GEELECT 1: PEOPLE AND
phosphorus, nitrate, and
THE EARTH’S ECOSYSTEM
Reviewer
M1 - LESSON 1.
Agriculture and
Forestry
WHAT IS AGRICULTURE?
- The modification of Earth’s surface
through the cultivation of plants
and rearing of animals to obtain
subsistence or economic gain.
- It is one of the oldest and most
fundamental human activities,
essential for providing sustenance
and resources for societies.
- Agriculture refers to the practice
of rearing domestic animals and
crops. However, the methods that
are related to this field have
notable effects to the
environment: Deforestation,
Pollution, and Climate Change
CLIMATE CHANGE
- Significant changes of
temperature, precipitation, wind
patterns, and other measures of
climate that occur over several
decades or longer.
AGRICULTURAL AFFECT
CLIMATE CHANGE
POOR AGRICULTURAL
PRACTICES:
1.) APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES AND
FERTILIZERS
Affect the quality of air due to:
- Production of compounds of
ammonia.
2.) EXTENSIVE FARMING/SLASH AND
BURN KAINGIN METHOD
Production of Greenhouse gases:
- Carbon dioxide
- Methane
- Nitrous oxide
-
WAYS IN WHICH
CLIMATE CHANGE
IMPACTS AGRICULTURE
- Climate change affects agricultural
production through precipitation
levels and temperature
variations, wind patterns, and
other measures of climate that
occur over several decades or
longer.
-
CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECTS
AGRICULTURE TOO.
- climate change affects agricultural
production through precipitation
levels and temperature variations.
this is called the “reciprocal
relationship” between climate
change and agriculture.
WHAT ARE THE
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS OF
DEFORESTATION?
1) Destroys the habitat of species leads
to fragmentation and depletion
2) Affects the water cycle results to
interference of precipitation (rain)
3) Enhance the effects of climate change
 eroded by water or wind, all this
soil has to be deposited
WHAT IS FORESTRY? somewhere or the other. The
- Forestry is the science and craft of resulting sedimentation causes
creating, managing, planting, the soil to build up in areas such
using, conserving, and repairing as rivers, streams, ditches and
forests, woodlands, and surrounding fields. And so, the
associated resources for human process of agricultural pollution
and environmental benefits. prevents the natural movement
of water, aquatic animals, and
HUMAN IMPACTS ON nutrients to other fertile areas.
FOREST:
- Deforestation LIVESTOCK
- Overpopulation - As of now, livestock is grown in
- Pollution cramped conditions where it is fed
unnatural diets and sent to
slaughterhouses on a regular basis.
HOW IRRESPONSIBLE As a result, they add to the process
FARMING CAN AFFECT of agricultural pollution by way of
THE ENVIRONMENT: emissions.

OVERUSE OF PESTICIDES AND PESTS AND WEEDS

FERTILIZERS - With the arrival of new crops, the
- Once they have been sprayed, it native population has to deal with
does not disappear completely. new diseases, pests, and weeds
Some of it mixes with the water that it is not capable of fighting.
and seeps into the ground. The
rest is absorbed by the plant itself. EXCESS NUTRIENTS
As a result, the local streams that - When excess nutrients are washed
supply water from the ground into the water systems, e.g., rivers,
become contaminated, as do the lakes, streams, or oceans during
animals that eat these crops and rainy periods, it alters the marine
plants. and freshwater nutrient cycles and
as an outcome the species
CONTAMINATED WATER
composition of the respective
- This happens due to the disposal
ecosystems. The most common
of industrial and agricultural waste
consequence is eutrophication,
in local bodies of water.
which depletes the water's
SOIL EROSION AND dissolved oxygen, and in
SEDIMENTATION consequence, can kill fish and
- Due to inefficient farming other aquatic life.
practices, this soil is left open for
erosion and leads to declining
fertility each year. Whether

M1 - LESSON 2.
Fishing and Hunting
FISHERY
- A fishery (plural: fisheries) is
organized effort by humans to
catch fish or other aquatic
species, an activity known as
fishing
- The ecosystems that support
fisheries, together with other
economic activities, are subject to
a number of alterations of
significant relevance to their
functioning and resilience and to
the goods and services they can
provide.
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS
OF FISHERIES
 Fisheries impact target resources.
They reduce their abundance,
spawning potential and, population
parameters (growth, maturation, etc.)
+ productivity of resources.
 They modify age and size structure,
sex ratio, genetics and species
composition of the target resources,
as well as of their associated and
dependent species
= trawling in the wrong habitat)
 When poorly controlled, fisheries
develop excessive fishing capacity,
leading to overfishing, with major
ecosystem, social and economic
consequences. Fishing may also affect
ecological processes at very large
scale. The overall impact has been
described as comparable, in aquatic
systems, to that of agriculture on land
in terms of the proportion of the
system's primary productivity
harvested by humans.
OVERFISHING
- transforms an originally stable,
mature, and efficient into one that
is immature and stressed. This
happens in various ways. By
targeting and reducing the
abundance of high-value
predators, fisheries deeply modify
the trophic chain and the flows of
biomass (and energy) across the
ecosystem.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES
 PHYSICAL - Adding artificial reefs, oil
rigs, aquaculture installations
 MECHANICAL - “ploughing” effect of
dredges and trawls
 CHEMICAL - injection of nutrients,
pesticides, heavy metals, drugs,
hormones.
OVERFISHING
- May result in changes in
DESTRUCTIVE FISHING
TECHNIQUES
 using dynamite or cyanides or
inadequate fishing practices (e.g.,
POLLUTION FROM FISH
PROCESSING PLANTS
 use of ozone-depleting refrigerants;
dumping at sea of plastic debris that
can entangle marine animals or be
swallowed by turtles;
LACK OF SELECTIVITY
 affecting associated and dependent
species, resulting in wasteful
discarding practices, juvenile
mortality, an added threat to
endangered species, etc.
HUNTING
- is the human practice of seeking,
pursuing and capturing or killing
wildlife or feral animals.
HUNTING TO
EXTINCTION
 Sport
 Because hunters are only allowed to
pursue specific species, some
environmentalists argue that hunting
creates an imbalance. Hunting to
Extinction
EFFECTS OF HUNTING
POSITIVE EFFECTS
 Population Control
 The money hunters spend on their
hunting licenses is pumped back into
programs that help protect and
enhance wildlife and the environment.
 Wildlife managers view sport hunting
as the principal basis for protection of
wildlife.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
 Hunting disrupts the natural order
 Overhunting will cause a decline in the
particular animal species.
 It affects the natural environment in
that it throws off natural predation
and population growth of the wildlife
 Hunting also disrupts the migration
and hibernation of the animals.
 Hunting trips cause hunters to drive
long distances until they reach a
hunting ground. This causes them to
emit CO2, adding to their carbon
footprint.
 Hunters set up campfires and a lot of
littering, which is harmful to wildlife.
 The smoke that is emitted by the fire
negatively impacts the animals, and
the litter on the ground may cause
animals to choke.
M1 - LESSON 3.
Urban Industry
The term Urban Industry as an
economic activity that is concerned with
the processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of goods in factories
located within towns or cities.
URBANIZATION
- It is a process whereby
populations move from rural to
urban areas, enabling cities and
towns to grow.
INDUSTRIALIZATION
- It is a process of applying
mechanical, chemical, and
electrical sciences to recognize
production with in animate source
of technology.
-
THINGS IN COMMON
 Follows process of transition
 Aim for the betterment of human life
 Carry both beneficial and adverse
effect to environment.
WHAT CAUSES
URBANIZATION
• Industrialization
 • Modernization Effects of Urbanization to the
• Social benefits and services
Environment
• Commercialization
 Extreme Consumption
• Rural-urban transformations
 More Durable Goods Consumption
• Employment opportunities
 Energy Consumption
 Regions downwind from large
EFFECTS OF industrial complexes also see
URBANIZATION TO increases in the amount of
HUMAN precipitation, air pollution, and the
number of days with thunderstorms.
 Urban areas affect not only the
weather patterns but also the runoff
patterns for water.
 Urban areas generally generate more
rain, but they reduce the infiltration of
water and lower the water tables. This
means that runoff occurs more rapidly
with greater peak flows.
 Flood volumes increase, as do floods
and water pollution downstream.

ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS OF
URBANIZATION
• Air Pollution
• Biodiversity
• Scarcity of Water
• Elevated Emission of air
pollutants and GHGs
• Development of slums
• Disease

M1 - LESSON 4.
Water Use
WATER USE
 - Water use is described as the total
amount of water withdrawn from
its source to be used.
- Refers to the amount of water that
is consumed or utilized for various
purposes
(e.g., drinking, cooking, irrigation,
industrial processes, sanitation,
and more.)
THERE ARE TWO WAYS
IN WHICH WE CAN
CLASSIFY OUR WATER
USE:
IN-STREAM USE
- It includes hydroelectric power,
boating, and swimming, for
example. While in-stream activities
do not use up the water, they can
degrade the water quality through
pollution.
- Refers to the maintenance of
water flows within a natural
watercourse for ecological and
environmental purposes.
(Ex. hydroelectric power, boating,
and swimming)
WATER-WITHDRAWAL USE
- This classification includes
household use, industry use,
irrigation, livestock watering, and
thermal and nuclear power. Most
withdrawals are consumptions,
meaning that the activity uses the
water and does not return to the
source.
- Refers to the act of taking water
from a natural source –river, lake,
or groundwater for various
purposes like agriculture, industry,
and municipal water supply.
- Can be used for irrigation, cooling,
processing, and drinking
FRESH WATER
- one of the most imperiled natural
resources and is the ultimate rate-
limiting step for food production.
Remarkably, the production of
food is, in essence, the most
water-intensive activity in the
world.
- Water with low levels of dissolved
salts, suitable for drinking and
irrigation. Primarily found in rivers,
lakes, reservoirs, groundwater
aquifers, and glaciers
AREAS OF CONCERN IN
FRESH WATER
CONSUMPTION
- Anthropocentric
- Biocentric
- Ecocentric
M1 - LESSON 5.
Energy and
Transportation
WHAT IS ENERGY?
- Energy is the capacity to do work
- Our country uses different sources
of energy to supply the needs of its
citizens. We mainly rely on Fossil
fuel but we also have
hydroelectric plants, geothermal
power, solar power, Wind power,
and Biomass power.
THESE FORMS OF ENERGY CAN BE
GROUPED INTO TWO GENERAL TYPES OF
ENERGY FOR DOING WORK:
- Potential or stored energy
- Kinetic or working energy
FOSSIL FUELS
- is a non-renewable source of
energy,
- made from decomposing plants
and animals.
- include coal, petroleum, and
natural gas
- occurring within Earth’s crust that
can be used as a source of energy.
in 2010 the country’s fossil fuel
consumption was 60.11% of total energy
use while in 2014 it reached 62.43%.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
- form of energy conversion in
which heat energy from within
Earth is captured and harnessed
for cooking, bathing, space
heating, electrical power
generation, and other uses.
HYDROPOWER ENERGY
- known as hydroelectric power, is
one of the oldest and largest
sources of renewable energy,
which uses the natural flow of
moving water to generate
electricity.
-
WIND POWER ENERGY
- The wind turbine is designed to
use the speed and power of wind
and convert it into electrical
energy.
SOLAR POWER ENERGY
- Solar energy begins with the sun.
Solar panels are used to convert
light from the sun, which is
composed of particles of energy
called "photons", into electricity
that can be used to power
electrical loads.
WIND ENERGY HAS
NEGATIVE IMPACT ON:
LAND USE
- It occupies lands usually plains
suitable for farming
DAMAGE TO WILDLIFE HABITATS
- It kills migratory birds and bats
leading to the decline of their
population and affecting the other
species in their habitat.
SOLAR POWER HAS A
NEGATIVE IMPACT ON:
LAND USE
- It occupies a large amount of area
which includes forest and farmland
WATER USE
- It produces toxic waste that harms
water sources including the
animals in it.
TRANSPORTATION
- Pollution of air and water
- Wildlife and habitat
 - Land loss smaller patches of smaller total
area isolated from each other by a
matrix of habitats unlike the
original (Fahrig, 2003). It threatens
those animals that need a large
habitat for breeding and survival.
M2 - LESSON 1. - Habitat fragmentation is a major
Habitat Loss, problem across the Earth. A
decrease in the overall area of
Alteration and habitat is serious enough, but
Fragmentation when combined with
fragmentation, it can undermine
the integrity of whole ecosystems.
Roads, urbanization, and
HABITAT ALTERATION agriculture are among the main
- a change in land use or land cover
human activities that break up
that has an impact on local
natural areas, often with
ecosystems. Plants and animals
disastrous implications for
live in specific places that have the
wildlife.
conditions of climate and food
resources needed for survival.
Thus, fragmentation increases what is
- Habitat alteration, which may lead
to habitat loss, is the greatest known as the ‘EDGE EFFECT’,
current threat to living species. whereby the interior area of habitat is
- refers to the process of modifying affected by the different conditions of the
or changing a natural other habitats on its
environment in a way that affects edges
the organisms living there and the
overall ecosystem.
-
HUMAN ACTIVITIES
CAUSING HABITAT LOSS:
 URBANIZATION
 AGRICULTURE
 OVERFISHING

FRAGMENTATION OF
HABITATS
- is defined as the process during
which a large expanse of habitat
is transformed into a number of

M2 - LESSON 2.
Habitat Loss,
Alteration and
Fragmentation
OVEREXPLOITATION
• Generally, it is the use, by humans,
of a natural resource to the extent
that it is not sustainable anymore.
• when a living resource is removed
from the environment at a rate
faster than it can be replaced.
recognized as one of the causes of
the degradation and depletion of
our natural resources. It is a man-
made activity that pushes our
resources to the limit of its
capacity
•
SHORT-TERM IMPACTS
• to provide the needs of the human
population.
• It is also one of the forces and
primary drivers that destroy the
habitats of majority of living
natural resources in biodiversity.
• Humans often take too many of
one species from their natural
habitat.
When a species is harvested, or taken at a
rate faster than the population can
compensate for, the population is listed
as OVEREXPLOITED or
OVERHARVESTED.
When the population numbers of a
species decline to the point where the
animal or plant could possibly go extinct,
or cease to exist, the organism is
classified as ENDANGERED.
CAUSES OF
OVEREXPLOITATION
- Human population growth
- Increase consumption
- Reduction of resource efficiency
IMPACTS OF
OVEREXPLOITATION
In the Philippines:
• poor state of reef fisheries
• reduction in biodiversity of reef-
associated fish communities
• shifts in their trophic structure
• siltation, eutrophication
• mass coral bleaching
•
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
 Endangerment leading to extinction
of species possibly endemic to the
area due to overfishing or other
reasons.
 Loss of natural habitat for native
 Deforestation & overfishing.
 Pollution caused by construction.
 Loss of apex predators (e.g., sharks) in
an ecosystem, causing the collapse of
the ecosystem and its biodiversity.
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
 Lack of natural wonders to visit due to
overexploitation.
 Not enough fish to be eaten.
 Jobs lost due to lack of species.
 Countries who rely on tourism to fuel
their economy will lose their main
source of income due to
 overexploitation of the tourism that
they created (e.g., Hawaii, Fiji)

LONG-TERM IMPACTS M2 - LESSON 3.

Invasive Alien Species

INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES

- Are plants, animals, pathogens,
and other organisms that are non-
native to an ecosystem, and which
may cause economic or
environmental harm or adversely
affect human health.
- introduced species, alien species,
or exotic species
- is an organism that is not
indigenous, or native, to a
particular area.
- Nature also involves invading lands
so that organisms can expand their
resources (e.g. food, shelter,
space).
- These introduced organisms
become more aggressive and can
compete with the native
organisms until the introduced
organisms take over the native’s
habitat.
 diseases or causing allergic
reactions.

HOW THESE IAS ARE

INTRODUCED TO THEIR
NEW ENVIRONMENT?
• Pest control
• Ornamental purposes
• Economic purposes

M2 - LESSON 4.
Pollution
POLLUTION
 The introduction of harmful materials
into the environment is called
POLLUTION, and the harmful
elements that cause it are what we
call POLLUTANTS.
 These pollutants can either be natural
Environmental Impact: or created through human activities
- Invasive species can alter
ecosystem dynamics, disrupt food  There are different types of pollution,
chains, reduce biodiversity, and these are:
degrade habitat quality. - Air pollution
Economic Impact: - water pollution
- soil pollution
- Invasive species can have
- light pollution, and
economic consequences by
- noise pollution
damaging crops, forests, fisheries,
and infrastructure. Controlling and
managing invasive species often
require significant resources.
Human Health Concerns:
- Some invasive species can pose
health risks to humans by carrying
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
POLLUTION AND ITS
MAJOR SOURCES

AIR POLLUTION
- Burning of fossil fuels
PRIMARY POLLUTANT - Vehicles
VS. SECONDARY - Factory emissions

POLLUTANT WATER POLLUTION

 PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
- Runoff from agricultural fields
cause pollution by their direct
- Industrial sites
release into the environment.
- Urban area
 SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
form when primary pollutants
SOIL POLLUTION
emitted directly from a
- Improper disposal of toxic
combustion process react in the
chemical substances
atmosphere.
(Asbestos, Lead, PBC’s)
- Overuse of pesticides or herbicides
Primary pollutants are directly emitted
from sources like factories and vehicles
and harm human health and the LIGHT POLLUTION
environment. Chemical reactions - Large amount of light produced by
between primary pollutants and other most urban and other heavily
atmospheric substances form populated areas
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS.
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS include NOISE POLLUTION
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and - Any human-made noises
particulate matter, while secondary (LOUD, EXCESSIVE)
pollutants include ozone and acid rain.
WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS M2 - LESSON 5.
OF POLLUTION?
Climate Change
POLLUTION has various effects on
the environment and different organisms WHAT IS CLIMATE
living on it. Each type of pollution has CHANGE?
different effects on the environment, - Climate change describes a change
people, and other organisms. in the average conditions — such
as temperature and rainfall in a
 AIR POLLUTION - Causes multiple
region over a long period of time.
diseases in humans. It also causes a
variety of environmental effects, such - Climate change is a long-term shift
as acid rain, haze, eutrophication, in global or regional climate
intoxication of wildlife, and more. patterns. Often climate change
refers specifically to the rise in
 WATER POLLUTION - global temperatures from the mid-
Contaminated water kills various 20th century to the present.
organisms, including humans. Harm to
any of these organisms can create a
chain effect, imperiling the entire
environment.
WHAT IS THE EFFECT
 SOIL POLLUTION - Soil OF CLIMATE CHANGE?
contaminants can cause various
diseases in humans and other
organisms. It also has a huge impact
on plant production since it decreases
the nutrients in the soil.

 LIGHT POLLUTION - Unnecessary

or excessive lights at night alter and
interfere with the timing of necessary
biological activities of humans and
animals. Artificial lights disrupt this
nocturnal activity, interfering with
reproduction and reducing
populations.

 NOISE POLLUTION - Hearing

impairment and sleep problems are
few of the effects of noise pollution in
humans. It also alters the behavior of
the different animals because of the THE FOLLOWING ARE
unwanted or excessive noise.
SOME OF THE
GOVERNMENT’S ACTION:
These LAWS are incorporated with
the following objectives:

 Sustainably manage forests and

watersheds.
Targeting to have 15 million
hectares of forested land, 50 percent
of which may be production forest,
the following will be implemented to
increase forest cover by 600,000
hectares.

 Improve protection and

conservation of biodiversity.
Conserve, preserve, and manage
protected areas, wildlife, and their
habitat.

 Enhance coastal and marine

resources management.
Develop and implement the national
integrated coastal management
(ICM) program to include
 principles, strategies and action
plans in accord with EO 533.
 Manage a more equitable utilization
of mineral resources.
Review and harmonize mining
policies and other related policies.
 Develop and implement
environment-friendly enterprise and
livelihood opportunities.
The development of environment-
friendly enterprises and livelihood
opportunities for local communities is
envisioned to address the prevailing
poverty of resource-dependent
communities. This will also motivate
communities to protect natural
habitats and wildlife.
 Reduce air pollution in Metro
Manila and other major urban
centers
Achieve a 30-percent reduction of
2009 levels of pollution by 2011 and a
5-percent annual reduction thereafter
by 2016 in Metro Manila and other
major urban areas.
 Reduce water pollution to improve
water quality in Priority Rivers and
other economically and ecologically
important water bodies.
Establish, and operationalize the
Water Quality Management Fund and
water quality management.
 Establish a healthier and livable
urban environment
Establish urban parks with dense
greenery to minimize heat island
effects in towns and cities. Adopt
green architecture with rooftop
gardens in central business districts;
promote climate change-resilient
building designs in new urban centers
for a cool
and refreshing environment.
 Strengthen institutional capacities of
national and local governments for
Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)
and Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management (DRRM).
Mainstream and integrate DRR and
CCA in national, sectoral, regional, and
local development plans, including
integration of hazard and climate
change vulnerability maps in the
updating of the Comprehensive Land
Use Plan (CLUP) by LGUs and
enforcement of zoning regulations.
Encourage more provinces to
mainstream DRR in their plans, and
build capacities of national and local
agencies assigned to lead the
effort.
 Enhance the resilience of natural
systems
Conduct vulnerability assessment and
mapping of the different ecosystems.
Issue guidelines for the review and
approval of design proposals and
projects that are climate change-
resilient under the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and risk
assessment system of the
Environmental Management Bureau
(EMB). Establish a network of
protected areas in coordination with
other LGUs based on ecological, social
and economic considerations
(ecosystem resiliency and biological
connectivity) to address the impacts of
human-induced factors and climate
change.
 Improve adaptive capacities of
communities
 Conduct geohazard mapping,
vulnerability, and risk assessments,
especially for highly susceptible
communities and areas for the
formulation and implementation of
disaster risk reduction and
management plans. Integrate CCA and
DRRM in all education levels and in
specialized technical training and
research programs.
 Research, Development, Extension,
and Knowledge Management
Pursue research, development, and
extension. Demonstrate, develop, and
replicate low-cost technologies to
optimize the recycling, reuse, and
recovery of solid waste, including the
conversion of residual organic
materials into clean renewable
energy. Establish valuation of
resources and develop a system of
natural resources accounting.
Determine the values and potential
benefits of the natural resources.
M2 - LESSON 6.
Changes to Habitats
and the Density of
Disease-related
• There is ample evidence that human
disruption of ecological systems is
changing the distribution of infectious
diseases.
• Human health and the health of the
environment are intimately connected.
• The environment is a key factor in
determining the health of the people. • At
the same time investments in human
health can help improve the health of the
environment.
Zoonosis is an infectious disease that has
jumped from non-human animals to humans
– WHO
 Wildlife habitats are vital to human
survival and agricultural production.
But these natural places and the
animals that inhabit them face
increasing pressure from human
activity leading to the emergence of
new animal-to-human transmitted
diseases like COVID-19.
 As humans continue to convert
wildlife habitats and encroach on
them for hunting and gathering
purposes, they are setting themselves
up for the further spread of disease.
Vector-borne diseases
- are those that are transmitted to
humans by mosquitoes, ticks, fleas
and animals.
Vectors
- transmit pathogens or causative
agents such as viruses, bacteria
and protozoa.

Malaria
- offers a good case study because
of its high death toll and its
resistance to efforts at eradication
and long-term prophylaxis. Malaria
is transmitted by a wide variety of
location-specific mosquito species
within the genus Anopheles. Many
of the most pervasive types of land
use change, such as deforestation,
dams, and agricultural
development, affect the density of
different Anopheles vectors,
leading to increased disease
transmission.
EXAMPLES OF LAND USE
AND CHANGE IN
HABITAT AND THE
INCREASE MALARIA
TRANSMISSION:
• DEFORESTATION - In deforested
areas of the Peruvian Amazon, biting rates
of Anopheles darlingi are almost 300
times higher than in intact forest,
controlling for differences in human
density across varied landscapes. Similar
associations have been observed in sub-
Saharan Africa. In Asia, deforestation
favors some vectors over others but
frequently leads to increased
transmission.
• DAMS - Microdams in northern
Ethiopia increase the concentration of the
local Anopheles vector and are associated
with a sevenfold increase in malaria in
nearby villages.
• IRRIGATION PROJECTS - In India,
irrigation projects in the 1990s improved
breeding sites for Anopheles calcifies and led
to endemic “irrigation” malaria among
roughly 200 million people.
• AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
- In Thailand, both cassava and sugarcane
cultivation reduced the density of
Anopheles virus but created widespread
breeding grounds for Anopheles minimus,
with a resulting surge in malaria.
• WETLAND DRAINAGE - In Uganda,
the drainage and cultivation of papyrus
swamps caused higher ambient
temperatures and more Anopheles
gambiae individuals per household than
found in villages surrounding undisturbed
swamps.
• Drivers of global environmental change
(e.g., land-use change or climate change)
can directly pose health risks or impair
ecosystem services that subsequently
influence health.
• For hazards that affect human health,
however, exposures will be modified by
multiple layers of social or infrastructure
barriers that can buffer or eliminate risk.
Together, all components must be
considered to achieve realistic
assessments of population vulnerability