Study of SMES Technology & its Integration to AGC

Introduction:
Power-system stability is a term applied to alternating-current electric power systems,
denoting a condition in which the various synchronous machines of the system remain in
synchronism, or "in step," with each other. Conversely, instability denotes a condition
involving loss of synchronism, or falling out of step."

Fig. 1 Reactance model of a simple power system

Generator, Motor reactance into a single reactance X, we have an electric circuit consisting
of two constant-voltage sources, Eg and Em, connected through Consider the simple power
system of Fig. 1, consisting of a synchronous generator supplying power to a synchronous
motor over a circuit composed of series inductive reactance XL. Each of the synchronous
machines may be represented, at least, by a constant-voltage source in series with a constant
reactance. Thus the generator is by Eg and Xg; and the motor, by Em and Xm upon combining
the machine reactances and the line. Reactance X = XG + XL + XM. It will be shown that the
power transmitted from the generator to the motor depends upon the phase difference of the
two voltages Eg and EM. Since these voltages are generated by the flux produced by the field
windings of the machines, their phase difference is the same as the electrical angle between
the machine rotors.
P=EgEmsin / X

(1)

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The maximum power that can be transmitted in the steady state with the given reactance
X and the given internal voltages Eg and EM . If a large increment of load on the motor is
added suddenly, instead of gradually, the motor may fall out of step even though the new
load does not exceed the steady-state stability limit. The reason is as follows: When the large
increment of load is added to the motor shaft, the mechanical power output of the motor
greatly exceeds the electrical power input, and the deficiency of input is supplied by
decrease of kinetic energy. The motor slows down, and an increase of the displacement
angle and a consequent increase of input results. In accordance with the assumption that the
new load does not exceed the motor slows down, and an increase of the displacement angle
and a consequent increase of input results. In accordance with the assumption that the new
load does not exceed the steady-state stability limit, increases to the proper value for steady
state operation, a value such that the motor input equals the output and the retarding torque
vanishes. When this value of torque is reached, however, the motor is running too slowly. Its
angular momentum prevents its speed from suddenly increasing to the normal value. Hence
it continues to run too slowly, and the displacement angle increases beyond the proper value.
After the angle has passed this value, the motor input exceeds the output, and the net torque
is now an accelerating torque. The speed of the motor increases and approaches normal
speed. Before normal speed is regained, the motor input decreases to a value less than the
output. If this, the net torque changes from an accelerating torque to a retarding torque. The
speed, which is still below normal, now decreases again, and continues to decrease during
all but a small part of each slip cycle. Synchronism is definitely lost. In other words, the
system is unstable. If, however, the sudden

increment in load is not too great, the motor

will regain its normal speed before the displacement angle becomes too great. Then the net
torque is still an accelerating torque and causes the motor speed to increase and thus to
become greater than normal. The displacement angle then decreases and again approaches
its proper value.
Again it overshoots this value on account of inertia. The rotor of the motor thus oscillates
about the new steady-state angular position. The oscillations finally die out because of
damping torques, which have been neglected in this elementary analysis. A damped
oscillatory motion characterizes a stable system .With a given sudden increment in load,
there is a definite upper multi machine systems..Most power systems have many generating

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stations, each with several and many loads, most of which are combinations of synchronous
motors, synchronous condensers, induction motors, lamps, heating devices, and others. The
stability problem on such a power system usually concerns the transmission of power from
one group of synchronous machines to another. As a rule, both groups consist predominantly
of generators. During disturbances the machines of each group swing more or less together;
that is, they retain approximately their relative angular positions, although these vary greatly
with respect to the machines of the other group. For purposes of analysis the machines of
each group can be replaced by one equivalent machine. If this is done, there is one
equivalent generator and one equivalent synchronous motor, even though the latter often
represents machines that are actually generators. The important discussion lies in the power
system stability. Automatic generation control (AGC), is a major control function within a
utility's energy control center, whose purpose is the tracking of load variations while system
frequency, net tie-line interchanges, and optimal generation levels close to specified values.
When several utilities are interconnected, each will perform its AGC independently of the
others. This decentralized control system has worked quite well since its in the fifties, in
spite of the fact that at that time, the only control theory tools available were those of
classical frequency-domain, single-input single-output, systems. Thus AGC is a true
predecessor of the much highlighted recent approaches of hierarchical modern control
theory. The success of AGC may be attributed to two important considerations. The first is
related to the fact that feedback control will almost always tend to stabilize and regulate the
system being controlled. And the second is due to the clever design of AGC by its
originators in a manner that guaranteed the correct steady-state response of the entire
system.
Since the transient response will depend on the dynamics of generators, loads, and
feedback control parameters, the original designers of AGC had to depend on highly
simplified models at the design stage, and on actual system response, in order to tune the
control system parameters.

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Fig. 2 General Block Diagram for a Power Generating System

The Issues Single Generator and Its response figure above provide a general block
diagram for a generating system. The turbo-generator receives two key input quantities:
mechanical power input PM in the form of rotating shaft power from the turbine; and field
voltage EFD from the exciter. The key outputs are: (a) the generated electric power PG + JQG,
(b) terminal voltage Vt, and (c) angular speed w. These outputs are measured (sensed) by
appropriate devices, and then used, in a feedback fashion, to control the system. The angular
frequency w is compared with the rated (or desired) frequency wo. The resulting frequency
error is then amplified (in the turbine-governor feedback loop) by the factor 1/ R and from
the desired real power generation PM'
Similarly, in the exciter feedback loop, the error signal is an input to the exciter. A
supplementary error signal is sometimes used to influence the output of the exciter for the
purpose of damping slow power oscillations. The block PSS in Figure refers to the so-called
Power System Stabilizer By itself, this block diagram should tell us a few important things.
Under steady-state conditions one would expect all error signals to be zero implying that:
Under dynamic conditions, it implicitly shows that the control of generated power and
frequency will be accomplished mainly by the governor-turbine system and secondarily by
the exciter. On the other hand, the main role of the exciter is to control the terminal voltage,
with a secondary role in stabilizing power oscillations. Without going into the detailed
models themselves, some key facts are in order. Basically, the governor-turbine system is
slow reacting when compared with the excitation system, which is fast reacting. As a result,
fluctuations in voltage can be corrected by the excitation system, very quickly (typically
within 10 to 50 m sec)

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Fluctuations in generated power or frequency are corrected slowly, in the time framework
of .5-10 sec. Now since governor-turbine control has little on the terminal voltage, one can
decouple the governor- loop from the excitation loop. In essence, one can study the governor
turbine control loop with its influence on and frequency under the assumption that terminal
voltage is maintained at its value always. For short in the order of a fraction of a second, one
may also decouple the governor-turbine control loop and study excitation system responses.
Under these conditions, the mechanical power PM is kept constant at its nominal value PM'. A
longer-term exciter response will, however, require the inclusion of both control loops in the
study model. Since AGC is primarily concerned with the real power/frequency behavior of
the system, the excitation system model will not be required. This important simplification
paves the way for the governor turbine model shown in Figure below. In this model, the
governor is represented by a block with one time constant TG, which is typically in the range
of 0.1-0.2 sec. The turbine, by a block with the time constant TT, which is typically about
sec.; and the generator inertial response by the swing equation where M is the machine's
inertia constant, and D is a damping coefficient

Fig. 3Simple Generator Block Diagram with Associated Governor turbine Model

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Fig. 4Simple Generator Block Diagram of Associated Governor turbine Model with speed
droop characteristics

PC =PM P0M
PD = PD - P0G

(2)
And frequency, one may define the incremental quantities: where PD is the load. The
consequence is shown in the block diagram of Figure 3 for the so-called incremental
generator model. In that figure, the following state variables are identified as indicated is
the output of the governor block (valve displacement to inlet steam to turbine). In state
Variable form, the state equations the system are given by:-

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Fig. 5 Lumped Block Diagram of Associated Governor turbine Model with speed droop
characteristics
d x1 1
= (D x 1+ x2 P)
dt M
d x2 1
= ( x x )
dt T T 3 2
d x3 1
x
=
x3 + PC 1
dt T G
R

(3)

In this system of equations PD represents an input disturbance associated with load changes,
whereas .Pc represents the increment in the speed changer position which controls increases
or decreases in power demand. The following example should illustrate some of the key
issues.

Load Model
Since many loads are frequency-sensitive, the incremental change in load will have a
frequency-dependent part, i.e., where,
PD = P 0 +
D=

PD

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x 1=
1
P D
= D+D+1 /R

(4)

Represents the sensitivity of the load to frequency changes at the nominal value of the load
A key conclusion from the above steady-state analysis is that the inverse of the regulation
constant R is like a damping coefficient. This is also true of the coefficient D' of load
frequency sensitivity. In fact, it is easy to show that, in the steady-state .

Integral Control:
In order to eliminate the frequency steady-state error, the loop may be closed on the speed
changer input Pc. Letting Z4 be a new state variable which is the integral of the frequency
error, i.e.
d x4
=x 1
dt
Then Pc will become a feedback signal given by
PC =

K I x4

(5)

Where KJ is a feedback gain constant. In order to determine the steady-state response to a

step-input in the load, we set all first order time derivatives to zero. From the above
definition of Z4, one easily concludes the fact, it should be clear that as long as Z4 is part of
the feedback control signal (e.g., it may be combined linearly with other variables in the
feedback loop), then the -state error is zero.

Response to a Random Disturbance:

In the previous analysis, the assumed disturbance was a step input in the load. In reality,
system load disturbances are quite complex and random in nature. Typically, load variations
comprise a slowly changing trend component over which are superimposed fast random
fluctuations. Step load inputs will occur only occasionally as a result of special
circumstances like the loss of a generating unit, the switching of a large electric arc furnace,

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and the like. Since the incremental generator model used above is linear, one may study
system response to every component of the load disturbance, and then employ the principle
of superposition to obtain a realistic idea about the overall response. In this section we shall
investigate the single generator response to a stochastic white noise load disturbance. In
order to do so, an important result from stochastic control theory.
Generation and distribution of electric energy with good reliability and quality is very
important in power system operation and control. This is achieved by Automatic Generation
Control (AGC). In an interconnected power system, as the load demand varies randomly, the
area frequency and tie-line power interchange also vary. The objective of Load Frequency
Control (LFC) is to minimize the transient deviations in these variables and to ensure for
their steady state values to be zero. The LFC performed by only a governor control imposes
a limit on the degree to which the deviations in frequency and tie-line power exchange can
be minimized. However, as the LFC is fundamentally for the problem of an instantaneous
mismatch between the generation and demand of active power, the incorporation of a fastacting energy storage device in the power system can improve the designing for controllers
based on these techniques, the perfect model is required which has to track the state
variables and satisfy system constraints. Therefore it is difficult to apply these adaptive
control techniques to AGC in practical. In multi-area power system, if a load variation
occurs at any one of the areas in the system, the frequency related with this area is affected
first and then that of other areas are also affected from this perturbation through tie lines.
When a small load disturbance occurs, power system frequency oscillations continue for a
long duration, even in the case with optimized gain of integral controllers. So to damp out
the oscillations in the shortest possible time, automatic generation control including SMES
unit is proposed.
Therefore, in the proposed control system, with an addition of the simple SMES controller,
a supplementary controller with K is designed in order to retain the A superconducting
magnetic energy storage system is a DC current device for storing and instantaneously
discharging large quantities of power. The DC current flowing through a superconducting
wire in a large magnet creates the magnetic field. The large superconducting coil is
contained in a cryostat consisting of a vacuum vessel and a liquid vessel that cools the coil.
A cryogenic system and the power conversion/conditioning system with control and

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protection functions are also used to keep the temperature well below the critical
temperature of the superconductor. During SMES operation, the magnet coils have to remain
in the superconducting status. A refrigerator in the cryogenic system maintains the required
temperature for proper superconducting operation. A bypass switch is used to reduce energy
losses when the coil is on standby. And it also serves other purposes such as bypassing DC
coil current if utility tie is lost, removing converter from service, or protecting the coil if
cooling is lost [Figure below shows a basic schematic of an SMES system Utility system
feeds the power to the power conditioning and switching devices that provides energy to
charge the coil, thus storing energy. When a voltage sag or momentary power outage occurs,
the coil discharges through switching and conditioning devices, feeding conditioned power
to the load. The cryogenic (refrigeration) system and helium vessel keep the conductor cold
in order to maintain the coil in the superconducting state.

Fig. 6 SMES system Utility

There are several reasons for using superconducting magnetic energy storage instead of
other energy storage methods. The most important advantages of SMES are that the time
delay during charge and discharge is quite short. Power is available almost instantaneously
and very high power output can be provided for a brief period of time. Other energy storage
methods, such as pumped hydro or compressed air have a substantial time delay associated

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with the conversion of stored mechanical energy back into electricity. Thus if a customer's
demand is immediate, SMES is a viable option. Another advantage is that the loss of power
is less than other storage methods because the current encounters almost zero resistance.
Additionally the main parts in a SMES are motionless, which results in high reliability.
Also SMES systems are environmentally friendly because superconductivity does not
produce a chemical reaction. In addition, there are no toxins produced in the process. The
SMES is highly efficient at storing electricity (greater than 97% efficiency), and provide
both real and reactive power. These systems have been in use for several years to improve
industrial power quality and to provide a premium-quality service for individual customers
vulnerable to voltage and power fluctuations. The SMES recharges within minutes and can
repeat the charge/discharge sequence thousands of times without any degradation of the
magnet. Thus it can help to minimize the frequency deviations due to load variations.
However, the SMES is still an expensive device.

SMES for Load Frequency Control application:

A sudden application of a load results in an instantaneous mismatch between the demand
sudden and supply of electrical power because the generating plants are unable to change the
inputs to the prime movers instantaneously. The immediate energy requirement is met by the
kinetic of the generator rotor and speed falls. So system frequency changes though it
becomes normal after a short period due to Automatic Generation Control. Again, sudden
load rejections give rise to similar problems. The instantaneous surplus generation created
by removal of load is absorbed in the kinetic energy of the generator rotors and the
frequency changes. The problem of the frequency from normal value under such
circumstances is known as the load frequency control problem. To be effective in load
frequency control application, the energy storage system should be fast acting i.e. the time
lag in switching from receiving (charging) mode to delivering mode should be very small.
For damping the swing caused by small load perturbations the storage units for LFC
application need to have only a small quantity of stored energy, though its power rating has
to be high, since the stored energy has to be delivered within a short span of time. However,
due to high cost of superconductor technology, one can consider the use of nonsuperconducting of lossy magnetic energy storage SMES inductors for the same purpose.

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Such systems would be economical maintenance free, long lasting and as reliable as
ordinary power transformers.
Thus a SMES system seems to be good to meet the above requirements. The power flow
into an energy storage unit can be reversed, by reversing the DC voltage applied to the
inductor within a few cycles. A 12-pulse bridge converter with an appropriate control of the
firing angles can be adopted for the purpose. Thus, these fast acting energy storage devices
can be made to share the sudden load requirement with the generator rotors, by continuously
controlling the power flow in or out of the inductor depending on the frequency error
signals.
The SMES inductor converter unit for improvement in power system LFC application
essentially consists of a DC inductor, an ac/dc converter and a step down Y-Y/ transformer.
The inductor should be wound with low resistance, large cross-section copper conductors.
The converter is of the 12-pulse cascaded bridge type shown in Fig. 2, connected to the
inductor in the DC side and to the three-phase power system bus through the transformer in
the ac side Control of the firing angles of the converter enables the DC voltage applied
(Vsm) to the inductor to be varied through a wide range of positive and negative values as
shown in Fig. 3. Gate turn off thyristors (GTO).

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Fig 7 Effect of inductor voltage, Vsm Ism

Rc=0.00
Rc=0.05
Rc=0.10
With the variation of firing angle of 12-pulse converter allow us to design such type of
converter. When charging the magnet, a positive DC voltage is applied to the inductor. The
current in the inductor rises exponentially or linearly and the magnetic energy is stored.
When the current reaches the rated value, the applied voltage is brought down to low value,
sufficient to overcome the voltage drop due to inductor resistance. When the extra energy is
required in the power system, a negative DC voltage is applied to the inductor by controlling
the firing angles of the converter. The losses in the SMES unit would consist of the
transformer losses, the converter losses, and the resistive loss in the inductor coil. The
inductor loss can be kept at an acceptable level by proper design of the winding.
Due to sudden application or rejection of load, the generator speed fluctuates. When the
system load increases, the speed falls at the first instant. However, due to the governor
action, the speed oscillates around some reference value. The converter works as an inverter

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(90 < <270) when the actual speed is less than the reference speed and energy is withdrawn
from the SMES unit . However, the energy is recovered when the speed swings to the other
side. The then works as a rectifier (-90 < <90) and the power P becomes positive. If the
transformer and converter losses are neglected, according to the circuit analysis of
converter, the voltage Vsm of the D.C side of the 12-pulse converter under equal- when a 1
= a2 = ) mode is expressed by
2
C

cos 1+ cos =2 v smo cos 2 I SM R

V SM =V

(6)

SMO

Where VSM is the DC voltage applied to the inductor

Ism is the current through the inductor
Rsm is the equivalent commutating resistance and Vc is the maximum open circuit bridge
voltage of each 6-pulse bridge at =00.
When the inductor is charged initially, the current build up, expressed, as a function of
time with Vsm held constant, is given as where L and R

sm=

R L t
L

VSM 1e

RL

(7)

I
Where L and R are the inductance and the resistance of inductor respectively.
Once the current reaches its rated value I it is held constant by reducing the voltage to a
value Vsm enough to overcome the resistive drop. In this case
V SM =I

SMO

RL

(8)
Where, As this value of Vsm0 is very small, the firing angle will be nearly 90
. At any instant of time the amount of energy stored in the inductor is given by

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SM = W

SM 0+ Psm d

(9)

W
is the initial energy in the inductor.
Where,
SMo=
W

1
2 L I2

Once the rated current in the inductor is reached, the unit is ready to be coupled with the
power system application. The frequency deviation f of the power system is sensed and fed
to the SMES unit as the error signal. V is then continuously controlled depending on
controlled depending on this signal. When there is a sudden increase in load in the power
system, the frequency falls and a negative voltage, expressed by equation
V SM = K

0 f

(10)

is impressed on the inductor. The converter bridges maintain a unidirectional current flow
and as the circuit is inductive the current does not change instantaneously. In this mode of
operation, a positive converter voltage produces positive power, which means charging the
coil, and a negative converter voltage produces a negative power and discharges the
inductor. When the frequency dip in the power system causes a negative voltage to be
applied to the inductor, power flows from the inductor into the power system, sharing the
sudden load requirement. The reverse process takes place when there is a sudden load
rejection in the power system. The frequency increase causes a positive voltage to be
impressed on the inductor and the SMES unit absorbs the excess power from the power
system. The conceptual diagram of active and reactive power modulation under equal mode
is shown in figure below

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Fig 8 conceptual diagram of active and reactive power modulation

and as the circuit is inductive the current does not change instantaneously. In this mode of
operation, a positive converter voltage produces positive power, which means charging the
coil, and a negative converter voltage produces a negative power and discharges the
inductor. When the frequency dip in the power system causes a negative voltage to be
applied to the inductor, power flows from the inductor into the power system, sharing the
sudden load. The reverse process takes place when there is a sudden load rejection in the
power system. The increase causes a positive voltage to be impressed on the inductor and
the SMES unit absorbs the excess power from the power system.
In actual practice the inductor current should not be allowed to reach zero to prevent the
possibility of discontinuous conduction in the presence of the large disturbances It is
desirable to set the rated inductor current I such that the maximum allowable energy
absorption equals the maximum allowable energy discharge .This makes the SMES equally
effective in damping swings caused by sudden increase as well as decrease in load. Thus, if
the lower current limit is chosen at 0.3, the upper inductor current limit, based on the equal
energy absorption/discharge criterion becomes 1.38 I. When the current reaches either of
these limits, the dc voltage has to be brought to zero.
As the inductor has a finite inductance and hence a finite amount of energy stored in it, the

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Current in the inductor falls as energy is withdrawn from the coil. This deviation in the
inductor current is expressed as
I SM =

V SM
R L+S .L

(11)

Prior to the load disturbance, let the magnitudes of voltage and current are Vsm0 and Ism0
(nominal values). Thus the initial power flow into the coil can be expressed as
PSM0 = VSM0. ISM0

(12)

PSM = ISM0. VSM + ISM0.RL. ISM. + VSM.. ISM

(13)

In response to the load disturbance the incremental change of power flow into the coil can
be expressed as following a sudden increase in load in the power system, the incremental
power expressed by equation is discharged into the power system by the energy storage unit
to share with the generator rotor, the extra load demand.

Integration of SMES with two-area power system:

Figure shows the proposed configuration of SMES units in a two-area power system. Two
areas are connected by a weak tie-line. When there is sudden rise in power demand in a
control area, stored energy is almost immediately released by the SMES through its power
conversion system (PCS). As the governor control mechanism starts working to set the
power system to the new condition, the SMES coil stores energy back to its nominal level.
Similar action happens when there is a sudden decrease in load demand. Basically, the
operation speed of governor-turbine system is slow compared with that of the excitation
system. As a result, fluctuations in terminal voltage can be corrected by the excitation
system very quickly, but fluctuations in generated power or frequency are corrected slowly.
Since load frequency control is primarily concerned with the real power/frequency behavior,
the excitation system model will not be required in the approximated analysis .This
important simplification

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Configuration of SMES in a two-area power system

Fig 9 Configuration of SMES in a two-area power system

The basic objective of the supplementary control is to restore balance between each
areaload and generation for a load disturbance. This is met when the control action
maintains the frequency and the tie-line power interchange at the scheduled values. The
supplementary controller with integral gain K is therefore made to act on area control error
(ACE), which is a signal obtained from tie-line power flow deviation added to frequency

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j=1 where the suffix i refer to the control area and j refer to the number of generator. All
parameters are same as those used in where the suffix i refer to the control area and j refer to
the number of generator.
n

ACE i= Ptie ,i j + i f i
j=1

(14)

Optimization of integral gain, K:

Figure below shows the frequency deviations for different values of K for a specific load
change. It is observed that a higher value of KI results in reduction of maximum deviation of
the supplementary control results in reduction of maximum deviation of the 2) system
frequency but the system oscillates for longer times. Decreasing the value of K yields
comparatively higher maximum frequency deviation at the beginning but provides very
good damping in the later cycles. These initiate a variable K, which can be determined from
the frequency error and its derivative. Obviously, higher values of K I and frequency bias
factors, is needed at the initial stage and then it should be changed gradually depending on
the system frequency changes.

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Fig 9 frequency deviations for different values of K for a specific load

Page 20

CONCULUSION:
The chapter discussed about the simulation studies that have been carried out on a twoarea power system to investigate the impact of the proposed intelligently controlled SMES
on the improvement of power system dynamic performances. The results clearly show that
the scheme is very powerful in reducing the frequency and tie-power deviations under a
variety of load perturbations. On-line adaptation of supplementary controller gain associated
with SMES makes the proposed intelligent controllers more effective and are expected to
perform optimally under different operating conditions. The results clearly show that the
scheme is very powerful in reducing the frequency and tie-power deviations under a variety
of load perturbations. On-line adaptation of supplementary controller gain associated with
SMES makes the proposed intelligent controllers more effective.

Page 21

References
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Control with Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage in Interconnected Power System,
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Nanda, J.; Mangla, A & Suri, S. (2006). Some New Findings on Automatic Generation
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A. R. Bergen, Power System Analysis, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1986.
Edward Wilson Kimbark IEEE 'PRESS
Modern Power Systems Control and Operation by Atif s. Debs Georgia of Technology
Wu, C. J. & Lee, Y. S. (1991). Application of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage to
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Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 573-578, (December 1991).

9. Banerjee, S.; Chatterjee, J. K. & Tripathy, S. C. (1990). Application of Magnetic Energy
Storage Unit as Load Frequency Stabilizer,
10. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 46-51, (March 1990).
11. Benjamin, NN. & Chan, WC. (1978). Multilevel Load-frequency Control of Inter-Connected
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