CHAPTER 4

Principles and Operations

of Actuator
Contents:

# Introduction to Actuators
# Electrical Actuators
# Pneumatic Actuators
Recall: Process control loop Signal conversion
actuator
 Definition: Actuator

The ACTUATOR is a translation of the (converted) control signal into

action on the control element.
Example:-
If a valve to be operated, the actuator is a device that’s
convert the control signal into the physical action of opening
or closing the valve.
If a heater is to warm a system, some device must turn the
heater on or off or vary its excitation.
An actuator is a device that converts energy, which
may be electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, etc., to
mechanical in such a way that it can be controlled*.

Actuators take on many diverse forms to suit the

particular requirements of process-control loops.

We will consider several types of electrical and

pneumatic actuators.
1.0 Signal Conversions
This step refers to the modifications that must be made to the
control signal to properly interface with the next stage of
control—that is, the actuator.

Thus, if a valve control element is to be operated by an electric

motor actuator, then a 4- to 20-mA dc control signal must be
modified to operate the motor. If a dc motor is used, modification
might be current-to- voltage conversion and amplification.

Power Electronic devices used for these tasks.

These devices fall within two categories:
(i)switching devices and
(ii)control devices.

SWITCHING in this context means devices that have only two output states,
on and off. (SCR, GTO, TRIAC)

CONTROL devices, can have an output that varies continuously over some
range. (BJT, IGBT,Power mosfet)
1.2 Control Element

This device has direct influence on the process dynamic variable

and is designed as an integral part of the process.

Thus, if flow is to be controlled, then the control element, a

VALVE, must be built directly into the flow system.

Similarly, if temperature is to be controlled, then some

mechanism or control element that has a direct influence on
temperature must be involved in the process.

This could be a HEATER/cooler combination that is electrically

actuated by relays or a pneumatic valve to control influx of
reactants.
Electrical Actuators

An electric actuator is a mechanical device used to

convert electricity into kinetic energy in either a single
linear or rotary motion.

# Solenoid
# Electrical motors – dc, ac (synchronous &
induction), stepper motor
Applications: Where are Electric Actuators Used?

Electric actuators appear in a number of industries. Typically,

they’re used in industrial applications associated with
manufacturing valves, pumps, and motors. They most commonly
automate industrial valves, and many types of technical process
plants use them, including:

· oil and gas plants (Upstream, midstream, and downstream)

· Wastewater treatment plants
· Power plants
· Food and beverage plants
· Farming and agricultural plants
· Pulp and paper plants
Solenoid
A solenoid is a device that converts an electrical signal into
mechanical motion in a straight line. The solenoid consists of a
coil and plunger.

The plunger may be freestanding or spring loaded. The coil will

have some voltage or current rating and may be dc or ac.

Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the

plunger pull or push force when excited by the specified
voltage.
Some solenoids are rated only for intermittent duty because of
thermal constraints. In this case, the maximum duty cycle
(percentage on time to total time) will be specified.

Solenoids are used when a large, sudden force must be applied to

perform some job. In Figure 26, a solenoid is used to change the
gears of a two- position transmission. An SCR is used to activate
the solenoid coil.
Solenoid valve: to control fluid flow
Solenoid application in car engine Starter :

Solenoid in Car engine : Fly wheel and Starter motor

 Electrical Motors
Devices that accept electrical input and produce a
continuous rotation.
Motor styles & sizes vary as demands for rotational
speed:
>revolutions per minute (rpm)
>Starting torque
>rotational torque
And other specifications vary.

The most common control situation is where motor speed

drives some part of a process, and must be controlled to
control some variable in the process—the drive of a
 Electrical Motor: DC motor
The rotation of a dc motor is produced by the interaction of
two constant magnetic fields. Figure 27a shows one type of dc
motor that employs a permanent magnet (PM) to form one of
the magnetic fields. The second magnetic field is formed by
passing a current through a coil of wire contained within the
PM field.

This coil of wire, called the armature, is free to rotate. Notice

that the coil is connected to the current source through slip
rings and brushes (called a commutator) but the slip rings are
split so that the current reverses direction as the armature
rotates.
How rotation occurs shown at Figure 27b. Notice that
the north (N) and south (S) poles of the PM and the
armature are not aligned. Thus, there will be a torque
driving the N from the N and the S from the S.

Therefore, the armature will rotate counterclockwise as

shown. If it were not for the split slip rings the armature
would rotate until N and N and of course S and S were
aligned.
Many dc motors use an electromagnet instead of a PM to
provide the static field. The coil used to produce this field is
called the field coil. This kind of dc motor is called a wound
field motor.

The current for this field coil can be provided by placing the
coil in series with the armature or in parallel (shunt).

In some cases, the FIELD is composed of two windings, one of

each type. This is a compound dc motor
 DC Motor: Characteristics & Applications
1. Series field This motor has large starting torque but
is difficult to speed control. Good in applications for
starting heavy, non-mobile loads and where speed
control is not important, such as for quick-opening
2. Shunt field This motor has a smaller starting torque,
valves.
but good speed-control characteristics produced by
varying armature excitation current. Good in
applications where speed is to be controlled, such as in
3. Compound
conveyor field This motor attempts to obtain the
systems.
best features of both of the two previous types.
Generally, starting torque and speed-control
capability fall predictably between the two pure
cases.
DC motors, torque –speed curves::
Figure 29 shows a diagram of how such a three-phase
rectifier is implemented using SCRs. By variation of the
SCRs’ firing angle the amplitude of the dc voltage and
current of the armature, and hence speed of the motor, can
be varied.

Excitation of the field coils can be provided by a fixed

amplitude rectified ac or another variable supply to provide
further control.
Brushless DC electric motor
A brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motor or BL motor), also
known as an electronically commutated motor (ECM or EC
motor) or synchronous DC motor, is a synchronous DC motor,
is a synchronous motor using a direct current (DC) electric
power supply.
It uses an electronic closed loop controller to switch DC currents to
the motor windings producing magnetic fields which effectively
rotate in space and which the permanent magnet rotor follows.
The controller adjusts the phase and amplitude of the DC current
pulses to control the speed and torque of the motor. This control
system is an alternative to the mechanical commutator (brushes)
used in many conventional electric motors.
Electrical Motor : AC Motors
The basic operating principle of ac motors still involves the
interaction between two magnetic fields. In this case, however,
both fields are varying in time in consonance with the ac
excitation voltage.

Therefore, the force between the fields is a function of the

angle of the rotor but also the phase of the current passing
through the coils. There are two basic types of ac motors;
synchronous and induction.

The primary motor for application to the control industry is the

induction motor.
Synchronous motor

In a synchronous motor the ac voltage is applied to the field coils,

called the stator. This means the magnetic field is changing in
time in phase with the impressed ac voltage. The armature, called
the rotor, is either a permanent magnet or a dc electromagnet,
and possesses a fixed magnetic field.

In the synchronous motor the rotor essentially follows the ac

magnetic field of the stator. Figure 30 shows a simple
synchronous motor with two poles and a permanent magnet
rotor.
A four-pole motor would have a rotor with two N-S bars for the
rotor and four poles to the stator. The speed of rotation, ns, of a
synchronous motor is related to the frequency of the ac
excitation and the number of poles

Synchronous motors can be operated using single-phase ac but

such units are used for only very low power ( 0.1 hp) and suffer
from very low starting torque. When operated from
three-phase, ac synchronous motors can be operated at very
high power, up to 50,000 hp.
Induction motors
Induction ac motors are characterized by a rotor which is
neither a PM nor a dc excited electromagnet. Instead, current
induced in a coil wound on the rotor generates the interacting
magnetic field of the rotor. This current is induced from the
stator coils.

Figure 31 illustrates the basic concept. The ac field of the stator

produces a changing magnetic field passing through the closed
loop of the rotor. This changing flux will induce current in the
loop. This in turn creates a magnetic field in the rotor coil,
which interacts with the field of the stator. Torque exists on the
rotor caused by these two fields.
Single-phase induction motors are used for applications
of relatively low power, say less than 5 hp (< 3.7 kW).
Such motors are typical of those found in household
appliances, such as:

>>blender,
>>mixer,
>>water pump, &
>>vacuum cleaner

In a control environment we want to have control over

the speed of these motors. The induction motor speed
is dependent upon the ac excitation frequency.
Thus, speed control of both types can be affected by a
variable frequency ac excitation.
(In order to provide this we turn to power electronics.)

Figure 32 provides a typical scheme where the three-phase

ac (at 60 Hz) is rectified to produce a variable amplitude dc
voltage by using
This voltage SCRs with
is filtered variable
and then firingtoangle
applied from the
a IGBT-based
control
invertercircuit.
whose purpose is to produce a variable frequency ac
voltage. The diodes across each IGBT provide for current flow
in reverse of the IGBT.
Of course the sequence and speed of switching provided by the
control circuit determine the frequency. The circuit could
equally well use GTOs, MOSFETs, or even BJT devices.
AC Motor Applications: Motor operated valves
Stepping motor
The stepping motor has increased in importance in recent years
because of the ease with which it can be interfaced with digital
circuits. >> completes a full rotation by sequencing through a
series of discrete rotational steps.

Each step position is an equilibrium position in that, without

further excitation, the rotor position will stay at the latest step.
Continuous rotation is achieved by the input of a train of pulses,
each of which causes an advance of one step. It is not really
continuous rotation, but discrete, stepwise rotation.

The rotational rate is determined by the number of steps per

revolution and the rate at which the pulses are applied. A driver
circuit is necessary to convert the pulse train into proper driving
signals for the motor.
The operation of a stepping motor can be understood from the simple
model shown in Figure 33, which has 90°per step. In this motor, the
rotor is a PM that is driven by a particular set of electromagnets. In the
position shown, the system is in equilibrium and no motion occurs.

The switches are typically solid-state devices, such as transistors, SCRs,

or TRIACs. The switch sequencer will direct the switches through a
sequence of positions as the pulses are received. The next pulse will
change S2 from C to D, resulting in the poles of that electromagnet
reversing fields.

Because the pole north/south orientation is different, the rotor is

repelled and attracted so that it moves to the new position of
equilibrium shown in Figure 34b. With the next pulse, S1 is changed to
Finally, the next pulse causes S2 to switch to C again, and the PM rotor
again steps to a new equilibrium position, as in Figure 34d. The next pulse
will send the system back to the original state and the rotor to the original
position. This sequence is then repeated as the pulse train comes in,
resulting
The mostin common
a stepwisestepper
continuous rotation
motor doesofnot
the rotor
use aPM.
PM,
but rather a rotor of magnetic material (not a magnet) with a
certain number of teeth. This rotor is driven by a phased
arrangement of coils with a different number of poles so that the
rotor can never be in perfect alignment with the stator. Figure 35
illustrates this for a rotor with 8 “teeth” and a stator with 12
“poles.”
Stepper Motor Advantages:
Stepper Motor Types:
Different stepper motors can have different amounts of wires, typically 4, 5,
6, or 8 wires. A 4-wire arrangement is only able to support bipolar stepper
motors, since there is no central wire available.
5-wire and 6-wire arrangements can be used for both unipolar or bipolar
stepper motors, depending if the center wire on each of the coils is used or
not. The 5-wire configuration implies that the central wire on the two sets of
coils are internally connected together.
An 8-wire arrangement, although relatively unused, is the most flexible out of
all of the wire configurations as it can be run in a unipolar 5 or 6-wire
arrangement, or bipolar mode with a parallel or series configuration.
Stepping the stepper motor::
Mechanical /Pneumatic Actuators
The actuator often translates a control signal into a large force or
torque as required to manipulate some control element. The
pneumatic actuator is most useful for such translation.

The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit

area. A net pressure difference is applied across a diaphragm of
surface area A, then a net force acts on the diaphragm given by,

P1

P2
If we need to double the available force for a given pressure,
it is merely necessary to double the diaphragm area. Very
large forces can be developed by standard signal-pressure
ranges of 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100 kPa).

Many types of pneumatic actuators are available, but

>Figure: Solenoid valve
perhaps the most common are those associated with control
Pneumatic Actuators:
valves.
i)-Valve
ii)-Cylinder
iii)-Air motor
Pneumatic Valve – to control fluid flow

(i)Normal state: (ii) Pressure applied

FIGURE 36
A direct pneumatic actuator for converting pressure signals into
mechanical shaft motion.
The shaft position is linearly related to the applied
control pressure
Pneumatic actuators: cylinders & air motors
Calculating force on piston during extension & retraction:
for double acting cylinder
Pneumatic cylinder applications: Car lifting machine
 Pneumatic/Hydraulic Actuators

Hydraulic actuator is employed when large forces are required.

The basic idea is the same as for pneumatic actuators, except
that an incompressible fluid is used to provide the pressure,
which can be made very large by adjusting the area of the forcing
piston, A1.

The hydraulic pressure is given by

 This pressure is transferred equally throughout the
liquid, so the resulting force on the working piston is,

Thus, the working force is given in terms of the applied force by

The force multilication gain is

the ratio of the cross section
areas..A2/A1
Air Motor Types:
1>Vane
2>Piston >Air motor
3>Turbine symbol

Source: Atlas copco industrial tools & solutions

Air motor:
Support material on air motor: impact wrench example

Support material
>https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=uxwKwi7Idzg
Air motor : Control circuit
Application of air motor:
>Air Hoist:
>Air Winch:
Application of air motor:
End of Electrical & pneumatic
Actuator……