ENVIRONMENTAL

QUALITY
ENGINEERING II
CE 464
Prof. Kwabena Biritwum Nyarko
Dr. Eugene Appiah-Effah

CE 464
 Introduction
Environmental Engineering is defined as that
branch of engineering that is concerned with
oprotecting the environment from the potentially
deleterious effects of human activity,
oprotecting human populations from the effects of
adverse environmental factors
oimproving environmental quality for human health
and well being

3
 Introduction
Engineers ideally approach a problem in a
sequence suggested to be rational by the theories
of public decision making:
(1) problem definition,
(2) generation of alternative solutions,
(3) evaluation of alternatives,
(4) implementation of a selected solution, and
(5) review and appropriate revision of the
implemented solution
4
Course Content
❑The Environment
❑ Risk Analysis
❑Environmental Pollution
❑Environmental Treatment Technologies
❑Environmental Management
 Course Content
❑Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Sector
oThe 2030 Development Agenda (Sustainable Development
Goals-SDGs)
oWASH Situation- Global and Ghana
oKey elements to deliver WASH services
❑ WASH sector Institutional Arrangements (Policies, Guides and
regulatory mechanisms)
o Water Policy
o Environmental Sanitation Policy
o CWSA Sector Guidelines
o Water Resources Commission Act
o Etc
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
ENGINEERING II
CE 464
DR. EUGENE APPIAH-EFFAH
DEPT OF CIVIL ENG, KNUST

CE 464
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The Environment
 The environment is defined as one’s surroundings
 The environment consist of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and the lithosphere in which the life
sustaining resources of the earth are contained
 Atmosphere: A mixture of gases extending outward
from the surface of the earth
 Hydrosphere: Consist of oceans, the lakes, streams
and shallow groundwater bodies that interflow with
the surface water
 Lithosphere: Is the soil mantle that wraps the core of
the earth
 Environmental problems
5

 Human activities that are harmful to the

environment constitute environmental issues or
problems

 Technological development, though aimed at

improving the global economy standard of
living has strong impacts on the natural
environment resulting in environmental problems

 This is mainly due to unsustainable resource use

and growth practices
Main causes of environmental problems

 Environmental problems arise mainly from:

 Agriculture
 Industry
 Concentrations of Population
 Impact of agriculture on the environment

Natural
ecosystems

Contributions to Wetland
climatic change Deforestation drainage

Agricultural
systems

Accelerated soil Accelerated

Eutrophication
erosion desertification
Chain of side effects on environment due to
intensive practices for food production

Env impacts
related to food
resources

Over Agriculture
grazing

Land Loss
Soil degr of Traditio Modern
erosi adati
useful nal agric
on specie agric
on s
Soil High Water
Forest Nutrien yieldin Fertili
clearin erosi tdeplet variet zer
Pesticides loggin Salinity
g on ion y g

Micro- NO3
nutrient polluti Eutroph
imbalan on ication
ce Loss of
Pest non- Bio
resist target magnific
ance species ation
Impact of industry, energy and transport

Atmospheric
pollution

Energy
Transport Industry
consumption

Other types of
Marine pollution Acidification
pollution
 Impact of concentrations of people

Pressures for Pressures for

Concentrations
urban improved transport
of people networks
development

Adverse urban and

Quality of built
rural impacts of Eutrophication
tourism environment
Environmental problems
 Environmental problems could be global or
local
Some global environmental problems

 Global warming and greenhouse effects

 Climate change
 Ozone layer depletion
 Pollution: Air, water, soil
 Acid rain/acidification of water bodies
 Waste disposal
 Deforestation due to land use for agricultural,
residential, industrial and commercial purposes
 Species extinction (loss of biodiversity)
Some global environmental problems

 Population growth: expanding population in

developing countries increasing pressure on resources
 Depletion/ over exploitation of natural resources
 Fossil fuel production
 Demographic trends: changing demographic pattern
 Energy consumption: environmental degradation from
the use of biomass fuels, disposal of nuclear waste
Discussion
 What are the benefits/value of biodiversity?
 Some factors leading to loss of biodiversity
15

 Destruction and loss of natural habitats occur through

 Clearing and burning forests
 Draining, filling and polluting wetlands
 Destroying coastal areas for development
 Converting natural ecosystems for agriculture,
pastures for livestock, industry, development projects
or human settlement
 Destruction of fragile breeding and feeding
grounds of ocean fish and other species
 Habitat fragmentation (loss of habitat occurring in
instalments so that the habitat is reduced to small
scattered patches)
 Some factors leading to loss of biodiversity
16

 Poaching
 killing
of prohibited endangered wildlife for illegal
trade of their products

 Rapid population growth (increased use of natural

resources)
 Over exploitation of plants and animals
 Invasion by introduced species
 Air and water pollution
 Some factors leading to loss of biodiversity
17

 Climate change

 Poverty

 Poorly conceived and inconsistent governmental

policies

 Market forces: undermine biodiversity by

undervaluing the use of environmental resources
 Human influence on natural cycles
18

 The basic elements of which all living organisms are

composed of are
 Carbon
 Nitrogen
 Sulphur
 Hydrogen
 Phosphorus
 Oxygen

 There are dynamic relations between the living forms

and their physical environment
 Human influence on natural cycles
19

 These relations exist as biogeochemical cycles which

involve continuous circulation of essential elements and
compounds necessary for life.
 These elements and compounds cycle from the
environment to organisms and back to the environment
i.e.
 Materials cycle in the ecosystem through biotic and
abiotic components (through the atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere)
 The nutrients move through the food chain ultimately
ending up in detritus
 Cycles
20

 Biogeochemical cycles therefore involve the transport

and transformation of substances through the earth’s
system
 The natural cycles and ecosystems function in a
balanced manner which stabilises biosphere and
sustains the life processes on earth
 Carbon cycle
 Nitrogen cycle

 Sulphur cycle

 Phosphate cycle

 Oxygen cycle
 Human influence on the carbon cycle
21
 Human influence on the carbon cycle
22

 In recent years carbon dioxide levels have increased

in the atmosphere due to anthropogenic activities.
 These activities include
 Industrial
activities
 Combustion of fossil fuel
 Large scale production of livestock
 Burning of forests
 This has caused an imbalance in the natural carbon
cycle.
 Though there is some debate, it is believed that the
world today faces serious problems of global
warming due to enhanced emissions of carbon dioxide
 Impacts of enhanced greenhouse effect
23

 Besides global increase in temperature, the green

house effect can affect other climatic and natural
processes.

 These include effects on:

 Sea levels
 Human health

 Agriculture
 Impacts of enhanced greenhouse effect
24

 Rise in sea levels

 Thermal expansion of water
 Melting of ice sheets

 Effects on human health

 Changes in rainfall pattern affecting distribution of
vector borne diseases such as malaria, elephantiasis,
filariasis (breeding grounds created due to water
stagnation and warmer temperatures)
 Increase/ aggravation of respiratory and skin diseases
due to high temperature and humidity
 Impacts of enhanced greenhouse effect
25

 Effects on agriculture
 These may be positive or negative depending on the
crop type and region under consideration
 Rise in temperature may be quite harmful to crops
especially in tropics
 Increase in temperature and humidity will increase pest
growth
 Human influence on the nitrogen cycle
26
 Human influence on the nitrogen cycle
27

 Negative influence results from activities such as:

 Manufacture and use of industrial fertilizers
 Fossil fuel combustion

 Large scale production of nitrogen fixing crops

 The release of biologically usable nitrogen from soil

and organic matter has therefore increased
 Nitrous oxide release from industry and fossil fuels has
also increased
 Effects of nitrogen releases are significant and include
acid rain and lake acidification, corrosion of metals,
deterioration of building materials, eutrophication
 Sulphur
28

 Increased human use of sulphur containing

compounds such as fertilizers
 Significant increase in release of sulphur dioxide
during combustion of fossil fuels and in metal
processing
 Mining activities have also resulted in the release of
large quantities of sulphur in acid mine drainage
 Impacts of acid rain
29

 Deterioration of buildings especially those made of

marble
 Damages stone statues
 Damages metals and car finishes
 Affects aquatic life especially fish in lakes
 Reproductive failure and fish kills
 Toxicity to aquatic animals due to heavy metals leaking
from surrounding rocks
 Damage to foliage and weakening of trees
 Makes trees susceptible to harsh weather conditions and
diseases
 Impacts of ozone layer depletion
30

 More UV radiation especially UV-B(290 – 320 nm) will

reach the earth.
 UV-B radiations affect DNA and photosynthetic chemicals.
 Changes in DNA can result in mutation and cancer

 They can also cause increases in skin cancers

 Increase in incidence of cataracts due to easy

absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of the
eye
 Destruction of melanin producing cells of the epidermis
by UV rays resulting in immuno-suppression
 Impacts of ozone layer deletion
31

 Decrease in population of zooplankton, fish, marine

animals

 Decrease in yield of crops such as corn, rice,

soybean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum, wheat

 Economic loss due to degradation of paints, plastics

and other polymer material resulting from exposure
to UV radiation
 Local environmental problems
32

 Acidification from use of fossil fuel:

 release of sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides cause
acidification of lakes and decay of urban buildings
 Increased concentration of lead in the atmosphere
(from fossil fuel)
 Industrial activity: Release of toxic materials from
industrial processes
 Loss of natural habitats due to agriculture: forests,
wetlands, etc
 Impact of mining
 Flooding
 Local environmental problems
33

 Transport
 Soil erosion
 Water logging
 Salinization of soil
 Desertification
 Water pollution and eutrophication: caused by
agriculture, domestic and industrial sewage output
from urban concentrations of people
 Waste generation and associated solid waste disposal
 Changes in social and cultural patterns
 Environmental issues arising from tourism
 Environmental Problems in Ghana
34

 Ghana is facing environmental problems related to

the following:
 The atmosphere

 Biodiversity

 Forest resources

 Fresh water

 Environment and human health

 Land resources

 Coastal zone and marine environment

Environmental issues in Ghana (NESSAP)

 Land degradation
 Coastal erosion
 Water pollution
 Deforestation
 Poor waste management
 Risk from chemical use
 Indoor air pollution
 Outdoor air pollution
 Desertification
 Large scale developments
Exercise (Groupwork)
 Look around you and identify environmental
problems existing in your locality (Kumasi)
 Work in groups of no more than 5 students
 Select a community
 Visit the community
 Identify environmental issues in the community
 Use interviews, observations, etc
Exercise (Group work)
 Prepare power point presentations to cover the
following (each student to speak on at least one slide)
 Description of community, location, map, demarcate area
studied on map
 Methods used in data collection

 Problems identified in the community (include pictures)

 Causes of the problems

 Effects of the problems

 Solutions to the problems

 Conclusions
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

By

Dr. Eugene Appiah-Effah

 AIR POLLUTION
• Occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or
gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are harmful
to human health and environment

• It is presence of foreign matter either gaseous or

particulate or combination of both in the air which is
detrimental to the health and welfare of human beings

• Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources

are produced by natural events can be in the form of
particulate matter or gaseous form. These are called primary
pollutants

Ex: Dust storms and volcanic eruptions and through human

activities like emission from vehicles, industries etc.
Primary Pollutant
• There are five primary pollutants that contribute
to 90% of global air pollution. These are
ocarbon oxides (CO & CO2),
oN oxides
osulphur oxides
ovolatile organic compounds/Hydrocarbons
oSuspended particulate matter
oHeavy Metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn etc)
Secondary Pollutants
• Are produced in the atmosphere, when certain
chemical reactions take place among the primary
pollutants and with others in the atmosphere
oSulphuric acid
onitric acid
ocarbonic acid and
oacid rain
Causes of Air Pollution
Air pollution may originate from one or more variety of
sources.
Natural pollution includes sources such as oceanic
aerosol, volcanic emissions, biogenic sources,
windblown terrestrial dust

Artificial pollution generates from human activities and

includes sources such as fuel burning, refuse burning,
transportation, construction of buildings, chemical
factories, metallurgical factories and, vehicles

Solvent usage spray painting and solvent extraction.

Automobiles are the first rate of polluters. Industries
occupy second position.
 Effects of Air Pollution
• Effects on human health:
o Particulates cause carcinogenic effects
o Prolonged exposure causes lung cancer and asthma.
• Effects on plants:
o Gaseous pollutants enter the leaf pores and damage the
leaves of crop plants, interfere with photosynthesis and
plants growth
o Reduces nutrient uptake and causes the leaves to turn
yellow, brown or drop off altogether.
• On materials:
o Air pollutants break down the exterior paint on cars and
houses.
• Effect on stratosphere:
o Presence of certain pollutants can accelerate the
breakdown of ozone.
o Depletion of ozone effects human health, food
productivity and climate
 Noise Pollution
• Noise is defined as unwanted sound

• Wrong sound in the wrong place at the wrong

time

• The degree of unwantedness is a psychological

matter since the effects can range from
moderate annoyance to permanent hearing loss
Sources of Noise

• Traffic
• Industrial equipment
• Construction activities
• Sporting and crowd activities
• Low-flying aircraft
Effect of Noise

• Temporary or permanent hearing loss

• Annoyance
• Interference with speech communication
• Disturb sleep and relaxation
• Interfere with the ability to perform complex
tasks
Noise Measurement
Sound cannot be measured directly but its intensity
can be measured
• Sound level meters
These meters are classified as:
• Type 0- For laboratory reference situations
• Type 1- Precision grade, used for accurate field
measurements
• Type 2- Industrial grade, for non-critical survey
work
• Type 3- Survey grade, are low cost sound level
indicators
 WATER POLLUTION
When the quality or composition of water changes
directly or indirectly as a result of man’s activities such
that it becomes unfit for any useful purpose is said to
be polluted.
Two types of water pollution:
• Point source of pollution: This source of pollution can
be readily identified because it has a definite source and
place, where it enters the water. Eg: Municipal industrial
discharges pipes.
• Non point source of pollution: When a source of
pollution cannot be readily identified such as agricultural
runoff, acid rain etc, it is called as non point source of
pollution.
Causes of Water Pollution

• Disease causing agents

• Oxygen depleting wastes
• Inorganic plant nutrients
• Excess pesticides
• Water soluble organic chemicals
• Variety of organic chemicals
• The sediments of suspended matter
• Hot water released by power plants &
industries
• Acid drainage into rivers.
Effects of Water pollution
• Large amount of human waste in water increase
the number of bacteria which cause gastro
intestinal diseases, Water borne diseases
diarrhea, typhoid etc.
• If more organic matter is added to water the O2 is
used up. This causes fish and other forms of O2
dependent aquatic life to die.
• High levels of organic chemicals (acids, salts &
toxic metals) can make the water unfit to drink,
harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop
yields.
• Variety of organic chemicals / oil gasoline, plastics
& detergents are harmful to aquatic life and human
life.
Effects of Water pollution

• Hot water because of thermal pollution not only

decrease the solubility of O2 but also changes
the breeding cycles of various aquatic
organisms.
• Accidental oil spills cause environmental
damage.
• NO3 contamination causes Blue baby disease
(Methaemoglobinaceae)
• PO4 contamination causes bone marrow
disease.
Control measures of water pollution

• Setting up of effluent treatment plants to treat

waste water can reduce the pollution load in the
recipient water.
• Root zone process has been developed by Thermax
by running contaminated water through the root
zone of specially designed reed beds.
• Providing sanitation and waste water treatment
facility.
• Integrated nutrient management (INM) and
integrated pest management (IPM) practices will
reduce the effects caused due to excess pesticides.
QUIZ
1. What are primary pollutants?
2. List all the primary pollutants that
contribute to 90% of global air pollution
3. Mention the sources of air pollution
4. Describe 3 control measures of water
pollution
 SOIL POLLUTION
• Soil pollution is the introduction of substances,
biological organisms, or energy into the soil, resulting in
a change of the soil quality, which is likely to affect the
normal use of the soil or endangering public health and
the living environment.
Causes of Soil Pollution

• Soil erosion
• Soil contaminants
• Fertilizers and pesticides
• Excess use of irrigation water
Effects of Soil Pollution

• Food shortage
• Desertification
• Decrease in the extent of agricultural land
• Top soil erosion
• Excess use of irrigation leads to waterlogging
and soil salinization.
• Fertilizer run off leads to the eutrophication of
waterways.
 Control measures
• Proper soil conservation measures to minimize the
loss of top soil
• INM, IPM, using bio pesticides and integrated
environment friendly agriculture to reduce pesticides
or fertilizers.
• Appropriate water management practices in
agriculture
• Keeping the soil surface covered with crop residues
or crop cover
• Planting trees as a part of afforestation/ shelter
belts/wind breakers
• Cleaning up of polluted soil
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
• The combined effects of population explosion and
changing modern living standards have had a
cumulative effect in the generation of a large amount
of various types of wastes.

• Management of solid waste is very important in order

to minimize the adverse effects of solid wastes.

• Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human

and animal activities that are normally solid and that
are discarded as useless or unwanted
Solid Waste Categories
Three (3) general categories are considered
1. Municipal wastes
2. Industrial Wastes
3. Hazardous wastes
Types
1. Garbage/food waste
2. Rubbish
3. Ashes and residues
4. Demolition and construction waste
5. Special wastes (Street sweepings, roadside litter, dead
animals etc)
6. Treatment plant waste
7. Radioactive substances
8. Chemicals
9. Flammable wastes
10. Explosives etc
Causes of Solid Waste

• Increase in population
• Affluence
• Technology
Effects of Solid Waste

• Public health problems within communities

• Environmental pollution (public health and
aesthetic)
• Cost of health service
• Loss of productivity resulting from sickness
• Loss of value of property
Control measures
Solid waste management include
• The waste generation
• Collection of solid waste
• Disposal of solid waste
oLand fill- Disposal of municipal waste in the upper
layers of the earth‟s mantle.
oIncineration- Burn highly combustible wastes at very
high temperature
oComposting or Bio degradation- Decompose the
organic components of the municipal
• Waste utilization
oReuse
oRecycling
oReclamation
Significance of SWM

SWM aims to:

• Ensure and protect public health within
communities
• Promote environmental hygiene and cleanliness by
preventing environmental pollution
• Recover and recycle valuable resources to minimise
wastage and disposal cost and stimulate local
employment opportunities
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
ENGINEERING II
CE 464
DR. EUGENE APPIAH-EFFAH
DR. HELEN ESSANDOH
DEPT OF CIVIL ENG, KNUST

CE 464
RISK AND HAZARD
4 Environmental risk analysis
Human health risk
Industrial accidents and system failures
 Intended learning outcomes
5

At the end of this session you should be able to

 Distinguish between hazards and risks

 Outline the basic steps to risk assessment

 Explain the process for assessing risks to human health

from chemicals released into the environment

 Explain general approaches for managing risks and
options for risk reduction
 Give examples where decision-making is influenced

by risk assessment for low-level exposure to

contaminants
 Hazards
6

 A hazard is anything (e.g. condition, situation,

practice, behaviour) that has the potential to
cause harm, including injury, disease, death,
environmental, property and equipment
damage.

 Chemicals, electricity, working from ladders, an

open drawer etc. could all constitute hazards
 Risks
7

 A risk is the likelihood, or possibility, that harm

(injury, illness, death, damage etc) may occur
from exposure to a hazard, together with an
indication of how serious the harm could be.

 Voluntary risks: we choose to accept these

risks
 Involuntary risks: these are imposed
8

 Voluntary risks
 driving cars,
 flying in aeroplanes,
 drinking alcohol,
 smoking cigarettes, etc

 Involuntary risks
 living in a dirty urban environment which you can do little
about,
 air quality problems,
 contaminants in the environment, etc
9

 In engineering projects, whether large or small, a

series of decisions always have to be made
 Some analyses have to be carried out to facilitate
decision making
 Decisions can be made based on
 Technical analysis
 Cost-effectiveness analysis
 Benefit/cost analysis
 Risk analysis
 Environmental impact analysis
10

Risk Tool for making

assessment informed decisions
Risk analysis

Risk Process for reducing risks

management that are unacceptable
 Risk assessment
11

 Risk assessment is a process to identify

potential hazards and determine/analyse
what could happen should a hazard occur

 This includes:
 the nature of the harm that may result from the
hazard,
 the severity of that harm and
 the likelihood of this occurring
 Risk assessment
12

 Some risks are well quantified eg. Number of

automobile accidents

 For others however complex epidemiological

studies have to be carried out in order to
assess the risk e.g. chronic human exposure to
low dose contaminants in the environment
 Risks assessment
13

 Risk assessment can be used to evaluate

proposed development projects and
environmental policies

 People respond to hazards they perceive.

 If their perceptions are not right, risk

management efforts to improve environmental
protection may be misdirected
 Basic steps to risk assessment
14

 Identify the hazards

 Decide who might be harmed and how

 Evaluate the risks

 Are there any hazards?
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
 Example: Natural and Engineered
Environments; Drainage
22
 Excreta Management: natural vs.
23
engineered
24
25
 Risks Calculations
26

 What is the risk of dying of something?

 Risks
27

 The risk of dying of something is 1 (100%)

 This is because dying is inevitable
 Doctors are yet to prevent deaths. The best they can do
is to prolong life

 There are three ways of calculating risk of

death due to some cause
 Risk calculations
28

 1. Calculate risk as the ratio of the number of

deaths in a given population exposed to a
specific pollutant (per unit time), D1 divided by
the number of deaths in a population not
exposed to the pollutant (per unit time), D0

𝐷1
 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 =
𝐷0
 Example
29

 A small community (X) of 10 000 people is located next

to a krypton mine and there is concern that emissions
from the krypton smelter have resulted in adverse
effects. Specifically kryptonosis seems to have killed 10
of the communty’s inhabitants last year. A neighbouring
community (Y) has 20 000 inhabitants and is far enough
from the smelter not to be affected by emissions and in
community Y only 2 persons died last year from
kryptonosis.
 What is the risk of dying of kryptonosis in Community
X?
30

10/10000
 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑟𝑦𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑠 = = 10
2/20000

 A person is ten times more likely to die of krptonosis

in Community X than in a non-contaminated locality

 This does not however prove that the smelter is to

blame
31

 2. Calculate relative risk:

 Determine the number of deaths due to various
causes per population and compare these ratios

 Relative risk of dying of cause A = DA/P

 DA = number of deaths due to a cause A in a unit

time
 P =population
32

 The number of deaths in Community X and their

causes last year are as follows:
 Heart attack – 5
 Accidents – 4

 Kryptonosis – 10

 Other – 6

 What is the risk of dying of kryptonosis relative to

other causes?
33

 Risk of dying of heart attack = 5/10 000 =0.0005

 Risk of dying of kryptonosis = 10/10 000 = 0.001

 The risk of dying of kryptonosis is twice as large as

the chance of dying of a heart attack
34

 3. Calculate risk as the number of deaths due to a

certain cause divided by the total number of deaths

 Risk of dying of cause A = DA/Dtotal

 Dtotal = total number of deaths in the population in a

unit time
35

 In the previous example, what is the risk of dying of

kryptonosis in Community X relative to deaths due to
other causes?

 Total number of deaths = 5 + 10 + 6 + 4 = 25

 Risk of dying of kryptonosis = 10/25 = 0.4

 Of all the ways to die, the inhabitants of Community X

have a 40% chance of dying of kryptonosis
 QUIZ
36

Through test of statistical significance, it was found

that a village in Ashanti Region (Village A) with a
population of 260,553 had the highest death rate
(50 deaths) as a result of poor waste management.
The total number of deaths recorded in other villages
in Ashanti Region is 51 and their total population is
2,585,895.
Calculate;
1. Risk in Village A
2. Risk in other villages
3. Relative Risk
 Answer
37

 Risk among Village A= 50/260,553=0.0001919

 Risk among other villages =
51/2,585,895=0.0000198
 Relative Risk = (50/260,553)/(51/2,585,895)

=9.7

People in village A are 10 times likely to die of poor

waste management compared to people in the other
villages
 Environmental Risk Analysis
38

 ERA is a modern technique used for risk evaluation

associated to a polluted area
 Environmental Risk Analysis (ERA) is used to estimate
potential environmental risks in order to protect
human health or ecosystems from contaminated land
and/or water.
 It consist of
o Risk Assessment
o Risk Management
 Environmental risk analysis
39

 Define the source and type of pollutant of concern

 Identify the pathways and rates of exposure. How
can it get to humans so it can cause health
problems?
 Identify the receptors of concern. Who are the
people at risk?
 Determine the potential health impact of the
pollutant on the receptor. That is, define the dose-
response relationship
40

 Decide what impact is acceptable. What effect is

considered so low as to be acceptable to the
public?
 Based on the allowable effect, calculate the
acceptable level at the receptor, and then calculate
the maximum allowable emission
 If the emission or discharge at present (or planned
to be) is higher than the maximum allowable,
determine what technology is necessary in order to
attain the maximum allowable emission or discharge
 Example
41

 Identify and represent SPR linkages regarding the

leakage of wastewater pipeline that contains black
water

Hazard Source Pathway Receptor SPR

linkage
Blackwater Wastewater Leaching Groundwater YES
pipeline Groundwater supply YES
supply Public water
supply
 Risk assessment
42

 Risk assessment is site specific

 The process for assessing risks to human health from

chemicals released into the environment involves:

Stage 1: Identification of Hazards through data
collection and evaluation
Stage 2: Toxicity assessment/Toxicological evaluation
Stage 3: Exposure assessment (exposure pathways)
Stage 4: Risk characterisation
 Stage 1: Identification of Hazards
43

 Establishing a conceptual model of the investigated site

defining
o contamination hot spots
o types of chemical compounds present and its distribution
within the ground, transport mechanisms, routes of exposure
and potential receptors.
 This is the process of determining the relationship between
the exposure to a contaminant and the increased
likelihood of the occurrence or severity of adverse effects
 Hazard identification determines whether exposure to a
contaminant causes increased adverse effects and to what
level of severity
 Data collection and evaluation
44

 This includes gathering and analysing site specific

data relevant to human health concerns for the
purpose of identifying substances of major interest
 Data collection should include background and site
information on
 Possible contaminants

 Concentration of the contaminants in key sources

and media of interest (eg soil, water, air)
 Data collection and evaluation
45

 Characteristics of sources
 The chemical's release potential

 Characteristics of the environmental setting that

could affect the fate, transport and persistence of
the contaminants
 Air and groundwater movement, soil characteristics

 These will help to identify potential exposure

pathways and exposure points important for assessing
risk
 Stage 2: Toxicological Evaluation
46

 The objective of the toxicological evaluation is to

quantify the potential risk of exposure from the
toxic compounds detected through:
o Identification of the risk: to determine whether
exposure to a chemical agent will cause an increase in
the adverse effects on health.
o Dose-response analysis: determine the tolerable daily
intake to define a no observed adverse level to a
potentially exposed population.
 Stage 3: Exposure Assessment
47

 The objective is to establish the daily doses of

exposure to the potential receptors of chemical
agents (It is to estimate the magnitude of exposure to
chemicals of potential concern)

 This is based upon the concentration of each of the

adverse chemical compounds identified and the
exposure routes contemplated for the analysis

 This magnitude of exposure depends on the

chemical intake and exposure pathways
 Exposure pathway
48

 The pathways that contaminants may follow to

reach potentially affected individuals and
ecosystems is determined
 Exposure Pathway
49

 Exposure to chemical compounds can be produced

in two ways:
1. Direct exposure via dermal contact or ingestion of
soil.
2. Indirect exposure via inhalation of volatile
compounds originating from soil or groundwater,
as an example
 Potential contaminated media and corresponding routes
of exposure
50

Media Routes of potential exposure

Groundwater Ingestion, dermal contact, inhalation during
showering
Surface Ingestion, dermal contact, inhalation during
water showering
Sediment Ingestion, dermal contact
Air Inhalation of airborne (vapour phase) chemicals
(indoor and outdoor), inhalation of particulates
(indoor and outdoor)
Soil/dust Incidental ingestion, dermal contact
Food Ingestion
 Dose-response evaluation
51

 The dose of the compound determines the

degree of harm the compound can cause

 Dose (mg kg-1 of body mass) is defined as the

mass of chemical received by an animal or
exposed individual
 Dose-response evaluation
52

 DRE is assessing how the affected population will be

affected by the contaminant
 Dose-response evaluation uses quantitative
information on the dose of the contaminant and
relates it to the incidence of adverse reactions in an
exposed population
 That is evaluating the cause and effect relationship
between chemical exposure and illness
 Types of doses
53

Exposure dose The amount of chemical substance

encountered in the environment
Absorbed dose The actual amount of the exposed dose
that enters the body
Administered The quantity administered usually orally
dose or by injection
Total dose The sum of all individual doses
 Dose-response evaluation
54

 The experimental determination of the rate of

change in a biological mechanism to a range
of doses is the basis of the dose-response
relationship

 The statistical relationship of an organism’s

response to dose is usually expressed as a
cumulative frequency distribution known as a
dose-response curve
 Dose-response curve
55
 Stage 4: Risk Characterisation
56

 This consists of combining the toxicological

information with respect to the chemical compounds
identified and the exposure dosed to the potential
receptors.
 Risk characterisation
57

 All data collected from exposure and toxicity

assessments are reviewed to corroborate
qualitative and quantitative conclusions about
risk
 Risk characterisation
58

 All data collected from exposure and toxicity

assessments are reviewed to corroborate
qualitative and quantitative conclusions about
risk
 The risk for each media source and route of
entry is calculated
 This includes compounding effects of more than

one chemical contaminant and the combination

of risk across all routes of entry
 Data • What are the possible contaminants
Collection • gather and analyse site specific data
and
59Evaluation
• Define the source and type of pollutant of concern
• Where is the pollutant coming from and what is it?
Hazard • How can a proposed project fail in ways that can lead to hazardous outcomes?
Identificatio • Does exposure to the pollutant pose a danger to human health and the
n environment? What are the health effects expected from the pollutant?

• Identify the pathways and rates of exposure

Exposure • How can it get to humans so it can cause health problems?
• Identify the receptors of concern. Who are the people at risk?
Assessment
(pathway) • Which populations or ecosystems are/will be exposed to the hazardous outcomes?

• Determine the potential health impact of the pollutant on the receptor

Dose-
response • Define the dose-response relationship or observation of adverse effects at
assessmen specific doses
t
• Decide what impact is acceptable
Risk • What effect is considered so low as to be acceptable to the public?
character • Based on allowable effect calculate the acceptable level of the receptor and the
isation maximum allowable emission
 Risk management
60

 All activities/ decisions come with an element of risk

 Establishment of zero risk cannot be achieved
 Risk management involves the use of the results of risk
assessment to make policy decisions
 Risk management is performed to decide the magnitude of
risk that is tolerable in specific circumstances
 It weighs the results of risk assessment against factors such as:
 Costs and benefits of risk reduction techniques
 Technical feasibility

 Environmental statutes

 Public acceptance
 General approaches for managing
61
risks
 Risk avoidance
 Select
alternative actions
 Abandon planned actions

 Risk reduction
 Change actions to reduce risk
 Add actions to reduce risk

 Contingency planning
 Plan to cope with risk
 Options for risk reduction
62

 Change the environment

 eg. By reducing the concentration of compounds through
engineering measures
 Modify the exposure
 eg. By limiting intake of compounds by providing warnings
and dietary restrictions,
 restricting access to contaminated environments thereby
reducing exposure time
 Compensate for the effects
 Examples of decisions influenced by risk
assessment for low-level exposure to contaminants
63

 Threshold decision to regulate

 Should a currently unregulated substance be regulated?
 eg. in implementing laws establishing programs to control
hazardous waste, regulation of CO2 and other GHGs
 Cleanup measures at contaminated sites
 For a particular contaminated site, what remediation option
should be implemented?
 Ambient standards
 For a particular substance, what concentrations in air and
water pose unacceptable risks?
 Decisions influenced by risk assessment
64
for low-level exposure to contaminants
 Priority setting in environmental problem solving
 How can information on relative (or comparative) risk
be used in allocating resources for environmental
programs?
 Approval or denial of proposed projects
 What risks to human health and the environment are
associated with a proposed development project and
how can those risks be weighed against other project
impacts?
 As an element of EIA, and applies for both chronic low-
level exposure to contaminants and for industrial
accidents and engineering system failures
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Dr. Eugene Appiah-Effah

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ENGINEERING II

(CE 464)
Environmental Management

❖Waste Minimization

❖Environmental Impact Assessment

❖Environmental Modelling
Waste Minimization
❖Waste minimization approach has been seen as
the only sustainable way of dealing with our waste
problems
❖This means that within any waste management
system, the primary concern should be to reduce
the quantities of waste material produced
❖This avoids the necessity to treat and dispose of
such materials
❖Waste minimization=Clean or Cleaner
Technology, Cleaner Production= Waste
Reduction= Pollution Prevention etc
Waste Minimization
Why Waste Minimization

❖The generation of large volumes of waste correlates

with the depletion of our non-renewable resources

❖Increasing total costs of collection, segregation,

storage, transport, treatment and final disposal
make waste minimization economically attractive

❖Since waste equals inefficiency, reducing waste

increases efficiency and hence profitability
Waste Minimization

❖Before any waste minimization technique or

strategies we need to understand the behaviour
the process operations of a product.

❖And for that we use the Life Cycle Analysis

5
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

6
Background

❖Environmental problems impact negatively on the

environment and humans eg pollution to air, water
and land.
❖Engineering professionals are routinely asked to
determine design options that offer the minimum
environmental impact.
❖To make the best choice we need to
assess/measure/quantify the environmental
impacts during building, operation and the end-of-
life phases of a project
❖How can we do this??
 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
9
❖LCA is defined as the compilation and evaluation
of the inputs and outputs, and of the potential
environmental impacts, of a product system
throughout its life cycle (ISO 2006).

❖Evaluating the environmental impacts of a product

or service based on all natural resource inputs
and emissions from the entire supply chain

❖LCA attempts to measure the “cradle to grave”

impact of the product on the ecosystem.
 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
10

❖LCA started in Europe and the USA in the late

1960’s and early 1970’s.
❖It developed as a result of increased awareness
by the general public, industry and governments
of:
▪ the importance of environmental protection
▪ possible impacts associated with manufactured
and consumed products
 LCA- Uses

Possible uses:
- Decision support during
design
- Certification
- Part of an EIA (impact
assessment)
 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
12
❖LCA addresses the environmental aspects and
potential environmental impacts throughout a
product's life cycle from
▪ raw material acquisition
▪ through production
▪ use
▪ end-of-life treatment
▪ recycling and
▪ final disposal
❖There is a standardized tool for conducting an LCA:
ISO 14040-14043 is the LCA standard
 Phases of LCA
13
 Phases of LCA
14

1. Goal and scope definition (ISO 14040) (what

do we want to know?)
▪ The basis and scope of the evaluation are
defined
▪ Description of the study and its major system
boundaries, methodological choices,
assumptions, and data requirements

❖The LCA of waste management often starts with

the sorting and collection of waste.
 Phases of LCA
15
2. Life cycle inventory analysis (ISO 14041)
▪ This involves calculation of environmental inputs
and outputs
▪ Environmental inputs are the natural resources
required in the life cycle.
▪ The outputs are the quantities of CO2 and other
pollutants and waste that are released back to
nature.
▪ Data on material flows, resource use, emissions,
and waste are collected for all processes and
transports in the system
 Phases of LCA
16
3. Life cycle impact assessment (ISO
14042)
▪ This is the estimation and calculation of
potential impacts on the environment
▪ Emissions and consumptions are translated
into environmental effects
▪ The environmental effects are grouped and
weighted
 Life cycle activities
17

4. Life cycle interpretation (ISO 14043)

▪ This is the combination and evaluation of the LCI
and LCIA results.
▪ It involves understanding the accuracy and
checking consistency of the results, and ensuring
that they meet the goal of the study.
▪ Conclusions are drawn and recommendations
made based on an understanding of how the LCA
was conducted and the results were developed
▪ The results can be used for decision making
 Life cycle impacts
18

❖Natural resources impacts

▪ Renewable resources
▪ Non renewable resource use/ depletion
▪ Hazardous materials
▪ Solid waste
▪ Energy use
▪ Radioactive materials
 Life cycle impacts
19

❖Abiotic ecosystem impacts

▪ Global warming
▪ Stratospheric ozone depletion
▪ Photochemical smog
▪ Acidification
▪ Water quality
▪ Radioactivity
 Life cycle impacts
20

❖Potential human health and ecotoxicity

impacts
▪ Chronic human health effects
(occupational and public)
▪ Aesthetic (beauty and odour)
▪ Terrestrial ecotoxicity
▪ Aquatic ecotoxicity
 Group discussion
21
❖What type of disposable cups should be used to
serve hot beverages (at say for example Linda
dor rest stop); paper cups or polystyrene foam
cups (no CFCs)?
❖To be able to make a choice, it will be necessary
to analyse the life cycle impacts of both cups
 Paper cups or polystyrene foam cups?
Paper cups
22
Comes from trees. Cutting down trees
results in environmental degradation
Production causes significant water
pollution (30 – 50 kgBOD per cup)
Emission of chlorine, CO2, sulphides,
particulates
No pentane emissions
Lower recyclability
Produces 20 000kj/kg during burning
Degrades to CO2 and CH4 in the landfill
(both greenhouse gases)
Will slowly decompose
Polystyrene cups
Comes from oil and gas. Results in
adverse environmental pollution incl.
use of non-renewable resources
No BOD contribution during production
No emission of chlorine, CO2,
sulphides, particulates
Contributes 35- 50kg pentane emissions
per cup
Higher recyclability since the cup is
made of several materials incl plastic
coating
Produces 40 000kj/kg during burning
Inert
Will remain in the landfill for a long time
 Thoughts??
23

❖If the landfill is considered as a waste storage

receptacle the foam cup is superior

▪ But if

❖the landfill is considered as a treatment facility,

then the foam cup is detrimental

❖So which cup is better for the

environment???????
CLEANER PRODUCTION (CP)

24
 Cleaner production
26

❖ A preventive, company-specific environmental protection

initiative which is intended to minimize waste and
emissions and maximize product output.

❖ Cleaner production is the continuous application of an

integrated preventive environmental strategy applied to
processes, products, and services to increase overall
efficiency and reduce risks to humans and the
environment (UNEP 2011)

❖ The term “Cleaner Production” (CP)was coined by the

United Nations Environment Programme, Division of
Technology, Industry and Environment (UNEP DTIE) in
1989
 Cleaner production
27

❖ CP seeks to reduce and avoid pollution and waste

throughout the entire production cycle (product design and
manufacturing issues such as efficient use of raw
materials, energy, and water)

❖ It focuses on the use of cleaner technologies and

techniques and deals with process integrated preventive
methods rather than end-of-pipe solutions

❖ CP can be adopted in various sectors (eg industry,

housing, hospitality, infrastructure)
Why CP?

❖Cleaner Production allows:

• Savings to be made in raw materials, water and
energy.
• The disposal, reduction and/or replacement of
hazardous materials.
• The reduction in quantity and hazardousness of
waste and emissions.
 General CP Principles
29
❖ CP principles are founded on the 4Rs of waste
management
▪ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover
❖ In cleaner production it is essential that
resources, including energy are managed
efficiently.
❖ This would require among others
▪ careful use of resources
▪ closing of material streams
▪ resource substitution
 General CP principles
30
❖The principles are
▪ Input-substitution
▪ Good housekeeping
▪ Internal recycling
▪ Technology optimisation or change
▪ Product optimisation
 Input-Substitution
31
❖Use of less hazardous raw, auxiliary or
operating materials

❖Use of renewable materials

❖Use of operating materials with a longer

lifetime
 Good Housekeeping
32
❖Increase material and energy efficiency of
actions in the process.

❖This can be done by e.g.

▪ Reducing losses due to leakage, spills

▪ Training employees and enforcing operational

instructions
 Internal Recycling
33
❖Close material and energy loops for water,
solvents, etc.
❖Cascading of material and energy streams
▪ Reuse of the wasted materials in the same
process
▪ Reuse of wasted materials for another useful
application within the company
 Technological Optimisation/Change
34
❖Implementation of new technologies
❖Modify existing equipment and utilities to run at
higher efficiency and produce less waste and
emissions
❖Improved process control (modify operational
procedures, equipment instructions to improve
efficiency)
❖Redesign of processes
❖Change in or substitution of hazardous processes
 Optimisation of the Product
35
❖Increasing the lifetime
❖Easier repair
❖Easier de-manufacturing, recycling or deposition
❖Use of non-hazardous materials
▪ Modify the product characteristics in order to
minimise its environmental impacts during
production, use and disposal
Advantages of Cleaner Production

❑ Reduction of risk to the environment, health and of

industrial accidents.
❑ Economic savings on raw materials, water and energy.
❑ Savings in waste flow management and treatment.
❑ Improvement of corporate image.
❑ Better quality of the product
❑ Improvement of routine habits and rethinking of
processes and procedures.
❑ Optimisation of processes and resources
❑ Fulfilment of the company's environmental requirements
and a commitment to its sustainable development.
CP technique
❑Changes in technology.
❑Changes in input materials.
❑Changes in operating practices.
❑Changes in product design.
❑Changes in waste use.
❑Changes in maintenance.
❑Changes in packaging.
 CP Process
❑ Planning and organisation - organisation are made aware
of the CP process, stakeholder input sort, CP team formed,
environmental policy reviewed or written, and budgets and
program created.
❑ Assessment - material inputs and outputs identified and
assessed, current processes and costs assessed,
environmental and health impacts reviewed, CP options
identified.
CP Process contd.
❑ Feasibility analysis - each CP option is assessed for its
environmental impact and its technological and
economical viability, final CP option selected.
❑ Implementation - selected CP option is implemented and
a monitoring and evaluation program established.
❑ Continuation - regular audits conducted and findings feed
back into the decision making process, stakeholders
informed of progress and gains.
 BASIC CONCEPTS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
ASSESSMENT

40
Definition of EIA

Environmental
✓ Impact Assessment
Is A formal process for
identifying:
Environment is
• likely effects of activities or broadly interpreted:
projects on the physical, biological,
ENVIRONMENT, and on and social.
human health and welfare.
In EIA, the term
• means and measures to “impacts” is used
mitigate & monitor these instead of “effects
impacts of activities.”
What is an
impact?
41
What is an impact?

The impact of an activity is

a deviation (a change) The baseline
from the baseline situation situation is the
that is caused by the existing
environmental
activity. situation or
condition in the

! To measure an impact, you

absence of the
activity.
must know what the
The baseline
baseline situation is. situation is a key
More…
concept in EIA.

42
The baseline situation
Water Quantity, quality, reliability,
In characterizing the accessibility
baseline situation,
Soils Erosion, crop productivity,
many environmental fallow periods, salinity,
components MAY be nutrient concentrations
of interest Fauna Populations, habitat

The components of
Env Health Disease vectors, pathogens
interest are those that
are likely to be affected
Flora Composition and density of
by your activity—or natural vegetation,
upon which your productivity, key species
activity depends for its
success Special Key species
ecosystems

43
The baseline situation

The baseline situation is

Water table
not simply a “snapshot.”
Describing the baseline
situation requires describing
both the normal variability in
environmental components &
current trends in these time
components. This chart of
groundwater levels
shows both variability
and a trend over time.

Both are part of the

groundwater baseline
situation.

44
Types of impacts & their attributes
Direct & indirect
The EIA process is impacts
concerned with
Short-term & long-
all types of impacts and term impacts
may describe them in a
Adverse & beneficial
number of ways
impacts
Cumulative impacts
 Intensity
 Direction
 Spatial extent
 Duration
But all impacts are
 Frequency
 Reversibility NOT treated
 Probability equally.

45
 Specifically,
! It is ESSENTIAL in EIA
to focus on the most
significant impacts.

Don’t waste effort & time

analyzing and discussing
impacts that are less
important.

46
What is an activity?
We are discussing the impacts of activities.
What are activities?

✓ An activity is:

a desired
accomplishment or
output Accomplishing an activity
requires a set of actions
E.g.: a road, seedling
production, or river ACTIVITY: ACTIONS:
diversion to irrigate market access Survey, grading, culvert
road construction, compaction,
land rehabilitation etc. . .

A project or program may

consist of many activities
47
The EIA process

Phase I: Phase II:

Initial inquiries Full EIA study
(scoping) (if needed)

•Understand • Scope
proposed activities • Evaluate baseline situation
• Identify & choose alternatives
•Screen • Identify and characterize potential
•Conduct preliminary impacts of proposed activity and
assessment (if each alternative
needed) • Develop mitigation and monitoring
• Communicate and document
Our focus!
48
Phase 1 of the EIA Process
Understand Screen the Conduct a
Phase I Phase II
proposed activity Preliminary
activity Assessment
Based on the ACTIVITY IS SIGNIFICANT BEGIN
Why is the nature of the OF MODERATE A rapid, ADVERSE FULL
activity being activity what OR UNKNOWN simplified EIA IMPACTS EIA
proposed? level of RISK study using POSSIBLE STUDY
environmental simple tools SIGNIFICANT
What is being review is (e.g. the ADVERSE
proposed? indicated? USAID IEE) IMPACTS
VERY UNLIKELY

ACTIVITY IS LOW
RISK (Of its nature, STOP
very unlikely to have the EIA
significant adverse process
impacts)

ACTIVITY IS
HIGH RISK (Of its
nature, likely to have
significant adverse
impacts)

49
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
Understand the proposed activity
Understand ALL EIA processes begin with
the proposed
activities understanding WHAT is being proposed,
Why is the and WHY.
activity being The question
proposed? “WHY IS THE ACTIVITY BEING PROPOSED?
What is being Is answered with the development objective (D.O.).


proposed?

✓
“building a road” Not a D.O.!
“increasing access
Is a D.O.
to markets”
“If we don’t
understand
We must understand the
it, we can’t Development Objective to identify
assess it!” environmentally sound alternatives

50
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
Understand the proposed activity
Understand Once we understand the development
the proposed
activities
objective, we must fully understand
WHAT is being proposed.
Why is the
activity being This includes associated actions!
proposed? PRIMARY ACTIVITY:
What is being construction of diversion dam &
proposed? irrigation canal
ASSOCIATED ACTIONS:
• Survey
“Oops. I
• negotiate land tenure
forgot • construct borrow pit
about the • establish construction camp
borrow pit.” • construct temporary
diversion structure
• dispose of soil, debris

51
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
Screen the activity
Screen each
activity
SCREENING is the process of asking
Based on the
nature of the
a very basic set of questions about
activity, what the nature of activity.
level of These questions:
environmental • do NOT require analysis.
analysis is
• do NOT require detailed knowledge
indicated?
about the proposed sites, techniques or
methods
Example screening questions:
Does the activity involve:
• Large-scale irrigation?
• Introduction of non-native
crop or agroforestry species?

52
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
Screen the activity
Screen each
activity
screening classifies the activity into
Based on the
nature of the
a RISK CATEGORY:
activity, what VERY LOW RISK EIA process ends
level of
environmental VERY HIGH RISK Do full EIA study
analysis is
indicated? MODERATE OR Do preliminary
UNKNOWN RISK assessment

The outcome of the

screening process
determines the next step
in the EIA process

53
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
Screen the activity

! Each donor agency

and national EIA law
has its own set of
screening questions.

✓ Screening is the topic

of an upcoming
module

54
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
The Preliminary Assessment
Conduct a
Preliminary
Assessment The purpose of a preliminary
A rapid, assessment is to provide
simplified EIA documentation and analysis that:
study using
• Allows the preparer to
simple tools
(e.g. the determine whether or not
USAID IEE) significant adverse impacts are
likely
• Allows the reviewer to agree or

!
disagree with the preparer’s
Screening determinations
determines whether • Sets out mitigation and
the preliminary monitoring for adverse impacts
assessment is
necessary
55
Phase 1 of the EIA process:
The Preliminary Assessment
Typical Preliminary
Assessment outline
1. Background (Development
objective, list of activities)
2. Description of the baseline
situation
3. Evaluation of potential
environmental impacts
4. Mitigation & monitoring
5. Recommended Findings
For each activity it covers, a
preliminary assessment has 3
possible findings:
• The project is very unlikely
to have significant adverse
impacts. (EIA process ends)
• With specified mitigation
and monitoring, the project
is unlikely to have
significant adverse impacts
• The project is likely to have
significant adverse impacts
(full EIA study is required)
56
What is mitigation?

Mitigation is. . .
✓ The implementation of
measures designed to
reduce the undesirable
effects of a proposed
action on the
environment

Mitigation is the topic of

an upcoming module!

57
To arrive at findings:
Identify, Predict and Judge
Arriving at the FINDINGS in a preliminary
assessment requires 3 steps:
1
Identify potential Many resources describe the potential
impacts impacts of typical small-scale activities.

2 Determine which potential impacts are likely

Predict potential
to become actual, and quantify these
impacts
impacts to the extent possible.

3 Judge the Determine whether the predicted impacts are

significance of indeed significant!
potential impacts THIS WILL OFTEN DEPEND ON HOW
EFFECTIVE THE PROPOSED MITIGATION
MEASURES ARE!
58
 Subsequent modules. . .
✓ ▪Present tools to assist
in identifying &
predicting impacts
▪Discuss the factors
involved in judging
significance

59
! We only proceed to
Phase II of the EIA process

if
Phase I indicates that
a FULL EIA STUDY
is required

Most small-scale activities do

not require a full EIA study!

60
Phase 2 of the EIA process:
The Full EIA study
A formal scoping process

The full EIA study has ! precedes the study to ID

issues to be addressed
very similar objectives Analysis of environmental
and structure to a
preliminary
! impacts is much more
detailed

assessment. Alternatives* must be

However, the full EIA

! formally defined. The
impacts of each
alternative must be
study differs in identified & evaluated,
important ways: and the results compared.
Public participation is
*includes the project as usually required.
proposed, the no-action alternative
at least one other real alternative
! A professional EIA team
is usually required.
61
Phase 2 of the EIA process:
The Full EIA study
With a few additions, the Basic steps of the full
EIA study
basic outline of the
Scope

Communicate & Document throughout

preliminary assessment is
the template for the steps Evaluate baseline
involved in a full EIA study: situation
Identify & choose
1. Background (Development alternatives
objective, list of activities)
Identify and characterize
2. Description of the baseline
potential impacts of
situation
proposed activity and
3. Evaluation of potential each alternative
environmental impacts
Compare alternatives
4. Mitigation & monitoring
Develop mitigation and
5. Recommended Findings monitoring

62
Phase 2 of the EIA process:
The Full EIA study

✓ In summary,
The full EIA study is a far
more significant effort than
the preliminary assessment.

It is reserved for activities for

which screening or the
preliminary assessment
shows that significant
impacts are likely.

63
Who is involved in EIA?
Sponsor of the activity
(usually commissions/conducts the
EIA)
Regulatory agencies/
Review authorities
Broad-based public
Communities (men & women)
Civil society
Private Sector
Public consultation is usually
only REQUIRED for full EIA
studies.
However, it is good practice
for preliminary assessments
because:
• Predicting impacts is
FACILITATED by broad-
based public consultation;
Judging significance is very
difficult without it.
• Transparency and
accessibility require
disclosure to stakeholders
64
Making EIA effective
To be an effective tool
for ESD, EIA must be: EIA is undertaken early enough
▪ a integral part of the to affect project design
project development Mitigation and monitoring
developed in the EIA process is
cycle.
implemented.

The full EIA study must

▪ Honest consider real alternatives
Impacts must be assessed
honestly.

▪ Transparent & The EIA products must be clear

accessible and accessible to key actors.

65
THE EIA PROCESS

❖ The EIA process comprises:

▪ Screening - to decide if and at what level EIA should be applied
▪ Scoping - to identify the important issues and prepare terms of
reference
▪ Impact analysis - to predict the effects of a proposal and evaluate
their significance
▪ Mitigation - to establish measures to prevent, reduce or compensate
for impacts
THE EIA PROCESS

❖ Reporting – to prepare the information necessary for

decision-Making
❖ Review – to check the quality of the EIA report
❖ Decision-making – to approve or reject the proposal and
set conditions
❖ Follow up – to monitor, manage and audit impacts of
project implementation
❖ Public involvement – to inform and consult with stakeholders
GENERALISED EIA PROCESS FLOWCHART
STEPS TO DEVELOPING AN EIA SYSTEM

❖ Establish goals
❖ Review other EIA systems
❖ Identify obligations under treaties learn from the
experience of others incorporate features to move
❖ Towards sustainability
❖ Identify procedures and standards develop trial guidelines
❖ Produce legislation
❖ Incorporate processes for monitoring and review
Case Study- Wastewater Treatment Project

❖Installations for the disposal of industrial and

domestic wastewater
❖Sludge deposition sites

The problem is to try to balance positive impacts of

wastewater treatment with potentially negative
impacts such as
❖Health hazards through biotic factors
❖Visual and landscape impacts
❖Nuisance of odour, vermin, traffic
70
Project Description
❖ Construction
Access, Traffic, Site preparation, Landscaping

❖ Operation (including available alternatives)

Hours of operation, capacity of facility, safety and hazard
controls, pest and odour control, perimeter security,
monitoring facilities, quality of waste, management
procedures, transportation of sludge etc
❖ Decommissioning
❖ Growth
Phases of expansion
❖ Associated developments
71
Environmental effects

Typical significant impacts likely to affect:

❖Human beings
o Health and safety
o disposal of sludge
o handling of sludge
o transportation of sludge
o Nuisance
o Overall benefit of treatment of wastewater-higher
quality of water entering outfall area, with little risk
of polluted waters
72
Environmental effects

❖Flora
❖Fauna
o Attraction of pests-insects, rodents etc
❖Water
o Improvement in quality of water discharged into
outfall area
o Contamination be uncontrolled surface runoff
(water pollution if not properly treated)
o Pathogens released with water

73
Environmental effects

❖ Air
o Odour
o Noise of machinery and transportation trucks

❖ Climate
o Odour dispersal/concentrations

❖ The landscape
o Perimeter fences
o Access roads, entrances
o Exposed waste
o Site structures
74
Environmental effects

❖Material assets
o Diminution of amenities for residential and
leisure land uses

❖Cultural heritage

75
Possible mitigation options

❖Site alternatives
❖Site layout to minimize proximity to sensitive
receptors
❖Landscaping
❖Monitoring
❖High standards of site management including
control of waste acceptance

76
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGIES

Dr. Eugene Appiah-Effah

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ENGINEERING II

(CE 464)
Environmental Engineering Technologies

❖Solid Waste Management

❖Water Treatment

❖Wastewater Treatment

❖Faecal Sludge Treatment

❖Hazardous Waste Treatment

Solid Waste Treatment
❖The various technologies of treatment and
ultimate disposal of MSW include
▪ Waste minimization

▪ Reuse and recycling

▪ Biological treatment

▪ Thermal treatment

▪ Landfilling
Biological Treatment

❖Aerobic treatment or composting

❖Anaerobic digestion or biogas

❖Combined anaerobic and aerobic

4
Composting
The general objectives of composting are:
❖To transform the biodegradable organic materials
into a biologically stable material,
❖To destroy pathogens, insect eggs, and other
unwanted organisms and weed seeds that may be
present in MSW;
❖To retain the maximum nutrient (nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium) content; and
❖To produce a product that can be used to support
plant growth and as a soil conditioner.

5
Composting Process

❖Composting is the (controlled) biological

decomposition of organic material under
aerobic conditions
❖Decomposition represents a natural process
❖Organic breakdown by bacteria and fungus
(microorganisms)
❖End product is a humus or soil-like product, so
called COMPOST that can be used as soil
conditioner or fertiliser

6
Process requirements

❖The process parameters of relevance are

❖Temperature

❖Moisture content

❖Oxygen

❖C/N ratio

❖pH

❖Biochemical composition and texture

7
Types of composting
In Vessel
❖Occurs inside an enclosed container or vessel and
relies on various methods of aeration and
mechanical turning to control the process
❖Mechanical systems are designed to minimize odors
and process time by controlling air flow, temperature,
and oxygen concentration

8
Types of composting
Windrow Composting
❖Simple and versatile method
where organic matter is built
into large piles and physically
turned on a regular basis
❖Size, shape, and spacing of
the windrow depends on the
equipment used for turning

9
Anaerobic digestion
❖An Anaerobic Digestion (AD) process is the
breaking down of organic matter by bacterial action
in the absence of oxygen to produce biogas (a
mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) which can
be used for energy generation.
❖Benefits of using AD technology in solid waste
management include:
❖energy production (biogas production),
❖waste treatment (waste volume reduction)
❖environmental benefits (reduce effects on
climate change).
10
Thermal Treatment-Combustion or
Incineration
❖Can be carried out with or without oxygen

❖Thermal degradation/processing of solid

waste by chemical oxidation with excess
amount of oxygen is called combustion.

11
Landfilling

❖Landfill is a physical facility used for the

disposal of residual solid wastes in the surface
soils of the earth.

❖Sanitary landfill is a facility for disposal of

residual MSW designed and operated to
minimise public health and environmental
impacts

12
 Reactions in Landfill
❖ Biological process: Biological decay of organic materials,
either aerobic or anaerobic, with the evolution of gases and
liquids.
❖ Chemical oxidation of waste materials. Dissolving and
leaching of organic and inorganic materials by water from
external sources (surface drainage, rainfall, groundwater)
and leachate moving through the fill.
❖ Physical processes within landfill,
▪ Escape of gases from the fill (Ammonia, CO2, CO, CH4)
▪ Movement of dissolved materials and liquids (leachate)
caused by differential heads, concentration gradients and
osmosis.
▪ Uneven settlement caused by consolidation of material
into voids.
 Environment Quality Control
Pollutant or nuisance Significance Control measure
of control
❑Organic and Chemical Water pollution Treatment plant, stop
pollution of surface the use of water source
water by leachate

❑Groundwater Drinking Water pollution Bottom liner

water contamination
❑Pollution of air by Air pollution Gas Vent & flare
biogas, H2S
❑Fly breeding Public health Daily cover, spray
insecticide
❑Rodents, rats, vermin Public health Daily cover, spray
insecticide
 Environment Quality Control

Pollutant or nuisance Significance Control measure

of control
❑Odour nuisance Public health Daily cover
❑Smoke from burning Air pollution Daily cover, check
source of fire
❑Visual impact/littering Land pollution/ Provide buffer trees
aesthetic and daily
nuisance
❑Waste picker or Public health Stop waste picking
scavengers
❑Fire hazards caused Air pollution Extinguish fire
by open burning
Landfill design features

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

 Stages of Landfill design process

❖Environmental Permitting procedure, EIA and

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
❖Feasibility study and Detailed engineering
design and tender documents
❖ Construction of landfill
❖ Landfilling operational plan and management
❖ Design and Construction of capping
❖ After-care of the landfill
 Components of landfill facility

❖Landfill liners: these are materials used to line the

bottom and below sides slopes of a landfill. (layers
of compacted clay/or geomembrane (HDPE), to
prevent leachate from groundwater contamination

❖Cell: The volume of material placed in a landfill

during one operating period, usually one day. It
includes the solid waste deposited and the daily
cover material
Components of landfill facility

❖ Lift: a complete layer of cell over the active area

of the landfill.
❖Daily Cover : Are materials on the waste to
prevent from littering by birds and wind and
control bad odour, and reduce the risk of fire
❖Final cover: to limit infiltration of rainwater into
the landfill and prevention of migration of landfill
gas and allow vegetation to grow
 Landfill Operation

❖Solid waste deposition by trucks,

❖Spreading and compaction by earth moving
equipment (eg. Bulldozer),
❖Covering of waste daily with layer of compacted
soil cover,
❖Cover of filled cells daily,
❖Final cover of the entire landfill and closure,
Landfill Operation
Landfill compactor
DESIGN OF SANITARY LANDFILL
Volume Of Sanitary Landfill
Required volume could be calculated using the
formula which includes specific solid waste
production rate, volumetric weight and compacting
ratio.

V1 = d[(R/w)x ec + Cv]
Volume Of Sanitary Landfill
V1: required landfill volume per one person per year
(m3/capita.year)
R: Specific solid waste production rate
(kg/capita.day)
W: Volumetric weight of solid waste after
compaction (kg/m3)
Cv: specific required volume for isolation layer at the
bottom, covering layers between solid waste beds
and final upper covering layer (m3/capita.day)
d: number of days in one year (day/year)
ec: efficiency of collection from SW (%)
 Example

Only 80% of solid waste generated from KNUST

campus is efficiently collected for disposal. The
average per capita generation rate is estimated at
0.6kg/c/day. Assuming a volumetric weight of solid
waste after compaction to be 400 kg/m3 and
specific required volume for isolation layer at the
bottom, covering layers between solid waste beds
and final upper covering layer to be 0.0004
m3/capita.day, calculate the landfill volume required
in a year for the solid waste generated from KNUST
campus if the population is 35,000.
 Solution

V1= d[(R/w)x ec + Cv]

V1: Required landfill volume per one person per year
(m3/capita.year)=???
R: Specific solid waste production rate= 0.6kg/capita.day
w: Volumetric weight of solid waste after compacted
=400 kg/m3
Cv: Specific required volume for isolation layer at the
bottom, covering layers between solid waste beds and
final upper covering layer= 0.0004 m3/capita.day
d: number of days in one year =365
ec: efficiency of collection from SW =80%
 Solution contd…

V1 = 365[(0.6/400) x 0.8 + 0.0004] = 0.584

m3/capita/year

Required landfill volume for the entire KNUST

population,
VKNUST = V1 x PopKNUST = 0.584 x 35,000

VKNUST = 20,440 m3/year

After settlement and decomposition there will be

20% reduction of volume

VKNUST = (20,440)x0.8 = 16,352 m3/year

Water Treatment Processes

❖Aeration
❖Solids Separation
❖Coagulation
❖Filtration
❖Disinfection
❖Softening

29
Wastewater Treatment

❖Physical Treatment
▪ Screening (Coarse/Fine/Grit)
❖Secondary treatment
▪ Biological treatment
• Activated sludge/Trickling filters/Aerated Lagoons
❖Nutrient Removal
❖Tertiary treatment
▪ Sand filters

30
Faecal Sludge Treatment

❖Settling-thickening tanks
❖Waste Stabilisation Pond
❖Composting/ Co-composting
❖Anaerobic Digestion
❖Drying beds

31
Hazardous Waste Treatment

❖Incineration
❖Wet oxidation (Organic and inorganic
materials dissolved in water are exposed to a
gaseous source o\f oxygen)
❖Fluidized bed combustion

32