street poster art, video projection, art intervention, guerrilla art, and street installations. Typically, the term street art or the more specific postgraffiti is used to distinguish contemporary public-space artwork from territorial graffiti, vandalism, and corporate art. Artists have challenged art by situating it in non-art contexts. Street artists do not aspire to change the definition of an artwork, but rather to question the existing environment with its own language. They attempt to have their work communicate with everyday people about

socially relevant themes in ways that are informed by esthetic values without being imprisoned by them.John Fekner defines street art as all art on the street thats not graffiti. 9. Choose an example of architecture, urban planning or urban culture discussed in the course lectures and comment on it by revealing its role in such urban aspects as liveability, social equity and participation in the case of an American city (at least 15 sentences). (15p) Urban culture today is formed through the unifying voice of hip-hop music. Hip-hop can be defined through the vernacular of its p.poetic lyrics. Modern hip-hop is a versatile form of music that embraces the creativity of jazz and Afrocentric folk music, and is an "offshoot of black masculine toasts, the revolutionary poetry of Gil Scott Heron, The Lost Poets, and American soul-funk" (Hill, 1998 p. 1363). Gil Scott Heron is one of earliest musicians to use his lyrics as a vehicle for expression and change. His cyberpunk behavior pioneered and created the role of the modern hip-hop lyricist. There is nothing commercial about hip-hop, and it is not to be confused with its commercial counterpart, Rap. Some popular artists today are Mos Def, Talib Kweli, Jurassic Five, and The Roots. Hip-hop is revolution music. Hiphop has emerged as a major mode of expression for the emerging youth culture. As Gil Scott Heron said, the "revolution will not be televised." All the revolution needs is a beat, created physically or technically, a mic, and a poet behind it. Hip-hop music is a phenomenon of new media's influence on youth culture in America. Rear-view mirror society provides no answers, so the youth of America have looked to hip-hop as its way of interfacing their new environment. As McLuhan has argued new media is moving us from a visual to an auditory based society. Hip-hop is a manifestation of that change. Hip-hop is sound, it is an auditory expression and perception of ones environment. One realizes the essence of hip-hop music when he/she is willing to "accept that a sound is a sound and a man is a man, give up illusions about ideas of order, expressions of sentiment, and all the rest of our inherited aesthetic claptrap" (McLuhan, 1967 p. 119).

Information regarding the way of completing and submitting the test: - please write your name, and give your answers below each question - after completing the test please send it to the following e-mail address: vaetisis@yahoo.com (in attachment) Grade calculation: - Attention: Missing the deadline will result in a penalty of 1 point for each day of delay! - each question has a value in points (between 5 and 15) totaling 80 pts; the test score is calculated by dividing the points to 10 (maximum score you can get on this test is 8) - the final grade is calculated by adding this score to the seminar score (between -2 and 4) Seminar activity: The seminar score is calculated as follows: - (a) seminar article presentation & (b) participation in class discussions: -1 (missing both), 0 (missing one), 1 (both, fair), 2 (both, remarkable) - (c) PowerPoint midterm project: -1 (missing), 1 (fair) or 2 (good) References: Refer in your responses to the information provided over your Course lectures and in the Book chapters/Articles in your Bibliography, as well as, optionally, to other library and Internet sources. Examiner: erban Vetii, PhD Lecturer, American Studies Department, Babe -Bolyai University of Cluj