 Transient Stability can be improved by Increasing the system voltage,

Increase in the X/R ratio, Using high speed circuit breakers, Using
Auto Re-closing, employing lightning arresters, high neutral grounding
impedance, single pole switching, quick Automatic Voltage Regulators
(AVRs).

Dynamic Stability:

• Dynamic Stability is the ability of a system to reach its stable condition

after a very small disturbance (disturbance occurs only for 10 to 30
seconds). It is also known as small signal stability.

• It occurs mainly due to the fluctuation in load or generation level.

• Dynamic stability can be improved by using power system stabilizers.

Rotor Dynamics and the Swing Equation

The transient stability of the system can be determined by the help of the swing
equation. It describes the relative motion of the rotor with respect to the stator
field as a function of time.

Let Tm – mechanical torque input

Te – Electromagnetic torque developed in N-m which opposes Tm

Therefore net torque which causes acceleration of the motor or accelerating

torque,

Ta = Tm – Te ……..(1)

When the machine is operating in steady state, Ta = 0, Tm = Te

From the law of mechanics,

If I= moment of inertia, kg-m2

α = d2θ/dt2 = angular acceleration, degree/sec2

θ =angular displacement, degree

Then I. α =Ta i.e

I. d2θ/dt2 = Ta ……..(2)

Since the angular position θ of the rotor is continuously varying with time,
then the value of is θ given by

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 θ = ωt + δ …….(3)

Where, ω = synchronous speed in electrical degree/sec,

δ = Angular displacement between the rotor and reference axis in electrical

degree.

Relation between θ, ω and δ

Swing equation:

Differentiating equation (3)

Again differentiating equation (5),

Substituting equation (6) in equation (2), we have

Multiplying equation (7) by rotor speed ω,

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Where, M= I = Angular momentum

Pm = Tm = mechanical power input,

Pe = Te = Electrical power output

Pa = Accelerating power = difference between input and output power

Equation (9) is known as the swing equation.

Inertia constant: It is defined as the ratio of energy stored in mega joules to

the rating of the machines in MVA.

But Kinetic energy stored by the rotating body is given by

Comparing equation (11) and (12)

Further considerations of the Swing equations

Case-a: Two machine systems (Not swing together or swing non-

coherently)

Consider the equivalent circuit of a two machine system.

Let M1 = Angular momentum of 1st machine

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M2 = Angular momentum of 2nd machine

= Power angle of 1st machine

= Power angle of 1st machine

= Relative angle between two machines

Using the swing equation,

For 1st machine,

For 2nd machine,

We know that relative angle between two machines, i.e., angle between two
rotor axis,

Differentiating equation 21 w.r.to t, we get,

Again differentiating equation (22)

Using equation 19 and 20 in 23 we have,

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Multiplying both sides by

Where,

Similarly,

It is clear from equation 27 that inertia constant of equivalent machine is less

than the inertia constant of individual machines.

Case-b: Two machine systems (Swing together or swing coherently)

Swing equation for 1st machine

Swing equation for 2nd machine

Adding equation (31) and (32), we have

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Where, M = M1 + M2, Pa = Pa1+ Pa2

Similarly, H = H1 + H2

Therefore it is clear that the inertia constant of equivalent machine is the sum
of inertia constant of individual machines.

The Power angle equation (2017)

Power angle curve

It is defined as the variation of steady state real power with power angle for
both generator and motor action for constant values of E, V and Xd.

Consider a synchronous generator having direct axis synchronous reactance Xd

connected to infinite bus through a transmission line having reactance Xt as
shown in the fig. below.

Let

The complex power output of a generator is given by

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But S= P+jQ

Equating the real parts on both side of equation

Equating the imaginary parts on both side of equation

From equation (43) & (45), it is clear that both active and reactive power
depends on Generator voltage,(E), Bus bar voltage, (V), Total reactance, (X) and
Power angle, δ

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From equation (43), By taking δ in X-axis and real power P in Y-axis, a curve is
shown in the fig is obtained. This curve is called power angle curve.

For positive value of , E leads V applies to generator action.

For negative value of , E lags V applies to generator action.

Synchronizing power coefficients (Ps)

Let the generator is working under steady state conditions.

If δ =Power angle, Δδ =increase in power angle by a small amount, then

increase in synchronizing power is given by

Therefore the quantity Ps is known as Synchronizing power coefficient.

Equal area criterion for stability

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The Equal area criterion is a “graphical technique used to examine the
transient stability of the machine systems (one or more than one) with an
infinite bus”.

Here, the stability conditions are stated by equating the two area segments
which is present in the power angle diagram.

The power angle curve is considered which is shown in fig.1. Imagine a system
delivering ‘Pm’ power on an angle of δ0 (fig.2) is working in a steady state. When
a fault occurs; the circuit breakers opened and the real power (Pe) is decreased
to zero. But the Pm will be stable. As a result, accelerating power,

The power differences will result in rate of change of kinetic energy stored
within the rotor masses. Therefore, due to the stable influence of non-zero
accelerating power, the rotor will accelerate. Consequently, the load angle (δ)
will increase.

Now, we can consider an angle δc at which the circuit breaker re-closes. The
power will then come back to the usual operating curve. At this moment, the
electrical power will be higher than the mechanical power. But, the accelerating
power (Pa) will be negative. Therefore, the machine will get decelerate. The load
power angle will still continue to increase because of the inertia in the rotor
masses. This increase in load power angle will stop in due course and rotor of
the machine will start to decelerate or else the synchronization of the system
will get lose.

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If both the area of accelerating power and decelerating power is same i.e. A1 =
A2. Then the system will come back to stable state. This is called equal area
criterion.

Mathematical interpretation of equal area criterion

The Swings equation is given by

Multiplying both sides of the swing equation by 2(dδ/dt), we get

Multiply both side by ‘dt’, we have

Integrating both sides, we have

Where =Load angle

The condition of stability can come when

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occur. Transient stability limit is the maximum flow of power through a
particular point in the power system without loss of stability when large and
sudden disturbances occur. A system can never be operated higher than its
steady state stability limit but it can operate beyond the transient stability
limit.
25. Does reactive power have an effect on stability? Explain.

Long question:
1. Write short notes on “Role of Automatic voltage regulator in improving
stability” (2017)

The automatic voltage regulator is used to regulate the voltage. It takes the
fluctuate voltage and changes them into a constant voltage. The fluctuation in
the voltage mainly occurs due to the variation in load on the supply system.
The variation in voltage damages the equipment of the power system. The
variation in the voltage can be controlled by installing the voltage control
equipment at several places likes near the transformers, generator, feeders,
etc., The voltage regulator is provided in more than one point in the power
system for controlling the voltage variations.

In DC supply system the voltage can be controlled by using over compound

generators in case of feeders of equal length, but in the case of feeders of
different lengths the voltage at the end of each feeder is kept constant using
feeder booster. In AC system the voltage can be controlled by using the various
methods likes booster transformers, induction regulators, shunt condensers,
etc.,

Working Principle of Voltage Regulator

It works on the principle of detection of errors. The output voltage of an AC

generator obtained through a potential transformer and then it is rectified,
filtered and compared with a reference. The difference between the actual
voltage and the reference voltage is known as the error voltage. This error
voltage is amplified by an amplifier and then supplied to the main exciter or
pilot exciter.

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Thus, the amplified error signals control the excitation of the main or pilot
exciter through a buck or a boost action (i.e. controls the fluctuation of the
voltage). Exciter output control leads to the controls of the main alternator
terminal voltage.

Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator

The main functions of an AVR are as follows.

1. It controls the voltage of the system and has the operation of the
machine nearer to the steady state stability.
2. It divides the reactive load between the alternators operating in parallel.
3. The automatic voltage regulators reduce the overvoltages which occur
because of the sudden loss of load on the system.
4. It increases the excitation of the system under fault conditions so that
the maximum synchronising power exists at the time of clearance of the
fault.

When there is a sudden change in load in the alternator, there should be a

change in the excitation system to provide the same voltage under the new load
condition. This can be done by the help of the automatic voltage regulator. The
automatic voltage regulator equipment operates in the exciter field and changes
the exciter output voltage, and the field current. During the violent fluctuation,
the ARV does not give a quick response.

For getting the quick response, the quick acting voltage regulators based on the
overshooting the mark principle are used. In overshoot mark principle, when
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the load increase the excitation of the system also increase. Before the voltage
increase to the value corresponding to the increased excitation, the regulator
reduces the excitation of the proper value.

2. Distinguish between steady-state stability and transient stability of a

power system? How to improve transient stability of a power
system?(2017)
Ans: Refer class notes
3. Derive The Power-Angle Equation. (2017)
Ans: Refer class notes
4. Write short notes on the application of swing equation in the study of
power system stability. (2017)
Ans: Refer class notes

5. Derive the swing equation of a single generator system.

Ans: Refer class notes

6. A 50 Hz, 4 pole turbo generator of rating 20 MVA, 13.2 kV has an

inertia constant of 9 kW-sec/kVA. Find the kinetic energy stored in the
rotor at synchronous speed. Find the acceleration, if the input less the
rotational loss is 26,800 hp and the electric power developed is 16 MW
equal at 115 kW. (2016, 14)
[5]

Solution:
No. of poles, N=4
Rating of Generator, G = 20 MVA
Rated voltage, V = 13.2 KV
Inertia constant, H = 9kW-sec/kVA20MVA
Electric power developed, Pe = 16 MW = 16000 kW
Mechanical power input,

Kinetic energy stored in the rotor at synchronous speed

Accelearating power,

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Again

7. Write short notes on Equal area criterion for power system stability analysis.(2016)
Ans: Refer class note.
8. A power station A consists of two synchronous consists of two
synchronous generators. The generator-1has a rating of 50 MVA, 50 Hz,
1500 rpm and has an inertia constant of 8MJ/MVA. The generator-2 has a
rating of 100MVA, 50 Hz, 3000 rpm and has inertia constant of 4
MJ/MVA.
i. Find the inertia constant for the equivalent generator on a base of
100MVA
ii. Another power station B has 4 generators two each of the above type.
Find the inertia constant for the equivalent generator on a base of
100MVA
iii. If the two power systems are connected through an inter connector,
find the inertia constant for the equivalent generator connected to
infinite bus bar. (2015) [10]
Ans:
Rating of Generatr-1=50MVA, 50Hz, 1500 rpm
Inertia constant = 8 MJ/MVA
Rating of Generator-2= 100MVA, 50Hz, 3000rpm
Inertia constant = 4 MJ/MVA
(i) Base=100 MVA
Inertia constant of generator-1 on a base of 100MVA,

Inertia constant of generator-1 on a base of 100MVA,

Therefore the inertia constant of the equivalent generator is given by

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(ii) Base=100 MVA
Power station B has 4 generators each having inertia constant of 4MJ/ MVA
Therefore the Inertia constant of B is HB = 4 X4 = 16 MJ/MVA
(iii) Inertia constant of equivalent generator is

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