Sub: Biology Topic: Chemical Biology

Question:
Start by observing the living species around you. Ever wonder why a pollinator is attracted to a
particular flower, or what would happen to predator species if a particular prey species is
eliminated? If you were a scientist you could do an experiment to answer your question.

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For this assignment, choose two non-human species that interact with each other, such
as bees and flowers, or predator and prey species, or two species that compete. Or, you can
consider the effect of an environmental factor on living non- human organisms, such as the
effects of light or sound on plants or animals, or how food preference, or nutrient quantity /
quality affect plants or animals. These are just a few examples. Your observations may lead you
to many other types of questions about living organisms, their interactions, and requirements
for life.

Start with an Introduction/Observation and move through the steps of the Scientific
Method as outlined below. Your paper should follow this format. Remember, you don't have to
actually do the experiment, just write what you would do to test your hypothesis.

Introduction: Describe your observation. Include background information about your

observation that you have found using references. List and cite references using APA format.

Question: Ask a question about the observation that you have made.
Hypothesis: Write a statement that describes your explanation for the observation and
question.

Prediction: What do you predict as outcomes (results) of this experiment? (An "If ... Then"
Statement)

Controlled Experiment and Methods: Describe the experiment, variables to be held constant,
variable to be tested, and controls. What data will be collected? Keep this simple and test only
one variable at a time; holding the others constant.

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Sub: Biology Topic: Chemical Biology

Results: Give the results (data) for the experiment. This will be created (imagined) by you since
you are not actually doing this experiment.

Conclusion / Discussion: Do you reject or accept the hypothesis based on the results? Discuss
what this means in terms of the hypothesis, or need for additional experiments, or perhaps
practical use of the results.

Solution:
Introduction:
In the areas of southern California, Mediterranean-type climate regions a huge
chaparral biomass get accumulated for about 30-50 years (Minnich 1983, Keeley et al. 1999).
The most of the natural fire breaks are due to the riparian corridors (Dudley 1998, Rundel 2003)
and due to their low-lying topographic position they refuge for wildlife in the landscape and

relative absence of flammable fuels. The wild fires were caused due the lightning during dry,
low humidity conditions that occur in the late summer and fall (Naveh 1974, Keeley et al. 1999).
The wildfires are due course of anthropogenic in origin (Keeley et al. 1999)

The fire regimes in rangelands, deserts and wildlands of California and the western
United States are due to the invasion of annual grass species (Brooks et al.2004, Dukes and
Mooney 2004). The fire was due the colonization of alien grass species which provide fuel for
propagation, entire area and most importantly the extent of fires (Brooks et al. 2004).

The families of Pooideae, poeae, Airinae, have a large variety of the species like Arundo
donax, Arundo aegyptiaca, Arundo bambusifolia, Arundo bengalenis, Arundo bifaria and lot
more of species are available (United States Department of Agriculture, 1920). These grasses
grow in Mediterranean, perennial, semi aquatic, large, erect, tall, woody, vigorous, thick, quick
growing, rhizomatous, stems forming, clumps and disease monotypic stands and lot of
characteristics that form a huge biomass, flammability compared to natives and rapid growth

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Sub: Biology Topic: Chemical Biology

after fire ( Rieger and Kreager 1989). One among them is Arundo aegyptiaca which can form
dense floating mats in river and stream system in coastal California, also form large colonies
(Gaffney 2002). These species were strong winds tolerant, invasive and quire aggressive, useful
for erosion control ornamental stems used for light construction work and for making
woodwind needs, windbreaks, piper instruments, reed for clarinets, walking sticks and fishing
rods, a source of paper pulp, a decoctions of rhizomes said to stimulate menstrual discharge,
growing in damp places and along river banks, riparian habitats, flood plains, hill sides, moist
disturbed places, in coastal areas, along roadsides, marches on sand dunes near seashores,
along irrigation ditches and waste places, open forest on edge of streams and ponds, along
lakeshore, streams (species planatarum, 1753.; Amoenitates Academicae, 1759). These grasses
grow between 4-8m height and as fast as 10cm per day (Perdue 1958, Hickman 1993), that
accumulates during the summer and fall months due the abundant flammable biomass (Rundel
2000). There is no evidence for the success of invasion of these species after the fire strikes.
The increased post-fire nutrient effects may promote a positive feedback cycle (invasive plant-
fire regime) in these ecosystems. The study was carried out in order to analyze the growth and
recolonization of A. aegyptiaca in riparian ecosystems with respect to native plant species that
burned in a southern California wildfire.
Objectives:
The invasion of Arundo aegyptiaca has been influenced by various factors. The main
hypothesis of this study is the significant contribution of increase in nutrient to the invasion of
Arundo aegyptiaca in the river system of Santa Clara River. To test this hypothesis, the research
had the following objectives.
a) To study the relationship between the nutrient concentration of soil and shallow
groundwater to A. aegyptiaca of Santa Clara River.
b) The study of comparison of effect of a range of anthropogenic nutrient inputs on A.
aegyptiaca against native plants of riparian family.
c) The comparative study of presence of nutrient concentration in riparian communities along
with the presence and absence of Arundo aegyptiaca.

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d) Correlative study of patch size, density, plant size and biomass of Arundo aegyptiaca to that
of nutrient concentrations of the environment.
e) The study of influence of high nitrogen and high phosphorus present in the soil of A
aegyptiaca.
Hypothesis:
An experimental hypothesis was set as the high adjacent soil nutrient content,
immediate post-fire resprouting phenology, and higher growth rate than native plants promote
invasion of A. aegyptiaca in riparian corridors of southern California.
Methods:
The study method has a lot of steps to be carried out.
a) Study area:
For the experiments to be carried out study sites were selected that were located
approximately 700 acres of riparian ecosystem of the Santa Clara River. The river was burned in
the late October 2003 Simi/Veradale fire (Keeley and Fotheringham 2005). Huge kilometer of
water shed has been drained due to Santa Clara River. The river drained the second largest
coastal watershed in southern California. Almost approximately hundreds of acres of A.
aegyptiaca infest floodplains and terraces along the Santa Clara River. The riparian vegetation
on terraces consisted black cottonwood (Populous balsamifera (L.) ssp. Trichocarpa Torrey & A.
Gray) and red willow (Salix laevigata Bebb) naturally in the canopy layer. Many other layers of
shrubs and as well as grasses are also found.

b) Designing the study:

The study was carried out in 14 sites with six sites established along with the Santa Clara
River which were burned during the 2003 wildfire. The six sites were located on riparian
terraces and were burned during the 2003 wild fire. Another eight additional sites were also
included in the study and the activities are carried out as before. Then the recolonization
process was monitored of all sites for one year later than the wildfire incident. All the sites
were approximately 600m2.

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Sub: Biology Topic: Chemical Biology

c) Species under study:

Arundo aegyptiaca a Poacean family species (grass family) occurs throughout the flood
plains and terraces of rivers of California (Hickman 1993). The reproduction is through
vegetation and rhizomes grow very thick, horizontally just below the surface of the soil. Under
certain circumstances it produces a large, terminal, plume-like inflorescence (panicle) at the
end of the growing season (Faber and Holland 1992, Hickman 1993).
Many native riparian plant species were commonly found on terraces of rivers in
southern California apart from the A. aegyptiaca. The species were burnt in the fire: Salix
laevigata, S.lasiolepis, S.exigua, Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa and Baccharis salicifolia.
Each of the riparian have their individual growth features but commonly all grow up to some
height, some grow as shrubs, some are short. Some of these organisms grow for the height of 4
m less.
d) Sampling methods:
Plants were measured for their length monthly from November 2003 to October 2004 in
all the 14 study sites for the effects of fire on recolonization of riparian terraces. The
comparison was done both pre- and post-fire percent cover of A. aegyptiaca and also native
woody plants in all the six locations. The growth percent was estimated with respect to 1 m 2
quadrants for the six permanent study sites during summer 2003 and the post-fire sampling
period for all the 14 sites. The mean shoot length (cm) and basal diameter (mm) of 20 randomly
selected A. aegyptiaca and 20 native species of each study site. The measurement was also
done for 3 permanently marked A. aegyptiaca and native plant shoots for each of three species
at each sampling method. The mean shoot elongation (cm d -1) of the three marked individuals
was calculated.

The relative growth rates (RGRs) and the plants productivity are studied from the data’s
collected. To estimate the aboveground biomass dry weight of plants Non-destructive
dimensional analyses were used with minimal reference to plant growth (Spencer et al.2006).
Regression analysis has been used to calculate the basal diameter, shoot length, and
aboveground biomass of Culm/branch of the individual plant of the study sites. The value for

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Sub: Biology Topic: Chemical Biology

aboveground biomass were highly significant for all the species (r2 = 0.964 to 0.994, P< 0.001).
Basal diameter and shoot length measurement play a huge role in the biomass estimation of
Arundo aegyptiaca and the former for the native species biomass estimation. Then regression
analysis was carried out.
The RGRs for all permanently marked individuals are calculated using the equation

RGR= dW 1 = d (lnW)
dt w dt

Where W is the total aboveground biomass dry weight (g) of each shoot and t is time (day -1
post-fire)
The mean productivity (kg m-2 year -1) was calculated for each species at approximately
1 year post-fire. Biomass estimation was done with respect to the 20 randomly sampled stems
for each species measured during September 2004. The mean biomass per shoot (kg shoot -1)
was multiplied by mean density (shoots m-2) at each study site and then divided by time. Then
the average productivity was calculated.
The species were grown under the soil samples collected from site adjacent to both the
species and as well as the native trees. The nutrient concentration is greatest above the soil
(Day 1983). Different composite of the soil sample were mixed in a bowl along with an 8 cm
diameter bucket auger. The soil samples were collected according to the protocol and was
collected before the fire (summer 2003)
Soil samples were air-dried and powdered. Nutrient analysis was made for N (%),
nitrate-N (NO3-N-ppm), ammonia-N (NH4-N-ppm) and orthophosphate (PO4-P-ppm). The total N
content was analyzed by the method (Method 972.43) (Hofer 2003, Knepel 2003).
Concentrations of NO3-N and NH4-N in the soil were also determined by equilibrium extraction

of soil with potassium chloride and a flow-injection analyzer (Olsen and Sommers 1982,
Prokopy 1995). The PO4-P in the samples was also analyzed by the Olsen-P method.
Hydrometer was used to analyze the soil grain size for the distribution of sand, silt and clay in
soil suspension (Sheldrick and Wang 1993).

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e) Statistical analysis:
One way and two way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were carried out in order to
analyze the effects of various factors combined together
a) (Plant type and name) on plant performance and growth data (Dependent or response
variables)
Plant type (A. aegyptiaca and native plant species) and time (pre-fire vs. post- fire or
months post-fire) are tested. The variables such as percent cover, density, shoot length (cm),
shoot elongation rate (cm d-1), RGR ( g g-1 day -1), productivity ( kg m-2 yr-1) and soil nutrient
concentrations are known as dependent variables.
The ANOVA calculations were done in order to calculate the standard deviation along
with the standard errors to describe the experimental results.
Results:
The quantity of plant before and after fire
The present of enormous amount of plant was determined by the two-way ANOVA with
respect to plant type x time period. The A. aegyptiaca (62±SE 5.6% cover) and that of native
plants (18.56±4.5% cover) although seems to be in greater abundance before the fire, less than
a year after the fire. A. aegyptiaca (40.3±SE 4.15% cover) was the dominant species in the
riparian ecosystems. It is quite unusual that the native species comprised only 20-23% of the
total vegetation before the fire but nearly less than 1% (0.25± SE 0.1% cover).
Study after fire:
The study was carried out and indicated that the mean density of A. aegyptiaca shoots
have been increased significantly over time. The density (23.75±SE 2.85 stems m -2) of A.
aegyptiaca was found be greater in magnitude when compared to native species (1.15±SE 0.2
stems m-2). The sample was analyzed within the burned riparian ecosystems.
Shoot length after the fire:

This is an important factor as the growth of the plant got much affected after the fire
and has created the major difference in the experiment. The length of the shoot was around
1.5 – 4.5 times more for A. aegyptiaca than for the native species which was around 2.0-2.3
times less than the species.

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Relationship between post-fire shoot elongation rate and RGR

The growth of the Arundo aegyptiaca was much greater than that of the native species
within the two months after the fire. The species showed greater shoot growth in the first year
and it is significant when two-way ANOVA has been carried out. The native plant showed no
signs of growth immediately and also the growth rate was too slow than A. aegyptiaca. During
winter the growth rate of both remained same without much difference (between January and
March). The growth of the A. aegyptiaca had been reduced due to the frost that occurred
during February 2004. But after that the growth of A. aegyptiaca showed a higher rate than the
other species and the increase was around two times higher than native species.
The mean RGR for Arundo aegyptiaca was very high in the first 3 months than the native
species. The mean value was extremely high (0.095± SE 0.005 g g-1 day-1) after being burned.
The native plants showed no signs of growth until the third month and after that they showed
only moderate growth rate only. During the spring season the relative growth rate of the native
plants were greater than the A. aegyptiaca. But both the A. aegyptiaca and native plants
showed very low at the growing season.
Production after the fire:
The production of A. aegyptiaca had been found much higher than the native species
after a year (F(2.295) = 41.236; P< 0.001). When compared to B. Salicifolia and as well as S.
laevigata the productivity of A. aegyptiaca was 12 times and 21 times higher in burned areas.
But the growth of other species was undetectable because of their lower density.
Nutrition in the soil:
There were no much increase in the nutrient concentrations identified in native plant
species but the nutrient content increased generously when adjacent to the A. aegyptiaca after
the incident occurred. The concentration of NH4-N and PO4-P were found to be two times
higher than the soil adjacent to A. aegyptiaca than the native plants.

Discussion:
The study carried out has explored many things to be discussed. In general it describes
the role of the A. aegyptiaca species in the ecological system and how the species has sustained
all the environmental barriers can be drawn from it. The study of the effect of the wildfire with
respect to the ecosystem has proved a vital value as the consideration of the environment is
very important.
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a) Plant composition and structure:

The results of the study widely make a difference in the entire experiment. The study
carried out potentially indicates the lasting effect of the fire on composition of the plant in the
burned riparian areas along the Santa Clara River. There was almost 22% increase in the A.
aegyptiaca availability while around 98% of the vegetative cover has been utilized for the study.
The productivity of A. aegyptiaca is much greater than the native plants S. laevigata and B.
Salicifolia, and explains that the native riparian trees and shrubs are most probably excluded by
A. aegyptiaca. Some more evidences also suggest that many of the native species have been
invaded by the invasive grasses and document that fire is an unnatural or altered process
( D’Antonio 2000). The level of other grasses have increased and some other grasses like
Artemesia tridentata doesn’t resprout after fire (Booth et al. 2003), while the germination was
seen in B. tectorum and grow in between the shrub. (Brooks et al. 2004)
b) Stimulation of growth by soil nutrients:
An increase in the nutrient level has been seen immediately after the fire thereby
increasing the growth of the plant in shrubland ecosystems (Boerner 1982). Wildfires play a
huge role in volatizing the nutrients and some of the levels have been mobilized ( D’Antonia
2000). Fire temperature affects the volatilization of nutrients but the level of carbon, nitrogen
and sulfur is thought to be high. Mineralization helps in the increase of ammonium and
phosphate levels in surface level soil after the fire but there is a loss of nitrate levels as the level
depends upon the vegetation type. The nitrogen level is due to the leaching by rainfall and soil
erosion (Romanya et al. 2001).
A different mechanism such as the elevated nutrient levels, phenology difference and
high growth rate drive the increased growth of A. aegyptiaca compared to the native plant
species. The growth of the A. aegyptiaca was increased than native riparian species and this is

due to the high nutrient levels contributed by A. aegyptiaca. A positive feedback mechanism
has been observed and makes everything possible after the fire incident. The high growth rate
is due to the difference in the nutrient level before and after the fire. The increase in nitrate,
ammonia and phosphate in the soil has been found. The quality and quantity of the fuel burnt ,
the intensity of the fire and the ash deposit helped to have a higher soil nutrient adjacent to A.

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aegyptiaca than the native plants (Debano and Conrad 1978). The high nutrient content is due
to the deposition of ash of various species above the ground before the fire and also the
influence of the intensity of patches of A. aegyptiaca (D’Antonio 2000) and some mix up of the
native plants. The elevated level of nitrogen level promoted by addition of ammonium and
phosphorus-rich ash favored the growth of the plants (Christensen and Muller 1975). The
higher nutrient concentration had played a huge role in the growth of the A. aegyptiaca, but
causation is not definitely possible to be determined from these results.

c) Invasion mechanism:
Three mechanisms have been found evidently such as response to nutrients, fire-
adapted phenology and high growth rate of A. aegyptiaca that promote its preemption of
natives after fire. The growth of native plants was much slower while the growth of A.
aegyptiaca has been stimulated by the fire. The resprouting did not occur in native species until
several months after the October 2003 wildfire. A. aegyptiaca showed no dormancy in the
region of high nitrogen content although the new shoots were higher in summer than in winter
months (Decruyenaere & Holt 2005). But in winter the riparian species such as S. laevigata, P.
balsamifera spp. trichocarpa and B.salicifolia are dormant in the winter period and remained
leafless (G. Coffman personal observation). The decline in the river flow followed by
resprouting and germination of these species took place (Stella et al.2006).
During the first year after the fire the growth rates and other measures of A. aegyptiaca
were much higher than native species. The growth rate was three times greater that native
riparian plant species in winter and twice in spring through summer. The fact for the native
species corresponds to the phenology under non-burned conditions (Braatne et al. 1996). The
measurement for A. aegyptiaca during the April in a Northern California revealed that the
pattern and mean remained the same for A. aegyptiaca (Spencer et al.2005)

Conclusions:
The fire promotes invasion of riparian ecosystems by the large alien grass species,
Arundo aegyptiaca L., has long been speculated, but no data existed. The ecosystem has played
a huge role in the characterization of the California landscape because native vegetation retains

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foliar water that resists ignition (Rundel 1998, Keeley and Fotheringham 2001). More than 700
acres of vegetation on riparian terraces were burnt in October 2003 along the Santa Clara River.
Arundo aegyptiaca dominated the vegetation after one year of fire. This is the major evidence.
The results indicate that the environmental factor play a huge role in the growth of these huge
alien species. A proper removal of planted area with different native species are may be
required to prevent the invasion by Arundo aegyptiaca or any other exotic species as because
of increase in the enhanced nutrient level.

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