UNIT – 1

PART A - C306.1
1. Define Land use and Landscape?
Landscape data documents how much of a region is covered by forests, wetlands,
impervious surfaces, agriculture, and other land and water types. Land use shows
how people use the landscape – whether for development, conservation, or mixed
uses. The different types of land cover can be managed or used quite differently.
2. What is meant by changing pattern of land use?
Land use is the varying activities executed by humans to exploit the landscape,
such as hunting or ploughing. More common practices are unplanned extensions
of agricultural land that violate the connectivity of landscapes in originally stable
ecosystems. Land that is more amenable for conversion is that located adjacent to
the city boundary, along the highway. Conversion of agricultural land to urban
uses is a continuous phenomenon whose rate is stimulated.
3. Write a short note on land use classification?
The land use classification in India is as follows:
 Geographical Area
 Reporting area for land utilization
a) Forests
b) Area under non-agricultural uses
c) Barren and Un-culturable land
d) Permanent Pasture and other grazing land
e) Culturable waste land
f) Fallow land
 Net Irrigated area
 Gross Irrigated area
4. What are the driving forces for land use change?
The intensification of human activities seeking to ensure the food supply and
improve the income of the growing population is the major proximate driver of
land use change. The associated human activities that drive LUC are expansion
 T.M.2  Environment, and, Agriculture

of agriculture land, free livestock grazing, wood extraction for fuel wood and
charcoal-making and settlement expansion. The processes of LULCC have
directly impacted the biodiversity and ecosystem service.
5. What is the difference between land use and landscape?
Land use Landscape
Land use shows how people use the Land cover data documents how much of
landscape – whether for development, a region is covered by forests, wetlands,
conservation, or mixed uses. impervious surfaces, agriculture, and
other land and water types.
Land use cannot be determined from Land cover can be determined by
satellite imagery. analyzing satellite and aerial imagery.

6. Illustrate the impact of land use change on biodiversity?

As the human population continues to increase, demand for more agricultural
land is one of the main drivers of habitat loss and degradation. This change in
land use presents the greatest immediate threat to biodiversity. Forest-specialist
species and species with narrow ranges are disproportionately lost from
ecological communities when land is converted from natural to human-
dominated habitats. In particular, birds are highly sensitive to urban land use and
the number of bird species declines as human population density increases.
7. Define ecosystem?
Ecosystems are entire living communities of plants and animals that, although
diverse in nature, share common characteristics. These primarily relate to the
climate and soil seen in the ecosystem. Climate, soils and vegetation interact
closely to produce the characteristic nature of an individual ecosystem.
8. What are the basic components of ecosystem?
There are four basic components in an ecosystem:
 Abiotic Components
 Producers at the base
 Consumers in the chain
 Decomposers and Nutrient cycling
9. What is water quality index?
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.3 

Water quality index (WQI) is valuable and unique rating to depict the overall
water quality status in a single term that is helpful for the selection of appropriate
treatment technique to meet the concerned issues. In spite of absence of a
globally accepted composite index of water quality, some countries have used
and are using aggregated water quality data in the development of water quality
indices.
10. Challenges faced due to water quality-Globally?
Water quality is one of the main challenges that societies will face during the
21st century, threatening human health, limiting food production, reducing
ecosystem functions, and hindering economic growth. Water quality degradation
translates directly into environmental, social and economic problems.
Furthermore, newly emerging pollutants like personal care products and
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and industrial and household chemicals, and
changing climate patterns represent a new water quality challenge, with still
unknown long-term impacts on human health and ecosystems.
11. Water quality issues in agriculture and industry?
Farms discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, drug residues,
sediments and saline drainage into water bodies. Improperly managed
agricultural activities may impact surface water by contributing nutrients,
pesticides, sediment, and bacteria, or by altering stream flow. Fertilizer and
pesticide use, tillage, irrigation, and tile drainage can affect water quality and
hydrology.
Industry is a huge source of water pollution, it produces pollutants that are
extremely harmful to people and the environment. Pollutants from industrial
sources include: Asbestos, Lead, Mercury, Nitrates, Phosphates, Sulphur,
Viscous oils and petrochemicals.
12. Define Globalization?
Globalization is the spread of products, technology, information, and jobs across
national borders and cultures. In economic terms, it describes an interdependence
of nations around the globe fostered through free trade. It can raise the standard
of living improving access to goods and services. Globalization is a social,
cultural, political, and legal phenomenon.
T.M.4  Environment, and, Agriculture

13. How Globalization impact agriculture?

 Competition from global brands due to opening of sector.
 Prices in global markets able to impact local prices e.g.- sugar industry
 GM crops issues
 Patenting of local products by multinational brands e.g.- Jamun, Neem,
Turmeric
 Cash crop demand increase farmer focus on these crops. But demand and
price of these crops may fluctuate. This has major implication when farmer
deviate from food crops. This have issues for countries food security.
 Globalisation has indirectly led to industrial growth. This needs land and
resultantly increase in displacement of farmers.
14. Illustrate the linkage between the environment and agriculture?
Interaction between environment and agriculture is based on following
indicators:
 Soil quality (sustainability concerns)
 Water quality and quantity (pollution concerns)
 Air quality (pollution concerns)
 Biodiversity (conservation concerns)
 Landscape (amenity concerns)
 Food safety and animal welfare concerns
15. Is agriculture bad for environment?
Fertilizers and animal manure, which are both rich in nitrogen and phosphorus,
are the primary sources of nutrient pollution from agricultural sources. Livestock
farming has a vast environmental footprint. It contributes to land and water
degradation, biodiversity loss, acid rain, coral reef degeneration and
deforestation. Nowhere is this impact more apparent than climate change –
livestock farming contributes 18% of human produced greenhouse gas emissions
worldwide.
16. What environmental problems arise from food production?
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.5 

Agriculture is the single largest contributor of ammonia pollution as well as

emitting other nitrogen compounds. There are a number of important issues in
agricultural food production and consumption that have significant impacts on
the environment and human health such as soil bio diversity, desertification,
water use and water pollution, energy, climate change, chemicals, food safety
and biotechnology.
17. Explain briefly on Agricultural pollution?
There are two main sources of agricultural pollution: the non-point source and
point source pollution. The common biotic causes of agricultural pollution
include bio-pesticides, invasive species, and biological pest control among
others. Some of the most common abiotic causes of pollution include pesticides,
fertilizers, and heavy metals among others.
18. What are the social and cultural barriers to agricultural change?
Although cultures and social structures are always changing, the process is often
slow. The features of society and culture that may act as barriers to change in
agriculture are; Respect for tradition, Belief in one's own culture, Pride and
dignity, Relative values, Responsibilities and social obligations, Traditional
ceremonies.
19. What are Millennium Development Goals framed by UNESCO?
The following Millennium Development Goals:
 To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
 To achieve universal primary education
 To promote gender equality and empower women
 To reduce child mortality
 To improve maternal health
 To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
 To ensure environmental sustainability
 To develop a global partnership for development
20. What are Sustainable Development Goals with special reference to
environment and agriculture?
The following are the Sustainable Development Goals:
T.M.6  Environment, and, Agriculture

 Good Health and Well-being

 Clean Water and Sanitation
 Affordable and Clean Energy
 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
 Sustainable cities and communities
 Responsible consumption and production
 Climate Action
 Life below water
 Life on land
21. What are the impacts of climate change on agriculture?
Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect
food quality. For example, projected increases in temperatures, changes in
precipitation patterns, changes in extreme weather events, and reductions in
water availability may all result in reduced agricultural productivity.
22. What are the effects of environmental change on agriculture, nutrition food
and health?
The following are the effects:
 Change in precipitation patterns affecting agricultural productivity,
 Salinization is major threat to irrigation water quality,
 The important water quality threat is the occurrence of excessive nutrients in
irrigation water, notably nitrogen.
 Clinical health outcomes are difficult to measure, anthropometric indicators,
such as height-for-age, weight-for-height and biomarkers, including
cholesterol level, blood pressure and blood glucose, can be used for
modelling the health implications.
23. Write a short note on Agroecosystem Management services?
The principal objective of ecosystem management is the efficient maintenance
and ethical use of natural resources.It is a multifaceted and holistic approach
which requires a significant change in how the natural and human environments
are identified.Several approaches to effective ecosystem management engage
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.7 

conservation efforts at both local and landscape levels and involve: adaptive
management, natural resource management, strategic management, and
command and control management.
24. What are Agro ecosystems?
Agroecosystem ecology is a multidisciplinary science that involves microbial,
plant and animal ecologists, as well as those that work in above- and below-
ground systems in both agricultural and natural/semi-natural contexts.An
agroecosystem is created when human manipulation and alteration of an
ecosystem take place for the purpose of establishing agricultural production. This
introduces several changes in the structure and function of the natural ecosystem
and resulting changes in a number of key system-level qualities.

PART B – C306.1
0. Explain in detail the term Globalization and their impacts on Agriculture?
1. Give a brief account on issues in maintaining quality of water?
2. Explain in detail the land use pattern and their impacts on biodiversity?
3. Explain in detail the Agro-ecosystem Management Services, their principles?
4. Explain briefly the social and cultural barriers to agricultural change?
5. What are the challenges faced in Agro-ecosystem Management?
6. How land use and landscape pattern changing the agriculture and
environment?
7. How can small farmers adapt to climate change?
8. Explain the following terms:
a) Biodiversity
b) Land classification
c) Linkage between agriculture and environment
d) Water quality indices
PART C– C306.1
 T.M.8  Environment, and, Agriculture

0. How land use and land cover pattern variation is determined using satellite
imagery?
1. How are we supposed to build upon the agricultural development pathways
and technologies?
2. What are the interactions of socioeconomic components of a farming system
that can reflect farm productivity & sustainability?
3. Can you explain the meaning of Agricultural research?

UNIT II
PART A - C306.2
0. List out the Plans that are development in Irrigation and Watersheds.
a) Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP)
b) Command Area Development and Water Management Programme
(CADWM)
c) Bharat Nirman
1. Briefly explain the Irrigation Development at Time of Independence
Irrigation development in India was taken up in a big way after independence
through major, medium and minor irrigation schemes. The irrigation potential
has gone up from 22.6 Mha (9.76 Mha through Major and Medium and 12.84
Mha through Minor) prior to Plan period to 93.95 Mha by the end of IX Plan and
further to 97.15 Mha (38.87 Mha through Major & Medium and 58.28 Mha
through Minor) up to March 2004 against the Ultimate Irrigation Potential of
139.91 Mha (58.49 Mha through Major & Medium and 81.42 Mha through
Minor). This development of irrigation facilities has largely contributed to
country’s self-sufficiency in food grains which has gone up from 51 Million tons
in 1950 to 210 million tons in 2000. Additional Irrigation Potential of 10.50 Mha
(6.5 through Major and Medium and 4.00 Mha. through Minor) is planned to be
created during the X Plan totalling to 104.45 Mha by the end of the Xth Plan
(MoWR, 2007).
2. Write a short note on Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP)
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.9 

AIBP was launched during 1996-97 to provide loan assistance to the states to
complete some of the incomplete major/medium irrigation projects, which were
in an advanced stage of completion. The criteria for AIBP was further relaxed
from April 2005 to include minor irrigation schemes of non-special category
States with potential of more than 100 ha with preference to Tribal Areas and
drought-prone areas. After commencement of this programme 50 major/medium
and 3480 Surface minor irrigation schemes have been completed. An additional
irrigation potential for 3.25 million hectare has been created through
major/medium irrigation projects up to March 2005 and an irrigation potential of
123,000 hectare has been created through surface minor irrigation schemes up to
March 2006 (GoI, 2006).
3. Write a short note onCommand Area Development and Water Management
Programme
CADWM Programme was launched in 1974-75 with the objective of bridging
the gap between irrigation potential created and that utilized through efficient
utilization of created irrigation potential. The other aim was optimizing
agricultural production from irrigated lands on a sustainable basis. The CAD
programme was initiated with 60 major and medium irrigation projects. So far
310 irrigation projects with a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about 28.45
Mha have been included under the programme, out of which 133 projects are
currently under implementation (GOI, 2005).
4. Brief about Bharat Nirman
Under the irrigation component of Bharat Nirman, the target of creation of
additional irrigation potential of 10 M ha in 4 years (2005-06 to 2008-09) is
planned to be meet largely through expeditious completion of identified ongoing
major and medium irrigation projects. Irrigation potential of 42 lakh hectare is
planned to be created by expeditiously completing such on-going major and
medium projects (GOI, 2005).
5. Write short note on UIP, IPCand IPU.
Ultimate Irrigation Potential (UIP): This term refers to the gross area that could
be irrigated theoretically if all available land and water resources would be used
for irrigation.
 T.M.10  Environment, and, Agriculture

Irrigation Potential Created (IPC): This term refers to the total gross area
proposed to be irrigated under different crops during a year by a scheme. The
area proposed to be irrigated under more than one crop during the same year is
counted as many times as the number of crops grown and irrigated.
Irrigation Potential Utilized (IPU): This term is defined as the gross area actually
irrigated during the reference year out of the gross proposed area to be irrigated
by the scheme.
6. List out the Causes for gap in Irrigation potential Created and Utilized.
 Measurement Problems
 Design Problems
7. Define Watershed
A watershed is an entire river system—an area drained by a river and its
tributaries. It is sometimes called a drainage basin.It is defined as, “any portion of
the earth's surface within a physical boundary defined by topographic slopes that
divert all runoff to the same drainage outlet.” This definition permits the
selection of any drainage outlet desired. One can move the drainage outlet up the
drainage system or down the drainage system to any location of interest (makes
possible the sub-basin studies).
8. List out the Classification of Watersheds.
Classification of Watersheds by Size
Large Watersheds
Small Watersheds
Classification of Watersheds by Land Use
1) Urban watersheds: urban hydrology
2) Agricultural watersheds: agricultural hydrology
3) Forest watersheds: forest hydrology
4) Mountainous watersheds: mountain hydrology
5) Desert watersheds: desert hydrology
6) Coastal watersheds: coastal hydrology
7) Wetland/marsh watersheds: wetland hydrology
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.11 

9. Elaborate the Classification of Watersheds by Size

Three types of watershed are distinguished according to size:
 Small size: < 250 km2
 Medium size: between 250 km2- 2500 km2
 Large: >250 km2
10. List out the Watershed Characteristics
Physical and Geomorphologic Characteristics associated with Watersheds. The
principal watershed characteristics are:
Basin Area (ii) Basin Slope (iii) Basin Shape (iv) Basin Length
11. Write a short notes on Various types of agricultural operations performed on a
farm.
Various types of agricultural operations performed on a farm can be broadly
classified as:
 Tractive work such as seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and
transportation, andStationary work like silage cutting, feed grinding,
threshing, winnowing and lifting of irrigation water.
 These operations are performed by different sources of power namely,
human, animal, stationary engine, tractor, power tiller, electricity, solar and
wind.
 For doing these operations different types of power available is classified as:
Human power, Animal power, Mechanical power, Electrical power and
Wind power.
12. Write a short note on Agricultural and Farm Mechanization.
Agricultural Mechanization involves the design, manufacture, distribution, use
and servicing of all types of agricultural tools, equipment and machines. It
includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical with special
emphasis on mechanical (tractive power).
Farm Mechanization is technically equivalent to agricultural mechanization but
refers to only those activities normally occurring inside the boundaries of the
farm unit or at the farm unit level (example: village, community, co-operatives
etc).
T.M.12  Environment, and, Agriculture

13. Write down the Scope Of Mechanization

 It is quite true that the farmers of developing countries have the lowest
earnings per capita because of the low yield per hectare they get from their
land holdings.
 One of the few important means of increasing farm production per hectare is
to mechanize it. Mechanization may have to be done at various levels.
14. Briefly explain the term Farm Mechanization and its scope.
 Definition: Farm mechanization is the application of engineering and
technology in agricultural operations, to do a job in a better way to improve
productivity. This includes development application and management of all
mechanical aids for field production, water control, material handling,
storing and processing.
Scope of Farm Mechanization:
 Improved irrigation facility in the country.
 Introduction of high yielding varieties of seeds.
 Introduction of high dose of fertilizers and pesticides for different crops.
 Introduction of new crops in different parts of the country.ultiple cropping
system and intensive cultivation followed in different parts of the country.
15. List out the benefits and limitations of Farm Mechanization
Benefits of Farm Mechanization: There are various benefits of farm
mechanization:
1) Timeliness of operation 2) Precision of operation 3) Improvement of work
environment 4) Enhancement of safety
Limiting Factors in Farm Mechanization: There are various limitations in
adopting farm mechanization:
1) Small and fragmented land holdings. 2) Less investing capacity of farmers. 3)
Agricultural labour is easily available. 4) Adequate draught animals are available
in the country. Research organization and manufacturers.
16. List out the Selection Criteria for The Machines used in Farm Mechanization
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.13 

Trade mark ,Model,Repair facilities, Availability of spare parts, Design features,

Ease of operation, Ease of adjustment, Quick change of units, Manoeuvrability,
Human comfort, Tillage, Soil Crust
17. Define Tillage and Soil Crust
Tillage: It is the mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable condition
for crop production. It breaks the compact surface of earth to certain depth and
loosens the soil mass so that roots of the crop penetrate and spread into the soil.
These include ploughing, harrowing, mechanical destruction of weeds and
breaking of soil crust.
Soil Crust: After sowing, if it rains the top layer of soil becomes so hard that seed
is unable to germinate. This strong or hard top soil is called soil crust.
18. Write down the Objectives of Tillage
 To control weeds or to remove unwanted crop plants (thinning)
 To manage plant residues, thorough mixing of trash will add humus and
fertility of soil, while retention of trash on surface reduces erosion
 To minimize soil erosion by following such practices as contour tillage,
listing and proper placement of trash
 To establish specific surface configurations for planting, irrigating, drainage,
harvesting operation etc.
 To incorporate and mix fertilizers, pesticides or soil amendments into the
soil
19. Write down the Classification and Types of Tillage.
Classification of Tillage: (a) Primary Tillage (b) Secondary Tillage
Types of Tillage: (i) Minimum Tillage (ii) No- Tillage (iii) Strip Tillage (iv)
Rotary Tillage (v) Stubble-Mulch Tillage (vi) Combined Tillage
20. Wrote short note on Ploughing
Ploughing of a field by casting or gathering alone is normally uneconomical. The
following are a few important methods used in tractor ploughing.
i) Continuous ploughing method and
ii) Round and round ploughing
Ploughing System
T.M.14  Environment, and, Agriculture

Normal Ploughing: It is the ploughing up to a depth of about 15 cm.

Contour Ploughing: It is the method of ploughing in which the soil broken and
turned along the contours.
21. List out the Methods of ploughing.
In order to provide furrows at all times on the right hand side of the plough two
method of working are used a) Gathering b) Casting.
a) Gathering - Whenever a plough works round a strip of ploughed land, it is
said to be gathering
b) Casting - Whenever a plough works round a strip of un-ploughed land, it is
said to be casting
22. What is Soil Erosion?
Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, one form of soil
degradation. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively
unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing a serious loss of topsoil.
23. What is soil deposition?
Deposition is the process that follows erosion. Erosion is the removal of particles
(rock, sediment etc.) from a landscape, usually due to rain or wind. Deposition
begins when erosion stops; the moving particles fall out of the water or wind and
settle on a new surface. This is deposition.
24. What causes Soil Deposition?
The overall cause for deposition is erosion, since the particles need to be moving
in order to stop. However, there has to be something that causes the erosion to
stop and the deposition to begin. This transition is caused by a change in the
agent of transport. Water can slow or evaporate, allowing sediment to stop being
carried along. Wind can die down and release soil. Ice can melt and release its
hold. Any such change begins the process of deposition.
25. Deposition depends on Erosion, Justify?
Erosion can be a very destructive force, but together with deposition, it can also
be a force of creation. These two processes are responsible for the creation of
new landscapes, including hills, valleys and coastlines. Though erosion can alter
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.15 

an area, the affected parts are not destroyed but simply moved. Deposition allows
these parts to settle elsewhere.
26. What are the solution of Agricultural drainage problems?
 Source control: on-farm improvements in irrigation to reduce the amount of
applied water, therefore reducing drainage water.
 Drainage reuse: reusing drainage water to irrigate increasingly salt-tolerant
plants such as cotton, eucalyptus, forage crops, etc.
 Evaporation systems: disposing of residual drainage water in evaporation
ponds.
 Protection, restoration and water supplies for fish and wildlife habitat:
providing fresh water to substitute for drainage-contaminated supplies,
protecting and restoring contaminated fisheries and wildlife habitat.
27. What is Urban Sprawl?
Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl mainly refers to the unrestricted growth in
many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large
expanses of land, with little concern for urban planning. In addition to describing
a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and
environmental consequences associated with this development.
PART B - C306.2
0. Write a short note on the following:
a) Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP)
b) Command Area Development and Water Management Programme
(CADWM)
c) Bharat Nirman
1. Elaborate the Irrigation Potential Created and Utilized also its causes.
2. Define Watershed and brief about its types/classification.
3. Explain in detail about Farm Mechanization and its Selection Criteria for The
Machines
4. Write a short note on the following:
Classification of Tillage
 T.M.16  Environment, and, Agriculture

Types of Tillage
5. Explain about Mould board plough and Plough accessories
6. Brief the term disc plough and its types
7. What is Soil Erosion? Enumerate its cause and its effect?
8. Compare Soil Erosion with aspect to the various types of Irrigation?
9. What are the consequences of the Soil deposition and how it can be prevented?
10. What might the consequences of an efficient agricultural drainage system and
its downstream impacts.
PART C - C306.2
0. Explain in detail about the Evolution of Irrigation Development in India.
1. Brief about Sources Of Farm Power And its Mechanization
2. Write a short note on the following:
a) Rotary tiller b) Chisel plough c) Sub-Soil plough
3. Explain Agriculture versus urban growth from your point of view?
4. Explain briefly about efficient agricultural drainage system practiced in
developing countries like India.

UNIT - III
PART A - C306.3
0. Define Global warming
As a consequence of the greenhouse effect, the global mean temperature of the
Earth increases. Such increase in temperature continues over a long period of
time and is the main cause of extensive warming of the planet and hence termed
as ‘Global Warming’.
1. What is mean by greenhouse effect?
The greenhouse effect is defined as when the Earth's atmosphere becomes thick
with gases and substances which trap the sun's radiation, making the Earth
warmer. An example of the greenhouse effect is global warming.
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.17 

2. List out the Major Greenhouse Gases.

The major greenhouse gases traced till date include Carbon Dioxide, Methane,
Nitrous Oxide, Per Fluorocarbons, Chlorofluorocarbons, Hydrofluorocarbons,
etc.
3. Brief about Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
These are synthetic compounds having industrial origin and had huge usage as
refrigerant coolants. At present their production and release is highly regulated
by international protocol and national legislations as it has been scientifically
proved that chlorofluorocarbons make significant contributions in damaging the
ozone layer of the atmosphere thereby leading to skin cancer.
4. What are the Causes Responsible for Global Warming?
Global warming is caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels, and
farming.
5. What is Changing in Environment?
 Change will continue through this century and beyond
 Temperatures will continue to rise
 Frost-free season (and growing season) will lengthen:
 Changes in precipitation patterns
 More droughts and heat waves
 Hurricanes will become stronger and more intense
 Sea level will rise 1-4 feet by 2100.
6. What is mean by Ecosystem Changes?
Natural or human-induced factors that directly or indirectly cause a change in an
ecosystem are referred to as drivers.
 A direct driver, such as habitat change, explicitly influences ecosystem
processes.
 An indirect driver, such as human population change, operates more
diffusely, by altering one or more direct drivers.
7. List out the types of Ecosystem Changes.
 Marine Ecosystem
 T.M.18  Environment, and, Agriculture

 Freshwater Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
8. Define Environmental Changes
The capacity of ecosystems to provide benefits to humans, that is to provide
ecosystem services, derives from environmental cycles of water, nitrogen,
carbon, and phosphorus.
9. Brief the term Biodiversity Changes
 The distribution of species on Earth is becoming more homogenous. By
homogenous, we mean that the differences between the set of species at one
location on the planet and the set at another location are, on average,
diminishing.
 The natural process of evolution, and particularly the combination of natural
barriers to migration and local adaptation of species, led to significant
differences in the types of species in ecosystems in different regions.
 But these regional differences in the planet’s biota are now being
diminished.
10. What are the Most Critical Factors Causing Ecosystem Changes?
The most important direct drivers of change have been:
 In terrestrial ecosystems:-Land cover change
 In marine ecosystems: -Fishing
 In freshwater ecosystems: -Water regime changes
Five Major Indirect Drivers That Influence Ecosystems And Ecosystem Services
Are:
 Population change
 Change in Economic activity
 Socio-Political factors
 Cultural and Religious factors: In this context, culture can be defined as the
values,
 Science and Technology
11. Write a short note on Water cycle.
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.19 

Water cycle is defined as the way that water moves between being water vapor to
liquid water and then back to water vapor. An example of water cycle is when
water evaporates from oceans and then returns to the land in the form of rain.
12. Define Carbon cycle.
The carbon cycle is the process in which carbon travels from the atmosphere into
organisms and the Earth and then back into the atmosphere. Plants take carbon
dioxide from the air and use it to make food. Animals then eat the food and
carbon is stored in their bodies or released as CO2 through respiration.
13. Explain the term Nitrogen cycle.
A continuous series of natural processes by which nitrogen passes successively
from air to soil to organisms and back to air or soil involving principally nitrogen
fixation, nitrification, decay, and denitrification.
14. DefinePhosphorus cycle.
The phosphorus cycle is the process by which phosphorus moves through the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Phosphorus is essential for plant and
animal growth, as well as the health of microbes inhabiting the soil, but is
gradually depleted from the soil over time.
15. Define Virtual water and its types.
It is the volume of water required for making a product and the water used in the
production chain. Virtual water is comprised of 3 different components:
 Green water
 Blue water
 Grey water
16. Briefly explain the types of Virtual water.
Different kinds of ‘coloured water’ (green, blue, grey and black-which is not
virtual water) are classified based on where they are found in nature or the level
of contamination of wastewater.
Green water is the soil moisture from precipitation, used by plants via
transpiration. It is part of the evapotranspiration flux in the hydrologic cycle.
Blue water is the freshwater: surface and groundwater. It is stored in lakes,
streams groundwater, glaciers and snow.
T.M.20  Environment, and, Agriculture

Grey water is polluted water which was not in contact with faecal matter .
Grey water is the product water of domestic activities: bathing, laundry and
dishwashing or polluted water due to pesticides in agriculture and nutrients from
fertilizers.
17. Write a short note on uses of Grey water.
It can be recycled and reused, not for drinking, but for irrigation. Since it was not
in contact with human waste, it can be used for watering crops and other plants
and is safely reabsorbed into the ground. Grey water contains soap and fat
particles, even hair. If the chemicals content is not too high, majority of plants
are able to handle it. However, if grey water is to be used for irrigation it is
highly advised that what goes down the drain is heavily regulated.
18. Define Black water.
It is not virtual water and it is sewage water flushed in the toilets. It was in
contact with faecal matter containing harmful bacteria and disease-causing
pathogens. Black water cannot be reused without risking contamination since the
waste doesn’t decompose fats enough.
19. What are the different processes involved in Changing Blue-Green-Grey Water
Cycles?
Precipitation, Canopy interception, Snowmelt, Runoff, Infiltration, Subsurface
flow, Evaporation, Sublimation, Deposition, Advection, Condensation,
Transpiration, Percolation, Plate tectonics
20. What are the potential ecological benefits of greywater recycling.
 Reduced freshwater extraction from rivers and aquifers
 Less impact from septic tank and treatment plant infrastructure
 Reduced energy use and chemical pollution from treatment
 Groundwater recharge
 Reclamation of nutrients
 Greater quality of surface and ground water when preserved by the natural
purification in the top layers of soil than generated water treatment
processes.
21. Brief the term Water Scarcity.
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.21 

Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet water demand. It is
manifested by partial or no satisfaction of expressed demand, economic
competition for water quantity or quality, disputes between users, irreversible
depletion of groundwater, and negative impacts on the environment. The essence
of global water scarcity is the geographic and temporal mismatch between
freshwater demand and availability.
22. What are the main Causes for the Water Scarcity.
a) Water pollution b) Agriculture c) Population growth
23. List out the Effects and Severe Consequences of Water Shortages
 Water restrictions imposed across the board
 Increased fire hazards
 Polluted river beds and lakes harm ecosystems, including flora and fauna
 Water tariffs and/or prices increased across the board
 Particularly in drought-stricken areas, farmers unable to produce vital crops
 Global increase in temperatures further exacerbates water shortages.
24. Define Desertification.
Desertification is defined as a process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and
sub-humid areas due to various factors including climatic variations and human
activities. Or, to put it in another way, desertification results in persistent
degradation of dryland and fragile ecosystems due to man-made activities and
variations in climate.
25. List out the causes of Desertification.
 Overgrazing
 Deforestation
 Farming Practices
 Urbanization and other types of land development
 Climate Change
 Stripping the land of resources
 Natural Disasters
26. Enlist the Effects of Desertification
 T.M.22  Environment, and, Agriculture

 Farming becomes next to impossible

 Hunger
 Flooding
 Poor Water Quality
 Overpopulation
 Poverty
27. List out the Main Causes of Water Shortage
 Excess and unnecessary demands outstrip available and scarce resources.
 Increased pollution due to excessive and unsustainable human consumption.
 There is overuse of water across the board and in all forms of industrial
processes.
 Aquifers over-pumped and not re-charging quickly enough.

PART B - C306.3
0. Define Global Warming and its relationship with climatic changes.
1. Explain detail about the Causes Responsible and Impacts of Global Warming.
2. Enumerate the Ecosystem Changes and its types.
3. What are the most Critical Factors Causing Ecosystem Changes?
4. Explain Changing Blue-Green-Grey Water Cycles and its processes.
5. Explain the term Water Scarcity and its causes.

PART C - C306.3
0. Explain in detail about Effects and Severe Consequences of Water Shortages.
1. Explain in detail about the Desertification its causes and effect on
environment and agriculture.
2. Explain in detail about the Major Greenhouse Gases.
3. With the case study explain the current situation of water shortages in
Chennai city.
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.23 

UNIT – IV
PART A - C306.4
0. What is Ecological diversity?
Ecosystem diversity is the variety of different ecosystems within an area. It is not
the diversity of species within an ecosystem. Ecosystem diversity deals with the
variations in ecosystems within a geographical location and its overall impact on
human existence and the environment. Ecological diversity includes the variation
in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
1. What are the three different types of ecological diversity?
Biodiversity includes three main types: diversity within species (genetic
diversity), between species (species diversity) and between ecosystems
(ecosystem diversity).
2. What is Wildlife Conservation?
Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting animal species and their
habitats. It is achieved partially through legislation such as the Endangered
Species Act, the establishment and protection of public lands, and responsible
public practices that conserve wild animal populations.
3. What is called as Agricultural Conservation?
Conservation has become critical because the global population has increased
over the years and more food needs to be produced every year. Sometimes
referred to as "agricultural environmental management".
Conservation Agriculture is a farming system that promotes maintenance of a
permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance (i.e. no tillage), and
diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological
processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased
water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production.
4. What are the principles of Conservation Agriculture?
“A concept for resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to
achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels
 T.M.24  Environment, and, Agriculture

while concurrently conserving the environment”. The three principles of

Conservation Agriculture are;
 Minimum mechanical soil disturbance
 Permanent soil organic cover
 Species diversification
5. Mention the types of Ecosystem available?
An ecosystem consists of all the living and non-living things in a specific natural
setting. Plants, animals, insects, microorganisms, rocks, soil, water and sunlight
are major components of many ecosystems. All types of ecosystems fall into one
of two categories: terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystems are land-based,
while aquatic are water-based. The major types of ecosystems are forests,
grasslands, deserts, tundra, freshwater and marine.
6. What is Agro forestry?
Agroforestry is the interaction of agriculture and trees, including the agricultural
use of trees. This includes trees on farms and in agricultural landscapes, farming
in forests and along forest margins and tree-crop production, including cocoa,
coffee, rubber and oil palm. Interactions between trees and other components of
agriculture may be important at a range of scales: in fields (where trees and crops
are grown together), on farms (where trees may provide fodder for livestock,
fuel, food, shelter or income from products including timber) and landscapes
(where agricultural and forest land uses combine in determining the provision of
ecosystem services).
7. What are GM crops?
Genetically modified crops (GM crops or biotech crops) are plants used in
agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering
methods. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does
not occur naturally in the species. Farmers have widely adopted GM technology.
One of the objectives for developing plants based on GM organisms is to
improve crop protection.
8. Why are they named as GM crops?
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms (i.e. plants,
animals or microorganisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.25 

altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural
recombination. The technology is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene
technology”, sometimes also “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic
engineering”. It allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one
organism into another, also between nonrelated species. Foods produced from or
using GM organisms are often referred to as GM foods.
9. Mention the types of GM crops?
Half of all GM crops planted were genetically modified soybeans, either for
herbicide tolerance or insect resistance and stacked traits.
10. What is called as Pollination crisis?
The notion that a decline in pollinators may threaten the human food supply --
producing a situation that has been referred to as a "pollination crisis". Over 75%
of the planet's flowering plants depend on animal pollinators in order to
reproduce and the majority of those animal pollinators are insects. The term
pollinator decline refers to the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal
pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide beginning at the end of the 20th
century, and continuing into the present. Pollinators, which are necessary for
75% of food crops, are declining globally in both abundance and diversity. Bees,
in particular, are thought to be necessary for the fertilization of up to 90% of the
world's 107 most important human food crops.
11. How is a safety assessment of GM food conducted?
The safety assessment of GM foods generally focuses on:
(a) Direct health effects (toxicity),
(b) Potential to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity);
(c) Specific components thought to have nutritional or toxic properties;
(d) The stability of the inserted gene;
(e) Nutritional effects associated with genetic modification; and
(f) Any unintended effects which could result from the gene insertion.
12. What are the principles of ecological farming?
Ecological farming, also called organic or biological, is based on the premise that
the crops take advantage of natural resources to, for example, fight pests,
T.M.26  Environment, and, Agriculture

maintain or increase soil fertility, etc., without resorting to synthetic chemicals

such as fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, and without using any organisms that
have been genetically modified. This way, more natural, healthy and nutritious
foods are obtained
13. What is the importance of ecological farming?
 Ecological products are healthier
 Ecological foods don’t contain synthetic additives
 Respecting the environment
 Rotation of crops as a prerequisite for efficient use of farm resources;
 Prohibition of the use of genetically modified organisms;
 Encouraging a diverse ecosystem to maintain soil fertility and control pests
by natural means
 Improving soil composition
14. What are the types of ecological farming?
There are several types of ecological farming that are based on balance and
respect for the environment, such as biodynamic agriculture, natural agriculture
or Fukuoka, synergistic agriculture, messianic agriculture, permaculture, etc.
15. What is called as natural farming?
Natural farming also called as Fukuoka farming is based on the principles
developed by Masanobu Fukuoka. No conventional farming techniques are used,
instead farmers work with natural cycles and processes of the natural world.
Fukuoka farming doesn’t use fertilizers and pesticides it promotes no-till and is
against weeding. One particularity of this type of farming is the use of clay seed
balls, an ancient technique used to mix crops seeds with humus or compost and
roll them into clay balls.
16. What is referred to as forest fragmentation?
Forest fragmentation is the breaking of large, continuous, forested areas into
smaller pieces of forest; typically these pieces are separated by roads, agriculture,
utility corridors, subdivisions, or other human development. Over time, those
non-forest patches tend to multiply and expand until eventually the forest is
reduced to scattered, disconnected forest islands.
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.27 

17. Write a note on effects of forest fragmentation?

Forest fragmented by human infrastructure development is typically more
damaging to forest health and habitat quality, usually with permanent negative
effects. The effects of fragmentation are well documented in all forested regions
of the planet. In general, by reducing forest health and degrading habitat,
fragmentation leads to loss of biodiversity, increases in invasive plants, pests, and
pathogens, and reduction in water quality. These wide-ranging effects all stem
from two basic problems: fragmentation increases isolation between forest
communities and it increases so-called edge effects.
18. Write a note on Agricultural biotechnology concerns?
Technology has played an active role in these improvements in genetics,
nutrition, disease prevention and pest control. While there are many promising
applications of biotechnology in agriculture are establishing. It merely provides
an additional approach from Changing animal nutrition, selective breeding,
administering hormones or (eventually) gene transfer. Similarly, new plants can
be produced through selective breeding and cell culture as well as by genetic
engineering techniques for extending the range of new traits that may be
introduced into a plant from other species.
19. What are the impacts of Genetically Modified on the environment?
Assessing the environmental impact of GM crops is often difficult as many
factors are considered as follows:
 Toxicity is a huge issue surrounding chemical pesticides and herbicides,
used commonly with GMOs
 Evidence also suggests that small genetic changes in plants may produce
even larger ecological shifts, meaning that there is potential for GMO´s to
become persistent and weedy in agricultural conditions
20. How insects and agriculture are connected?
The global challenge is to secure high and quality yields and to make agricultural
production environmentally compatible. Insects have been hugely successful in
terms of both species richness and abundance. The most important pollinators are
bees, beetles, butterflies and flies. Insects therefore contribute to plant diversity
and affects animal biodiversity through pollination indirectly.
 T.M.28  Environment, and, Agriculture

21. Define pollination?

Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a
flower to the female stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants,
is to create offspring for the next generation. We call animals or insects that
transfer pollen from plant to plant “pollinators”.
22. What is sustainable agriculture?
Sustainable agriculture can be defined in many ways, but ultimately it seeks to
sustain farmers, resources and communities by promoting farming practices and
methods that are profitable, environmentally sound and good for communities.
Sustainable agriculture fits into and complements modern agriculture.

23. What is called as Agro ecosystem?

The complex and interconnected linkages between agriculture, biodiversity and
ecosystem management. Agroecosystems are conceptually fairly similar to
managed forests and grasslands, and whether extensively cattle-grazed natural
grasslands should be included under the category of agroecosystems.

PART B– C306.4
0. Write a brief note on Genetically Modified crops?
1. What are the impacts on the environment due to GM food cropsproduction?
2. Explain the pros and cons of Agricultural Biotechnology concerns?
3. What are the ethical issues in Agricultural Biotechnology?
4. How forest fragmentation is affecting the agriculture lands?
5. Define ecological farming? Explain the importance of ecological farming in
the phase of sustainability?
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.29 

6. What is role of insects in the agriculture with special concern to pollination

and soil fertility?
7. Are we aware of what is going on for GMs crops in agriculture?
8. What are the latest achievements and most important issues regarding the
sustainable agriculture in dry and semi-dry farming systems?

PART C – C306.4
0. Why are pollinators decreasing? Explain the pollination crisis hitting Indian
farmers?
1. Guidelines for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods derived from
recombinant DNA plants?
2. Could robotic pollinators support the pollination crisis?

UNIT - V
PART A - C306.5
0. What is sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture can provide high food, feed, or energy crop yields
without destroying the environment or undermining current productivity.
Farmers who take a sustainable approach substitute knowledge for pesticides and
fertilizers. They use crop rotations and other adjustments of the agricultural
system to solve problems. For example, soil enrichment produces healthy plants
that resist disease, cover crops retard erosion and control weeds, and natural
predators help control pests. The result is that farmers are able to minimize their
use of pesticides and fertilizers, thereby saving money and protecting the
environment.
1. What is the definition of sustainable agriculture?
Sustainable agriculture seeks to assure profitability by maximizing and recycling
on-farm resources in production systems that maintain or improve the
productivity of land and water resources while protecting the environment.
Sustainable strategies encourage the farmer to produce diversified value-added
products through a mutually beneficial relationship with the local community.
 T.M.30  Environment, and, Agriculture

2. How does "organic agriculture" differ from "sustainable agriculture"?

Organic agriculture has strict restrictions as to which, if any, synthetically
compounded chemical pesticides can be used on crops; does not allow the use of
inorganic fertilizers or additives to be used in the soil nor antibiotics to be used in
animal production. Crop fields must be certified chemical-free for three years
before a farmer can market crops as organic. None of these restrictions apply to
sustainable agriculture systems.
3. Who would want to participate in sustainable agriculture?
Anyone interested in trying to cut costs and improve the profitability of farming
though the improved management of on-farm resources. Everyone is welcome to
contribute to the discussion of sustainability and adopt any ideas that may be
deemed worth trying to improve their own operation. There are no requirements
to adhere to a certain standard other than a moral commitment to producing
profitable agricultural products in harmony with the environment in collaboration
with the local community.
4. Does sustainable agriculture employ a more modern approach to farming?
Sustainable agriculture does not mean a return to either the low yields or poor
farmers that characterized the 19th century. Rather, sustainability builds on
current agricultural achievements, adopting a sophisticated approach that can
maintain high yields and farm profits without undermining the resources on
which agriculture depends. Crop rotations work to reduce pest-control costs just
as well with today's high yielding varieties of crops as with yesterday's lower
yielding varieties. Making agriculture sustainable does not mean standing by
watching pests devour crops. It means approaching pest control in a completely
different way using high quality soil, crop rotation, and beneficial insects.
5. Will sustainable agriculture require land set aside for parks and wilderness?
Opponents of sustainable agriculture often claim that sustainable agriculture
produces such low yields that land currently set aside for parks and wilderness
will need to be reclaimed to meet basic food and energy needs. But, sustainable
agriculture is not low-yield agriculture. It is not necessarily less efficient over the
long term than industrial agriculture, so it will not require substantially more land
to produce the same amount of crops. Thus, sustainable agriculture will not
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.31 

require us to convert natural areas to agriculture and will not impact our ability to
set aside land for parks or recreation. Encroachment on parks is simply not a real
concern in this country.
6. Can energy crops be grown sustainable?
If developed in a sustainable way, bio-energy has the potential to produce both
electricity and fuel with fewer risks than those associated with oil, coal, and
nuclear technologies. Bio-energy crops hold great promise to help curb heat-
trapping emissions from other energy sectors that contribute to global climate
change. But a rapid global expansion of bio-energy development could have
unwanted environmental and economic consequences, possibly including
reduced global capacity to produce food, fiber, and industrial materials.
7. Is sustainable agriculture scientific?
Sustainable agriculture is firmly based in science. It uses knowledge of the
complex interactions between crops, pests, and pest predators to avoid the need
for costly technological fixes like pesticides and fertilizers. Such knowledge rests
on research in a number of scientific disciplines, including entomology,
agronomy, and weed science. Scientists in these fields are working together to
understand agriculture.
8. What is Global Environmental Governance?
Global environmental governance (GEG) as the sum of organizations, policy
instruments, financing mechanisms, rules, procedures and norms that regulate the
processes of global environmental protection.
9. Write the objective of the Global Environmental Governance?
(a) to analyze past and current efforts at GEG reform;
(b) to outline a practical overall direction for rationalized GEG in a bottom-up
reform of the international environmental governance system; and
(c) to propose a set of realistic and desirable steps to achieve meaningful reform.
10. Write the six broad concern areas for developing the needs for the projects?
(a) Proliferation of MEAs and fragmentation of GEG
(b) Lack of cooperation and coordination among international organizations
(c) Lack of implementation, enforcement, and effectiveness in GEG
T.M.32  Environment, and, Agriculture

(d) Inefficient use of resources

(e) GEG outside the environmental arena
(f) Non-state actors in a state-centric system
11. Explain the role of Treaty Congestion.
Treaty congestion is a common description of the state of GEG as there are more
than 500 MEAs registered with the UN, including 61 atmosphere-related; 155
biodiversity-related; 179 related to chemicals, hazardous substances and waste;
46 land conventions; and 196 conventions that are broadly related to issues
dealing with water. It is argued that the large number of MEAs creates messiness,
incoherence and confusion in GEG, and incites demands for order and central
decision-making authority.
12. Write the key issues found in Lack of Cooperation and Coordination among
International Organizations?
The four key issues that are often identified within the coordination cooperation
debate are: (a) the overwhelming challenge of coordination both at international
and national levels; (b) the weak status and role of UNEP; (c) the lack of
authoritative science leading international environmental policy; and (d) the
leadership deficit in the GEG.
13. Write the objective proposed by International Institute for Sustainable
Development for global governance?
These objectives are:
 expert leadership;
 positioning science as the authoritative basis of sound environmental policy;
 coherence and reasonable coordination;
 well-managed institutions;
 incorporate environmental concerns and actions within other areas of
international policy & action.
14. Identify the four major obstacles to global environmental governance?
The four obstacles are:
 parallel structures and competition, without a coherent strategy
 contradictions and incompatibilities, without appropriate compromise
Two Marks Questions and Answers T.M.33 

 competition between multiple agreements with incompatible objectives,

regulations and processes
 integrating policy from macro- to micro- scales.
15. Write the recommended measures in GEG?
 MDGs (Millennium Development Goals) and conventions, combining
sustainability and reduction of poverty and equity;
 country-level approach linking global and local scales
 coordination and division of tasks in a multilateral approach that supports
developing countries and improves coordination between donor countries
and institutions
 use of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) in development planning
 transform conflicts into trade offs, synergies and win-win options
16. What is mega farm?
Factory farming or Mega farming is the practice of raising animals in high
density situations to produce the highest output at the lowest possible cost. The
main food products of factory farming are meat, poultry, eggs, and milk.
17. What is Vertical Farm?
A vertical farm grows plants and produce in a vertical orientation, maximizing
the use of the location's square footage. Most often this is achieved through the
use of growing shelves suspended on a wall or fence. Because vertical farming
uses so little space, it is a popular and preferred method for roof-top and other
urban forms of agriculture.
18. What is Water Foot Print?
The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the
total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services
consumed by that individual or community or produced by the business.
Example:
 The production of 1 kilogram of beef requires 16,000 litres of water.
 To produce one cup of coffee we need 140 litres of water.
19. What is regulatory approach?
 T.M.34  Environment, and, Agriculture

The regulatory approach is the most important set of policy instruments.

Regulatory action may restrict the availability of environmentally hazardous
agricultural inputs, or prohibit the use of environmentally damaging production
practices. It can be applied uniformly to all farmers, or may target specific
farming operations or particularly vulnerable production areas.

PART B - C306.5
0. Briefly explain about the salient features of the Global Environment
Governance?
1. Write a brief note on Mega Farming?
2. What is vertical farming? Write its advantage and disadvantage over the
Regular farming?
3. Explain about the vertical farming working?
4. What is Virtual water trade and its impacts on local environment?
5. Explain Sustainable Agriculture and its objective and elements in details?
6. Elaborate the various steps carried out in sustainable agriculture?

PART C - C306.5
0. Explain how water footprint is important in determining the economy of the
developing nations?
1. How to integrate agricultural and environmental policies?
2. Write a short note on Proliferation of MEAs and fragmentation of GEG?
3. How can be we prepare and implement agricultural policies for sustainable
development?