Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

A novel virtual inertia control strategy for frequency regulation of islanded

microgrid using two-layer multiple model predictive control
Soroush Oshnoei a ,∗, Mohammad Reza Aghamohammadi a , Siavash Oshnoei b , Subham Sahoo c ,
Arman Fathollahi d , Mohammad Hasan Khooban d
a
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
b Department of Electrical Engineering, Islamic Azad University Urmia Branch, Urmia, Iran
c Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
d Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper investigates the frequency performance problem of microgrids (MGs) integrated with renewable
Virtual inertia control employing an energy storage system (ESS) equipped with virtual inertial control (VIC) support. To tackle
Multiple model predictive control the uncertainties related to the system operation, a two-layer multiple model predictive control (TLMMPC)
Frequency control
method, consisting of nominal and ancillary MMPCs, is proposed to submit effective control signals to the
Islanded microgrid
ESS for improving system frequency performance. The ancillary MMPC generates the control commands for
State of charge
the VIC-based ESS utilizing the signals provided by the nominal MMPC and the frequency deviation signal of
the actual system considering uncertainties and operating constraints. The control commands are generated
to attain the minimum value of frequency response error with the least control endeavor while considering
various operational and physical limitations. The TLMMPC method has the capability to work with different
state of charge (SoC) levels to obtain the desired SoC and highest efficiency from the ESS and preserve the ESS’s
longevity. The dynamic performance of the proposed TLMMPC technique is investigated on an islanded MG
and compared to model predictive control (MPC), fractional-order MPC, and tilt-integral-derivative controllers
under different scenarios. The results validate that the proposed TLMMPC technique significantly improves the
system frequency response from viewpoints of settling time, peak overshoot, and undershoot and obtains the
most efficient ESS compared to the other methods.

1. Introduction The virtual inertia control (VIC) concept is significantly utilized in

Recently, the shortage of fossil fuel resources, environmental con-
cerns, and economic costs have led to the integrating of renewable
energy sources (RESs) and distributed generators (DGs) into conven-
tional power grids. The integration of the RESs and DGs such as
wind turbine (WT), photovoltaic (PV), energy storage systems (ESSs),
and small thermal power plant (TPP), together with residential and
industrial loads, is introduced as a microgrid (MG). Although the MG
concept has a lot of advantages, such as improving system reliability
and reducing grid peak loads, it can negatively affect grid perfor-
mance [1,2]. As a result, high penetration of the RESs dramatically
decreases the system inertia as compared to conventional synchronous
generators and compromises grid frequency stability [3–5]. Therefore,
the frequency regulation problem of such systems is one of the main
issues in designing modern power systems and MGs [6–8].
low inertia systems to enhance inertia [9–12]. The derivative technique
is an effective approach to imitate the VIC and improve the system
inertia [10,11]. Also, the authors in [13] have presented the concept
of the direction-sensitive dynamic VIC imitation in MGs to provide an
elongated frequency deflection duration, having a shortened restraining
time because the traditional VIC imitation method can lengthen the
frequency deviation period and sacrifice the frequency control time. To
enhance transient stability in islanded networks, Ref. [14] has proposed
a unique notion of single-phase virtual inertia imitation method for
residential electric vehicles chargers. In [15], it is mentioned that
improving the virtual inertial value cannot always improve the fast
frequency response. Therefore, the authors have proposed the concept
of virtual gyratory mass to complete the inertia of a low-inertia MG to

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: S_oshnoei@sbu.ac.ir (S. Oshnoei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121233
Received 4 February 2023; Received in revised form 11 April 2023; Accepted 28 April 2023
Available online 6 May 2023
0306-2619/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

Nomenclature 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 Frequency signal obtained by MMPC.

𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 Frequency signal obtained by nominal
Acronyms MMPC.
𝛥𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 Reference frequency signal.
ACE Area Control Error.
𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑓 Reference frequency signal of nominal
AGC Automatic Generation Control.
MMPC.
CDM Coefficient Diagram Method.
𝛥𝑢𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 Control signal of 𝑛th sub-MMPC.
CT Computational Time.
𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 ESS’s SoC obtained by 𝑛th sub-MMPC.
DG Distributed Generator.
𝑊𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚 , 𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑚 Positive semi-definite weighting factors for
ESS Energy Storage System. the output and control signals of the 𝑛th
EV Electric Vehicles. nominal sub-MMPC.
FOMPC Fractional Order Model Predictive Control. 𝑊𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑡 , 𝑊𝑢𝑎𝑐𝑡 Positive semi-definite weighting factors for
GRC Generation Rate Constraint. the output and control signals of the 𝑛th
LFC Load Frequency Control. ancillary sub-MMPC.
MG Microgrid. 𝑝, 𝑐 Horizons of prediction and control.
MPC Model Predictive Control. 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 Nominal MMPC control signal of the VIC-
MMPC Multiple Model Predictive Control. based ESS.
PID Proportional Integral Derivative. 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 Ancillary MMPC control signal of the VIC-
PV Photovoltaic. based ESS.
RES Renewable Energy Source. 𝛼 Adjustment coefficient.
RMS Root Mean Square.
SCA Sine Cosine Algorithm.
SoC State of Charge.
improve the system frequency performance. To imitate the features of a
TID Tilt-Integral-Derivative.
physical synchronous generator entirely, the presented method assumes
TLMMPC Two-layer Multiple Model Predictive Con-
three virtual components: primary and secondary control loops and
trol.
control loop for the gyratory mass. In most low inertia systems, ESSs are
TPP Thermal Power Plant. employed due to the dependence of RESs output power on the weather
VIC Virtual Inertia Control. condition.
WT Wind Turbine. Some investigations have been accomplished regarding the load fre-
quency control (LFC) problem of low inertia MGs using ESSs equipped
Parameters
with VIC support. In this regard, the different control strategies based
𝛽 Frequency bias factor. on VIC have been employed in the literature to solve the problems
𝐷 System damping coefficient. related to MGs frequency control. In [10], a fractional-order fuzzy
𝑓 Base frequency. proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller is used for a VIC ap-
𝐾𝑖 , 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 Gains of integral secondary controller and plication in a power system integrated with the RESs to tackle the
VIC. uncertainties of the RESs. In [11], the fuzzy logic-based method has
𝐾𝑃 𝑉 , 𝐾𝑊 𝑇 PV and WT gains. been used to imitate the VIC for improving the LFC performance
of a low-inertia power grid. The controllers employed in [10,11] do
𝐻 System inertia constant.
not take into account operating constraints and uncertainties in the
𝑅 TPP governor speed coefficient.
system frequency response model. Hence, the control commands are
𝑇𝑔 , 𝑇𝑡 , 𝑇𝑉 𝐼𝐶 Governor, turbine, and VIC time constants.
only limited to frequency changes. The authors in [16] employ an
𝑇𝑃 𝑉 , 𝑇𝑊 𝑇 PV and WT time constants. 𝐻∞ control strategy for a VIC-based ESS to improve the frequency
𝑉𝐿 , 𝑉𝑈 Minimum and maximum the rates of valve regulation of an islanded MG in the presence of RESs. Furthermore,
opening/closing. they investigated the performance of the 𝐻∞ control strategy for a
𝐶𝑉 𝐼𝐶 Capacity KWh of VIC-based ESS. VIC-based ESS in [17] to enhance the inertia of an islanded MG under
𝑁 Number of samples in the simulation. the effects of frequency measurement and phase-locked loop. The 𝐻∞
optimization is done in offline mode. Hence, it requires an accurate
Variables
state-space representation. In comparison with data-driven algorithms,
𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 , 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 Output power changes of PV and WT. the 𝐻∞ control strategy is more vulnerable against low inertia nonlin-
𝛥𝑃𝑇 𝑃 𝑃 , 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 Output power changes of TPP and VIC. earities. Moreover, the 𝐻∞ control model is a high order model and
𝛥𝑃𝐼𝐿 , 𝛥𝑃𝑅𝐿 Output power changes of industrial and mainly needs order reduction. In [18], the authors present a robust
residential loads. control strategy called the coefficient diagram method (CDM) controller
𝛥𝑃𝐿 Sum of output power changes of industrial for VIC-based ESS to mimic the frequency fluctuations of an islanded
and residential loads. MG in the face of disturbances. In [19], the performance of VIC based
on CDM is evaluated to improve the LFC performance of a power system
𝛥𝑃𝑠 Integral secondary controller output signal.
integrated with RESs and frequency measurement effects. The CDM
𝛥𝑃𝑔 Governor output power.
control strategy produces the control commands for VIC-based ESS
𝛥𝑃𝜙 , 𝛥𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 Changes of the sun irradiation and wind
without considering uncertainty. The CDM optimization is performed
speed.
in offline mode. The CDM also needs a suitable comprehension of
𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶 VIC-based ESS control signal. classical control theory and optimization to generate control signals.
𝛥𝑃𝑚𝑑 System uncertainties. In [16–19], the operating constraints of the device have not been
𝛥𝑃𝑑 System load disturbance. considered. The authors in [20] use a proportional controller to control
a VIC-based ESS for coping with the high participation of the RESs

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S. Oshnoei et al.
in an islanded MG. The efficiency of the proportional controller is
reduced versus uncertainties and different operating conditions. Hence,
the system stability is compromised. In [21,22], the authors propose
enhanced modeling for VIC, which simultaneously imitates the virtual
damping and inertia to improve the LFC performance of an islanded
MG. The authors in [23] present a dynamic structure for VIC, which
emulates the primary frequency control, virtual inertia, and damping
simultaneously to enhance the frequency stability of an islanded MG.
In [21–23], no control strategy has been considered to control the ESS.
The authors in [21] have employed a conventional PI controller for VIC
to achieve better frequency regulation. A neural network tuner-based
variable fractional-order PID control strategy has been proposed in [24]
to control ESS equipped with the VIC to enhance the frequency stability
of an islanded MG.
The model predictive control (MPC) method is employed in complex
systems as an online optimization-based control method. This controller
utilizes an explicit model to compute the optimal control actions by
minimizing a cost function [25]. Such controllers ignore the system
uncertainties to generate effective control signals. Therefore, their ef-
ficiency is affected by uncertainties. A MPC controller has been used
in [26] to emulate the VIC concept in ESS for providing the frequency
support in an islanded MG considering the high penetration of RESs.
In [27], the authors have considered a VIC-based ESS unit in coordi-
nation with a diesel generator controlled by MPC method to improve
the frequency regulation of an islanded MG. A Laguerre functions-
based MPC method has been proposed in [28] as an islanded MG
secondary controller to eliminate the frequency deviations caused by
uncertainties and load disturbances. Similar to previous investigations,
no constraints related to ESS and system’s uncertainties have been
considered in [26–28]. The state of charge (SoC) is a main feature in
the ESS performance [29]. The important problem in operating ESSs is
that the SoC should be preserved in a suitable range. The undesired SoC
reduces the ESS’s efficiency and longevity. Hence, the stable ESS perfor-
mance depends on the SoC control [30]. In [31], the authors propose
a two-layer MPC technique to involve the aggregators of distributed
ESSs in the LFC problem of power grids. A tube-based MPC method is
presented in [32] to control the electric vehicles (EVs) to participate
in the frequency regulation of an islanded power system. The control
strategies presented in [31,32] ignore SoC control of storages to im-
prove the dynamic performance of these devices and produce effective
control commands. Consequently, the MPC-based control strategies are
not suitable candidates for working with different operating conditions.
In this regard, the authors in [30] employ the multiple MPC (MMPC)
strategy to control the SoC of the plug-in hybrid electric and improve
the LFC problem of a low inertia MG. Although the control strategy
presented in [30] controls the SoC of EVs and work with different
operating levels, uncertainties are ignored in generating the control
signals.
In previous studies, the different levels of SoC have been ignored in
the proposed control strategies for designing VIC-based ESS. Moreover,
most previous works have not considered the system uncertainties and
operating constraints of ESS. Therefore, it is essential to develop a
proper control method in the structure of the VIC-based ESS considering
different levels of SoC, system uncertainties, and operating constraints
of ESS. Regarding the above descriptions, the research gaps in the
previous works are listed as follows:
• From the perspective of ESS’s longevity and maximum efficiency,
it is necessary to control its SoC. However, the previous studies
have neglected controlling the ESS’s SoC and operating with
various SoC levels.
• In low inertia MGs, the system’s uncertainties impact the grid
stability. Hence, the system’s uncertainties should be considered
in the control scheme structure to generate effective control
commands. This problem has not been evaluated in prior works.
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Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233
• In addition to the uncertainties, constraints associated with the
ESS and system operation also play an essential role in construct-
ing the control commands. Most earlier investigations have not
addressed this issue.
The drawbacks of the previous works motivate the authors to
present the current study, which designs a control strategy considering
system uncertainties and different levels of SoC. This study presents a
two-layer multiple MPC (TLMMPC) control scheme for controlling an
ESS equipped with VIC support in order to contribute to an islanded
MG’s LFC problem. The TLMMPC works with various SoC levels to
maximize ESS efficiency while preserving ESS longevity. The proposed
control scheme has the ability to tackle system uncertainties. Further-
more, it takes into account ESS’s operational constraints. It should
be noted that changes in PV solar irradiation and WT wind speed
are regarded as system uncertainties. The proposed TLMMPC is tested
on an isolated MG and compared to an MPC, fractional order MPC
(FOMPC), and tilt-integral-derivative (TID) control strategies under a
variety of disturbances, operating conditions, and system uncertainties.
This paper’s main contribution can be summarized as follows:
• The proposed TLMMPC consists of two layers with sub-MMPCs.
Each sub-MMPC is designed for a specific SoC range. The first
layer, called nominal MMPC, generates a control signal at the
beginning to predict the frequency deviation signal based on the
nominal system without uncertainties. Then, the second layer,
referred to as the ancillary MMPC, produces the control command
of the VIC-based ESS using the nominal frequency changes and
control signals provided by nominal MMPC along with the actual
frequency changes signal produced by the real system with un-
certainties. In the nominal system, it is assumed that the output
power of PV and WT is within the planning range.
• The goal of the two-layering of the suggested TLMMPC is to cope
with uncertainties encountered in the output power of WT and
PV. To this end, the ancillary MMPC generates a trajectory for the
actual system within tubes centered around the nominal system.
• The aim of employing 𝑁 sub-MMPC in the proposed control
scheme is to control the SoC of the ESS to attain the highest
efficiency of the ESS and preserve ESS’s longevity. Hence, a
switching action is performed in TLMMPC between sub-MMPCs
designed for different operating conditions.
• Since the sub-MMPCs can have different sample times, horizons,
and weighting coefficients, they do not need an online estima-
tion of the plant model. Moreover, optimization methods in the
TLMMPC are done to attain the optimal responses of control
commands. The optimizations are bounded through constraints
associated with the ESS and system operation.
• The weighting coefficients involved in the objective functions
considerably impact the TLMMPC performance. In this regard,
a fuzzy controller tunes the weighting coefficients to present a
relative weight to the control effort.
The remainder of this study is provided as follows: In Section 2,
modeling of the islanded MG is presented. Section 3 describes the VIC
technique. In Section 4, the design of the proposed control strategy for
VIC-based ESS is explained. The simulation results and discussion are
provided in Section 5. Finally, a conclusion of this paper is provided in
Section 6.
2. Modeling of the ISLANDED microgrid
This paper investigates the LFC problem of an island MG using
the proposed TLMMPC-based VIC. In modeling the LFC system, the
automatic generation control (AGC) loop can be decoupled from the
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) control system because the time
constants of the AVR are smaller than the AGC ones [33–35]. Thus, a
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

steady state point for the AVR control loop can be considered, and the Table 1
Description and values of the MG parameters.
AVR control loop effect has been ignored on the frequency behavior
of generation units. In the previous works, e.g. [16–23], the first- Parameters Description Value

order frequency response model is employed to investigate the LFC 𝑓 Reference frequency 50 (Hz)
𝑃 System base power 12 (MW)
problem based on the VIC-based ESS application. To provide a good
𝑀 System inertia constant 0.166 (s)
comparative investigation over the existing works, the islanded MG 𝐷 System damping coefficient 0.015 (p.u. MW/Hz)
system from [16,17] is considered as the test system. It includes a 𝑇𝑔 Governor time constant 0.1 (s)
small TPP with 12 MW, a 7 MW wind farm, a solar farm with 6 MW, 𝑇𝑡 Turbine time constant 0.4 (s)
a residential load with 5 MW, and an industrial load with 10 MW. 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 Virtual inertia control gain 0.5
𝑇𝑉 𝐼𝐶 Virtual inertia control time constant 10 (s)
The system base power is 12 MW. The investigated MG schematic is 𝑅 TPP governor speed coefficient 3 (Hz/p.u. MW)
demonstrated in Fig. 1. As illustrated, RESs and ESS are connected 𝛽 Frequency bias factor 1 (p.u. MW/Hz)
to the system via power electronic devices. None of the RESs are 𝑇𝑤𝑡 WT time constant 1.5 (s)
equipped with inertia emulation. Moreover, RESs do not participate in 𝑇𝑃 𝑉 PV time constant 1.8 (s)
𝐾𝑤𝑡 WT gain 1
the MG frequency control problem. Therefore, the RESs output power,
𝐾𝑃 𝑉 PV gain 1
together with the industrial and residential loads power, are considered 𝐾𝑖 Integral gain of secondary controller 0.15
as system disturbances. This situation leads to the change of the system 𝑉𝑈 Maximum the rate of valve opening/closing 0.3
operating point and reduces the MG inertia. Accordingly, the system’s 𝑉𝐿 Minimum the rate of valve opening/closing −0.3
stability will be threatened. To cope with this challenge, an ESS sup-
ported by VIC with a rating power of 4 MW is installed. According to
Fig. 1, the control center sends the frequency deviation signal (dash
the demand-side power. Hence, the high penetration of the inverter-
line) to the TPP and VIC-based ESS through communication links. Based
based RESs into low-inertia MGs reduces system inertia. This situation
on this signal, the ESS and TPP also contribute to the MG frequency
influences the system frequency stability. Generally, a lack of adequate
regulation task (dotted line). The diagram block of the islanded MG for
inertia in MGs leads to instability and cascading failures in frequency
frequency response analysis is depicted in Fig. 2. As shown, the TPP
events. Therefore, the emulation of VIC in low-inertia MGs causes the
is augmented with a speed governor, turbine, and integral secondary
RESs to have inertia similar to the conventional generation units [26].
controller. Moreover, the limitations of governor dead band and gener-
The derivative technique is one of the main methods to imitate the
ation rate constraint (GRC) are also considered in the TPP modeling to VIC, which has been utilized in many investigations [16–23]. In this
obtain the actual system dynamics. The GRC is determined as 20% per paper, the derivative technique is employed in the ESS to calculate
minute (0.0034 p.u. MW/s) for rising and dropping rates. Furthermore, the rate of change of frequency for adding the ESS active power to
the maximum and minimum rate of valve opening/closing speed are the MG set-point value during the disturbances. Employing the VIC
indicated by 𝑉𝑈 and 𝑉𝐿 , respectively. The secondary controller output in the ESS provides the required VIC power for the MG to improve
is the area control error (ACE) power changes signal. The is composed the system frequency stability. The dynamic structure of the derivative
whenever the islanded MG frequency deviates from its nominal value. technique-based VIC is shown in Fig. 2. The equation of the derivative
A VIC-based ESS is also employed in the MG structure due to the RESs technique-based VIC is expressed as:
intermittent nature.
𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 𝑑
According to Fig. 2, the MG frequency deviation regarding the 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛥𝑓 (6)
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑉 𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝑡
inertia constant (𝐻) and damping constant (𝐷) can be presented as
follows: where, 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 and 𝑇𝑉 𝐼𝐶 denote the VIC gain and time constant, respec-
1 tively.
𝛥𝑓 = (𝛥𝑃𝑇 𝑃 𝑃 + 𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 + 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 + 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 − 𝛥𝑃𝐿 ) (1)
2𝐻𝑠 + 𝐷
4. Proposed controller design for virtual inertia control
where, 𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 , 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 , 𝛥𝑃𝑇 𝑃 𝑃 , and 𝛥𝑃𝐿 indicate the PV, WT, TPP, and
load output power changes, respectively. 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 is the output power
This section presents the design of the proposed TLMMPC technique
changes of the VIC-based ESS. The 𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 , 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 , 𝛥𝑃𝑇 𝑃 𝑃 , and 𝛥𝑃𝐿 are for controlling the VIC-based ESS to contribute to the LFC problem
represented as: of an islanded MG. As mentioned in the introduction section, in low
𝐾𝑃 𝑉 inertia MGs, it is necessary to design a suitable control method to cope
𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 = 𝛥𝑃𝜙 (2)
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑃 𝑉 with system disturbances, work with different operating conditions,
𝐾𝑊 𝑇 and consider system uncertainties to generate effective control signals.
𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 = 𝛥𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 (3)
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑊 𝑇 The methods associated with this work are designed for one range
1 1 1 of SoC without considering system uncertainties, device constraints,
𝛥𝑃𝑇 𝑃 𝑃 =( )( )(𝛥𝑃𝑠 − 𝛥𝑓 ) (4) and operating conditions to generate effective control commands. The
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑔 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑡 𝑅
proposed TLMMPC takes into account the system uncertainties and op-
𝛥𝑃𝐿 =𝛥𝑃𝐼𝐿 + 𝛥𝑃𝑅𝐿 (5) erating constraints to produce the control signals. Moreover, TLMMPC
where, 𝛥𝑃𝐼𝐿 and 𝛥𝑃𝑅𝐿 show the power changes of industrial and works with different SoC levels to obtain the highest efficiency from
residential loads, respectively. 𝛥𝑃𝑠 indicates the integral secondary the ESS and preserve the ESS longevity. The proposed TLMMPC method
controller output signal. 𝛥𝑃𝜙 and 𝛥𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 are the changes of the sun ir- comprises the nominal and ancillary MMPCs. The nominal and ancillary
radiation and wind speed, respectively. In this study, 𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 , 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 , and MMPCs include 𝑁 sub-MMPC to work with different SoC levels (In
𝛥𝑃𝐿 are considered as system disturbances. The values and descriptions this paper, each MMPC consists of 7 sub-MMPC). The sub-MMPCs are
of the system parameters are presented in Table 1 [17]. designed for a specified SoC range.

4.1. Multiple model predictive control

3. Virtual inertia control technique

The proposed TLMMPC technique controls the VIC-based ESS by

In traditional power systems, the conventional generation units
optimizing a proper cost function. Generally, the continuous-time state-
provide the system inertia response via the stored kinetic energy in
space model for MMPC is given by:
their rotational mass. The kinetic energy of the units has a vital role in
.
power grid stability. In islanded MGs, DGs are responsible for supplying 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡) + 𝐸𝛥𝑃𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝐹 𝛥𝑃𝑚𝑑 (𝑡)

4
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

Fig. 1. Schematic of the investigated islanded MG.

Fig. 2. Frequency response model of the investigated islanded MG.

5
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

𝛥𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) (7) where, 𝐶𝑉 𝐼𝐶 and 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑉 𝐼𝐶 (0) represent the capacity KWh and initial
[ ]𝑇 SoC of VIC-based ESS, respectively. The nominal sub-MMPC predicts
where, 𝐱𝑇 = 𝛥𝑓 𝛥𝑃𝑇 𝑃 𝑃 𝛥𝑃 𝑔 𝛥𝑃𝐴𝐶𝐸 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 denotes the state vari- the nominal system output or nominal frequency changes signal within
ables vector. 𝛥𝑃 𝑔 is the governor output power. 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶 is the con- the nominal system without any uncertainties. The ancillary MMPC
trol variable vector, where 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶 is the ESS control signal provided receives the nominal frequency changes and control signals provided
by the control center. 𝛥𝑃𝑑 is the system load disturbance. 𝛥𝑃𝑚𝑑 𝑇 =
[ ]𝑇 by the nominal MMPC. Then, the ancillary MMPC provides the VIC-
𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 denotes the system uncertainties. 𝛥𝑃𝑃 𝑉 and 𝛥𝑃𝑊 𝑇 are based ESS control commands using the signals provided by the nominal
considered as measured disturbances. Using Eqs. (1)–(6), the matrices MMPC along with the output signal or actual frequency changes signal
of state (𝐀), control input (𝐁), disturbance (𝐄), measured disturbance within the actual system with uncertainties. The uncertainties asso-
(𝐅), and output (𝐂) are expressed as: ciated with the PV and WT output powers are considered as system
⎡ 𝑀
−𝐷 1
0 0 1
⎤ uncertainties. The state-space equations for nominal MMPC under the
𝑀 𝑀 ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −1 1
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
nominal system are expressed as:
⎢ 0 𝑇𝑡 𝑇𝑡
0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 𝑥𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝐸𝛥𝑃𝑑 (𝑡)
𝐴 = ⎢ 𝑅𝑇 0 ⎥𝐵 = ⎢ 0 ⎥
−1 −1 1
0
⎢ 𝑔 𝑇𝑔 𝑇𝑔 ⎥ ⎢ 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) (12)
⎢𝛽𝐾 0 ⎥
⎢ 𝑖 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −1 ⎥
⎢ 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 ⎥ where 𝑥𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) is the state variable of 𝑥(𝑡). 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) shows the control
⎣ 0 0 0 ⎣ 𝑇𝑉 𝐼𝐶 ⎦
𝑇𝑉 𝐼𝐶 ⎦ signal of the nominal MMPC, which is extracted from the nominal
system model without considering the system uncertainties. Since the
⎡ −1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 ⎤ nominal system is without any uncertainties, 𝛥𝑃𝑚𝑑 is not considered in
⎢𝑀 ⎥ ⎢𝑀 𝑀⎥
(12). Therefore, it is assumed that the output powers of PV and WT are
⎢0⎥ ⎢0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ [ ] within the planning range. The control signal 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑡) is computed
𝐸 = ⎢ 0 ⎥𝐹 = ⎢ 0 0 ⎥𝐶 = 1 0 0 0 0 (8) using the following objective function:
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0⎥ ⎢0 0⎥ ∑
𝑝
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ min [𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘 + 1) − 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑘 + 1)]𝑇
⎣0⎦ ⎣0 0⎦ 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶
𝑘=0
This state-space model is utilized as a model of MMPC. At each SoC × 𝑊𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚 [𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘 + 1) − 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑘 + 1)]
level, the MMPC controller output is obtained using the measured value ∑
𝑐
of the system output signal 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 . The MMPC creates the system + [𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘)]𝑇 𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑚 [𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘)] (13)
model with a control signal 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶 so that the system output 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 𝑘=0
approaches a reference output 𝛥𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 with the least control effort, where subject to:
𝛥𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 is regulated to zero. The objective function of the MMPC to 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
produce the control signal 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶 regarding the 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 is defined as 𝛼𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤ 𝛼𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚
follows: 𝛼𝛥𝑃𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 ≤ 𝛼𝛥𝑃𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐶
∑
𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝛼𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 ≤ 𝛼𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
min [𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 (𝑘 + 1) − 𝛥𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 ]𝑇 𝑊𝑜 [𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 (𝑘 + 1)− 𝑛 𝑛
𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶
𝑘=0 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛
∑
𝑐 ≤𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 ≤ 𝛼𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 (14)
1−𝛼
𝛥𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 ] + [𝛥𝑢𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 (𝑘)]𝑇 𝑊𝑢 [𝛥𝑢𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 (𝑘)] (9) 𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑚
𝑘=0
where 𝑊𝑜 and 𝑊𝑢 represent the positive semi-definite weighting
factors related to the output and control signals of the 𝑛th nominal
subject to:
sub-MMPC, respectively. Also, the constraints of the nominal MMPC
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤ 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 in (14) are surrounded in subsets of the original limitations without
𝛥𝑃𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛼 [31]. 𝛼 is an adjustment coefficient in the range of (0, 1). The upper
𝐼𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 ≤ 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶
and lower limits of the last constraint in Eq. (14), which is related to
𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤ 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 the SoC of the VIC-based ESS, are positive values, but other constraints
𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤ 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 (10) have a positive upper limit and a negative lower limit. The Monte Carlo
simulation is utilized to determine the coefficients in an off-line mode.
where, 𝑊𝑜 and 𝑊𝑢 denote the positive semi-definite weighting fac- The state-space equations for ancillary MMPC under the actual system
tors for the output and control signals, respectively. 𝑊𝑜 and 𝑊𝑢 are are written as:
simultaneously tuned by using the fuzzy logic controller. 𝑝 and 𝑐 .
show the horizons of prediction and control, respectively. 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) + 𝐸𝛥𝑃𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝐹 𝛥𝑃𝑚𝑑 (𝑡)
𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑥
and 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 demonstrate the minimum and maximum values of the
𝐶
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) (15)
frequency deviation within the prediction horizon. 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 and 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶
are the minimum and maximum values of the VIC-based ESS power where, 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) is the state variable of 𝑥(𝑡). 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡) indicates the control
changes, respectively. 𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
and 𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
indicate the min- signal of the ancillary MMPC, which is extracted from the actual system
imum and maximum values of the control signal within the control model with considering the uncertainties. The control signal 𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑡)
horizon, respectively. It is worth notifying that Eq. (10) is related to is computed using the following objective function:
the SoC of VIC-based ESS provided by 𝑛th sub-MMPC to remain in the ∑
𝑝
range of [𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
, 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
]. min [𝛥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑘 + 1) − 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘 + 1)]𝑇
𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶
𝑘=0
4.2. Two-layer multiple model predictive control × 𝑊𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑡 [𝛥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑘 + 1) − 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘 + 1)]
∑
𝑐
The TLMMPC controller includes a nominal MMPC and an ancillary + [𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑘) − 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘)]𝑇
MMPC. The way the TLMMPC works is that a nominal sub-MMPC 𝑘=0
and an ancillary subMMPC are employed according to the SoC of the × 𝑊𝑢𝑎𝑐𝑡 [𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑘) − 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (𝑘)] (16)
VIC-based ESS, which is computed as follows:
subject to:
𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑉 𝐼𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑉 𝐼𝐶 (0) − d𝑡 (11) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
∫0 3600 × 𝐶𝑉 𝐼𝐶 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤ 𝛥𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶

6
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

Table 2
Fuzzy rules for fuzzy unit employed in TLMMPC controller.
Rules 𝛥𝑓 ′
N ZR P
N NB NS NS
𝛥𝑓 ZR NS ZR PS
P PS PS PB

𝛥𝑃𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶 ≤ 𝛥𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝐶
𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 ≤ 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
𝑛 𝑛

𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 ≤𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶𝑛 ≤ 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶 (17)
𝑛 𝑛

where, 𝑊𝑜𝑎𝑛𝑐and 𝑊𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐

denote positive semi-definite weighting factors
for the output and control signals of the 𝑛th ancillary sub-MMPC,
respectively. As (16) shows, 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 and 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 are used as the fre-
quency and control reference signals in the ancillary MMPC, respec-
tively. Therefore, the control signal in the ancillary MMPC is attained
by using the sum of the error of frequency deviations during the
prediction horizon and the error of control inputs during the control
horizon. 𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
and 𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
indicate the minimum and
𝑛 𝑛
maximum values of the control signal related to the 𝑛th actual sub-
MMPC within the control horizon, respectively. It is worth notifying
that Eq. (10) is related to the SoC of VIC-based ESS provided by 𝑛th Fig. 3. Membership functions for input and output variables of fuzzy unit in TLMMPC
controller.
actual sub-MMPC to remain in the range of [𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
, 𝑆𝑜𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶
].
𝑊𝑜 and 𝑊𝑢 in the nominal and ancillary MMPCs are simultaneously
tuned through a fuzzy method. The fuzzy method design includes the
using Eq. (11). Therefore, a nominal sub-MMPC and an ancillary sub-
following sections: fuzzification, fuzzy rule base, inference engine, and
MMPC are employed according to the computed SoC. The nominal
defuzzification. The fuzzification as the first section converts the crisp
sub-MMPC sends the control signal 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 to the VIC-based ESS
inputs values to linguistic variables via membership functions. The 𝛥𝑓
to predict the frequency deviation 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 under the nominal system
and its derivative are considered as input variables. The fuzzy rule
without uncertainties. The control signal 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 is computed using
base section shows the database’s data storage for linguistic variables.
the objective function (13) subject to (14). In the next stage, an an-
A lookup table is made in this section to define the controller output
cillary sub-MMPC receives 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 and 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚 signals obtained from
signals for all the possible combinations of inputs. For this aim, the
the nominal MMPC along with the actual frequency deviation signal
fuzzy system is specified by a set of ‘‘IF/THEN’’ conditional statements.
𝛥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 to produce the actual control signal 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 . The signal 𝛥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 is
Also, the inference engine converts the input signals into the output
obtained from the actual system with uncertainties. The actual control
signals using a set of ‘‘IF/THEN’’ conditional statements. This paper uti-
signal 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 is obtained using the objective function (16) subject to
lizes the Mamdani inference method for the proposed fuzzy controller.
(17). To follow the track of the nominal system and generate the actual
The specified fuzzy rules are presented in Table 2. The membership
control signal 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑎𝑐𝑡 , the ancillary MMPC uses 𝛥𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 and 𝛥𝑢𝑉 𝐼𝐶,𝑛𝑜𝑚
functions for input and output variables of the fuzzy controller are
signals as reference signals in the system error 𝛥𝑓 and control signal 𝛥𝑢,
depicted in Fig. 3. As shown, the membership functions of the inputs
respectively. According to Fig. 4, sub-MMPCs utilize an optimization
variables are arranged as negative (N), zero (Z), and positive (P). procedure subject to the system operation and ESS constraints to handle
Also, the membership functions corresponding to the output variables them within a finite time horizon. The weighting coefficients included
are arranged as negative large (NL), negative small (NS), zero (Z), in the nominal MMPC (𝑊𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚 and 𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑚 ) and ancillary MMPC (𝑊𝑜𝑎𝑛𝑐
positive small (PS), and positive large (PL). 𝑊𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚 , 𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑚 , 𝑊𝑜𝑎𝑛𝑐 , and and 𝑊𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐 ) in (13) and (16), respectively, are simultaneously tuned
𝑊𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐 show the outputs of the fuzzy controller. It is mentioned that through a fuzzy unit to obtain the optimal factors of control commands.
all membership functions are considered triangular [6]. In the fuzzy
controller design, scaling factors are applied to the input and output 5. Simulation results and discussions
variables to normalize the input and output signals. In the nominal
MMPC fuzzy controller, 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 and 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 are considered as the input This section investigates the importance of utilizing the proposed
and output scaling factors, respectively. 𝛼3 , 𝛼4 and 𝛽3 , 𝛽4 also are the TLMMPC-based VIC to improve the system frequency performance. The
input and output scaling factors of the ancillary MMPC fuzzy unit, simulations are done using MATLAB/Simulink software. According to
respectively. In this paper, the scaling factors are obtained via a trial Fig. 2, industrial and residential loads have been modeled by signal
and error method. The scaling factors obtained are 𝛼1 = 1.3, 𝛼2 = 0.65, builder block. The thermal power plant has been modeled by first-
𝛽1 = 0.3, 𝛽2 = 0.35, 𝛼3 = 0.95, 𝛼4 = 0.8, 𝛽3 = 0.6, and 𝛽4 = 0.4. order transfer functions, dead zone, and saturation blocks. Also, WT
In the defuzzification section, fuzzy quantities of output are con- and PV have been simulated by the signal builder and first-order
verted into crisp values via output membership functions. The centroid transfer function blocks. Finally, ESS modeling has been presented by
method is utilized for defuzzification. Centroid determines a crisp value derivative, gain, and first-order transfer function blocks. The time delay
based on the center of fuzzy set gravity. of 0.001 s between the control center and generation units of TPP and
Fig. 4 shows the proposed TLMMPC structure to control VIC-based VIC-based ESS is also considered to model the impact of communication
ESS. As shown, the proposed TLMMPC comprises a nominal MMPC and networks on the system frequency performance. Moreover, a fixed-step
an ancillary MMPC. The nominal and ancillary MMPCs consist of 𝑁 solver with a sample time of 1 × 10−4 s is used in MATLAB/Simulink
sub-MMPC to work with different SoC levels. The nominal and ancillary configuration parameters to implement the investigated LFC system
sub-MMPCs are designed for a specified SoC range and employed with the proposed control method.

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S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

Fig. 4. Proposed TLMMPC structure (a): Overall structure of the controller (b): Nominal and ancillary sub-MMPCs structure.

To demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed method, the dynamic Table 3

performance of the proposed TLMMPC is evaluated in two subsections. TLMMPC and MPC setting.
In the first subsection, the frequency performance of the TLMMPC SoC ranges (%) VIC-based ESS control signal
controller is compared with the MPC controller [26] under different 𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
operating conditions and severe disturbances. To this end, four cases 𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶1 10 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 30 −0.07 +0.07
with different initial SoCs are considered. The parameters of the MPC 𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶2 30 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 40 −0.08 +0.06
and TLMMPC methods are as follows, prediction horizon: 10, control 𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶3 40 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 50 −0.09 +0.05
horizon: 3, and sampling interval: 0.1 s. In addition to the MPC method, 𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶4 50 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 60 −0.1 +0.04
𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶5 60 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 70 −0.11 +0.03
TID and FOMPC control strategies are also added to the last case
𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶6 70 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 80 −0.12 +0.02
as other comparative methods for further investigation the proposed 𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑀𝑃 𝐶7 80 < 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 90 −0.13 +0.01
TLMMPC method. The second subsection focuses on the sensitivity
𝑀𝑃 𝐶 𝑆𝑜𝐶 ≤ 90 −0.49 +0.49
analysis of the frequency deviation with respect to the MG inertia and
damping coefficients employing the proposed TLMMPC-based VIC. The
changes range of the VIC-based ESS control signal constraints along Table 4
with SoC constraints for MPC and TLMMPC controllers are presented Operating conditions of the generation sources and loads of the MG.
in Table 3. This paper assumes that the amplitude of control signal Disturbance source Connection duration to grid
changes is 0.98 (in per unit). Moreover, it is assumed that if the Residential load 0–800 (s)
SoC increases by nearly 90%, |𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 | is larger than |𝛥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 | to prevent 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒1
Industrial load 0–75 (s), 460–730 (s)
reaching 90% of the SoC. Also, Table 4 exhibits the connection and Solar irradiation 0–130 (s), 360–720 (s)
Wind power 0–180 (s), 590–800 (s)
disconnection periods of the loads, PV, and WT.
Residential load 0–800 (s)
Industrial load 0–800 (s)
5.1. Impact of the proposed control strategy on MG frequency response 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒2
Solar irradiation 200–600 (s)
Wind power 350–700 (s)
In this subsection, the frequency performance of the proposed
Residential load 0–800 (s)
TLMMPC technique is compared with the MPC controller under differ- Industrial load 0–180 (s), 590–800 (s)
ent operating conditions and severe disturbances. Moreover, TID and 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒3, 4
Solar irradiation 280–645 (s)
FOMPC control strategies are also considered as other comparative Wind power 380–720 (s)
methods in case 4 for further evaluation of the proposed TLMMPC
method. The root mean square (RMS) index is computed in each case to
evaluate the considered controllers’ performance mathematically. The
RMS value is expressed as: where 𝑁 shows the number of samples in the simulation. The power
√ changes in the industrial and residential loads for a period of 800 s are
√
√ 1∑
𝑁
illustrated in Fig. 5(a) and (b), respectively. Fig. 6(a) and (b) also show
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √
2
[𝛥𝑓 2 ] (18)
𝑁 𝑖=0 the changes in solar irradiation and wind power, respectively.

8
S. Oshnoei et al.
Fig. 5. Fluctuations in the loads power: (a) Industrial load (b) Residential load.
Fig. 6. Uncertainties related to the RESs output power (a): Solar irradiation (b): Wind
speed.
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒1: In this case, the initial SoC is equal to 0.35. Fig. 7(a) exhibits
the system frequency responses employing VIC based on the TLMMPC
and MPC controllers. It is clear that the oscillations’ amplitude is
significantly decreased using the TLMMPC-based VIC than the MPC-
based VIC. For example, when the industrial load is connected to the
grid at time = 460 s, it leads to a frequency drop of −0.0522 Hz in
the case of TLMMPC-based VIC, while it reaches −0.116 Hz in the
case of the MPC-based VIC. When the industrial load is disconnected
from the grid at time = 730 s, it leads to the frequency overshoot of
+0.055 Hz in the case of TLMMPC-based VIC and +0.109 Hz in the case
of the MPC-based VIC. The output power and SoC of the ESS employing
the MPC and TLMMPC controllers are illustrated in Fig. 7(b) and (c).
As can be seen, the ESS controlled by the proposed TLMMPC method
is efficiently charged/discharged compared to ESS controlled by the
MPC controller in response to severe perturbations and contingencies.
9
Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233
Fig. 7. TLMMPC and MPC controllers performance comparison under case 1 conditions
(a): System frequency response (b): ESS output power (c): SoC of ESS.
Table 5
RMS values of the MPC and TLMMPC controllers for different cases.
Control strategy Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
TLMMPC 0.0128 0.013 0.0155
MPC 0.0345 0.0347 0.0418
Therefore, it can be said that the proposed control strategy can reduce
the frequency fluctuations more effectively than the MPC. According to
Table 3, TLMMPC2 is activated as the nominal and ancillary MMPCs in
the SoC range between 0.3 and 0.4. The RMS values for this case using
the MPC and TLMMPC controllers are represented in Table 5. It is clear
that the proposed TLMMPC has less RMS value in comparison with the
MPC. Therefore, it is evident that the proposed TLMMPC significantly
improves the system frequency response compared to MPC.
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒2: This case assumes that the initial SoC is 0.52. Moreover,
residential and industrial loads are constantly present in the grid. In this
case, the efficiency of the proposed TLMMPC method is evaluated under
the nominal condition (nominal parameters) and a 30% reduction in
𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. The results, including the system frequency response,
ESS output power, and SoC under the nominal system condition, are
presented in Fig. 8. The results imply that the proposed TLMMPC-based
VIC improves the system frequency performance more than the MPC
controller from viewpoints of the oscillations’ amplitude and settling
time. For example, from 350 s to 700 s (duration of the WT presence
in the grid), the maximum frequency deviation reaches +0.2 Hz in
the case of the MPC-based VIC, while it has driven to +0.09 Hz in
the case of the TLMMPC-based VIC. Fig. 8(b) and (c) indicate the
ESS output power and SoC, respectively. According to these figures,
it is clear that the proposed TLMMPC technique has faster and better
performance in charging/discharging power than the MPC. The RMS
values related to case 2 are also shown in Table 5. As shown, the
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

Fig. 9. System frequency response employing the MPC and TLMMPC controllers for
case 2 under 30% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value.

Fig. 8. TLMMPC and MPC controllers performance comparison under case 2 conditions
(a): System frequency response (b): ESS output power (c): SoC of ESS.

TLMMPC-based VIC presents a much better frequency response than the

MPC-based VIC. In addition to the RMS, the computational time (CT)
of MPC and TLMMPC controllers for this case is also computed. The
CT values for the MPC and TLMMPC are 17.7 and 20.2, respectively.
It should be mentioned that all computations in this paper are done
in an interpretative programming environment of MATLAB/Simulink
installed on a laptop with a core i7-7500U CPU @ 2.70 GHz, RAM
12 GB. There are many factors that can influence CT. In each prediction
horizon, TLMMPC computes the SoC of the ESS. Hence, a switching
action in TLMMPC is performed between sub-MMPCs designed for
Fig. 10. TLMMPC and MPC controllers performance comparison under case 3
different operating conditions. A fuzzy controller is also used in the conditions (a): System frequency response (b): ESS output power (c): SoC of ESS.
structure of the TLMMPC to tune its weighting coefficients. The fixed
fuzzy rules used in the design procedure impact the CT of fuzzy control.
Moreover, taking into account the constraints related to the device
and SoC of ESS are depicted in Fig. 10(a), (b), and (c), respectively.
enhances the CT of the TLMMPC. In the design of the TLMMPC method,
According to Fig. 10(a), it can be said that the proposed TLMMPC-based
the choice of control interval time has a remarkable role in online
VIC can effectively handle the applied disturbances and reduce the
CT. Restricting the control horizon significantly reduces the CT of the
frequency oscillations compared to the MPC-based VIC. The TLMMPC
TLMMPC. Hence, the optimal choice of control horizon is a trade-off
between the effectiveness and CT. To evaluate the efficiency of the could preserve the frequency oscillations amplitude within ±0.08 Hz,
proposed control strategy under the critical condition, MG is operated while the MPC controller maintains it within ±0.18 Hz. Moreover, the
under the condition of 30% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. Fig. 9 illustrates proposed TLMMPC gives a much shorter settling time than the MPC
the MG frequency response under this condition. From Fig. 9, it is controller. Fig. 10(b) and (c) also show that the TLMMPC control
clear that the proposed TLMMPC provides better frequency response strategy is significantly charged/discharged than the MPC controller
than the MPC in the face of load disturbances, RES’s uncertainties, and in reaction to the applied perturbations to MG. The RMS values of
30% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. Therefore, it can be concluded that a this case are indicated in Table 5. As the table implies, the proposed
30% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value slightly affects the TLMMPC-based VIC TLMMPC has less RMS value compared to the MPC method. There-
frequency performance. fore, it is evident that the proposed TLMMPC presents a much better
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒3: This case investigates the frequency performance of the pro- frequency performance than the MPC controller.
posed TLMMPC technique under the nominal condition of the system To analyze the performance of the proposed TLMMPC technique
and 50% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. In this case, the initial SoC is under the more critical condition, MG is operated under the situation of
assumed to be 0.71. The system frequency response, output power, 50% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. Fig. 11 illustrates the obtained frequency

10
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

Table 6
Optimized parameters of the TID controller using SCA.
Parameters 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑖 𝐾𝑑 𝑛
Values 0.25 −0.2 0.2 3

Table 7
RMS values of the presented controllers under case 4 conditions.
Control strategy TID MPC FOMPC TLMMPC
RMS 0.0225 0.0191 0.0172 0.011

Table 8
Fig. 11. System frequency response employing the TLMMPC and MPC controllers for Output power and SoC of the ESS controlled by different methods under case 4
case 3 under 50% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. conditions.
Control strategy Case 4
Max power Min power Max SoC Min SoC
TID 0.126 −0.191 0.716 0.701
MPC 0.163 −0.229 0.719 0.698
FOMPC 0.202 −0.26 0.721 0.694
TLMMPC 0.33 −0.33 0.725 0.688

the fractional-order operator of the tilt term. In the FOMPC controller,

a fractional-order integral cost function introduced into the MPC al-
gorithm. More details about the VIC based on the TID and FOMPC
controllers are available in [36,37], respectively. The adjustable pa-
rameters of the TID controller are tuned via minimizing the following
objective function:
𝑇
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡|(𝛥𝑓 )|2 d𝑡 (20)
∫0
subject to

𝐾𝑡,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐾𝑡 ≤ 𝐾𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐾𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐾𝑖 ≤ 𝐾𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐾𝑑,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐾𝑑 ≤ 𝐾𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (21)

The sine cosine algorithm (SCA) algorithm is utilized to attain the

Fig. 12. TID, MPC, FOMPC, and TLMMPC controllers performance comparison under
case 4 conditions (a): System frequency response (b): ESS output power (c): SoC of
ESS.
responses using the TLMMPC and MPC control strategies. The results
demonstrate that the TLMMPC-based VIC provides a much better fre-
quency response from viewpoints settling time, peak overshoot, and
peak undershoot than the MPC-based VIC.
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒4: This case investigates the frequency performance of the
proposed TLMMPC technique under nominal condition of the system
and 50% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. To this end, the TID controller
in [36] and FOMPC controller in [37] have been considered as other
comparative control strategies. The initial SoC is assumed to be 0.71.
The transfer function of the TID controller is written as follows:
−1 𝐾 overshoot/undershoot than the other control strategies. Therefore, the
𝑇 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾𝑡 .𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑖 + 𝐾𝑑 .𝑠 (19)
𝑠 TLMMPC-based VIC can effectively provide better frequency response
where 𝐾𝑡 , 𝐾𝑖 , and 𝐾𝑑 indicate the gains related to the tilt, integral,
and derivative terms of the TID controller, respectively. Also, 𝑛 shows
optimal values of the TID controller. Table 6 represents the optimal
parameters of the TID controller using the SCA.
The system frequency deviations, ESS output power, and SoC related
to this case employing the different controllers are demonstrated in
Fig. 12(a)–(c), respectively. As Fig. 12(a) demonstrates, the proposed
TLMMPC can effectively reduce the frequency oscillations and control
the applied disturbances compared to the TID, MPC, and FOMPC
controllers. TLMMPC maintains the amplitude of the frequency fluctu-
ations within ±0.07 Hz, while the TID, MPC and FOMPC control strate-
gies maintain the frequency oscillations amplitude within ±0.19 Hz,
±0.12 Hz, and ±0.108 Hz, respectively. The RMS values of different
control methods for this case are indicated in Table 7. As table shows,
the proposed TLMMPC method has the least RMS value compared to
the other control strategies. Therefore, it is clear that the proposed
TLMMPC method has a much better capability to improve the MG
frequency performance than other controllers. Fig. 12(b) and (c) also
denote that the TLMMPC-based VIC presents a much better efficiency
in charging/discharging power of the ESS than the other control strate-
gies. Table 8 indicates the numerical characteristics of the power and
SoC of the ESS based on the considered methods. As illustrated, the
TLMMPC-based ESS is significantly more charged/discharged than the
other methods in reaction to the disturbances applied to the system.
To analyze the effectiveness of the proposed TLMMPC technique
under the more critical condition, the system is operated consider-
ing the condition of 50% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value. Fig. 13 illus-
trates the frequency responses obtained by the TID, MPC, FOMPC, and
TLMMPC controllers. The results reveal that the TLMMPC improves
the system frequency response from viewpoints settling time and peak
under severe disturbances, uncertainties associated with the RESs, and
different operating conditions.

11
S. Oshnoei et al. Applied Energy 343 (2023) 121233

6. Conclusion

This paper presented a TLMMPC technique to control the ESS

Fig. 13. Frequency responses attained by the different controllers under case 4
conditions and 50% reduction in 𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 value.
Fig. 14. Frequency response sensitivity with respect to 𝐹 (𝑠) employing the TLMMPC
controller.
equipped by the VIC for improving the frequency performance of a
low-inertia islanded MG. The TLMMPC can operate with different SoC
levels to obtain the highest efficiency from the ESS and preserve the
ESS longevity. Moreover, the system uncertainties and operating con-
straints are considered in the TLMMPC structure to generate effective
control commands. The TLMMPC comprises a nominal MMPC and an
ancillary MMPC. At each SoC level, the nominal MMPC provides an
initial control command along with the associated frequency deviations
signal under nominal system conditions. Then, the ancillary MMPC
produces the actual control signal for the VIC-based ESS using the
signals provided by the nominal MMPC and the frequency deviations
signal of the actual system with uncertainties. The performance of the
suggested TLMMPC controller was compared to the MPC, TID, and
FOMPC controllers under severe disturbances and different operating
conditions. The simulation results demonstrated that the proposed
TLMMPC technique is more capable of controlling the SoC of the ESS,
coping with the system uncertainties, and improving the MG frequency
response than the other controllers. Finally, the sensitivity analysis
illustrated that the TLMMPC is robust in the face of changes regarding
the system parameters.
In future work, the proposed TLMMPC method will be employed
for voltage-source inverters-based microgrids to improve the system’s
power quality.
CRediT authorship contribution statement

5.2. Sensitivity analysis of the system using the proposed control strategy Soroush Oshnoei: Writing – original draft, Software, Visualization.
Mohammad Reza Aghamohammadi: Investigation, Data curation, Vi-
This subsection accomplishes the sensitivity analysis of the sys- sualization, Writing – review & editing. Siavash Oshnoei: Validation,
tem to evaluate the performance of the proposed TLMMPC against Writing – review & editing, Methodology. Subham Sahoo: Conceptu-
uncertainties associated with the grid parameters. In this study, the alization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Arman Fathol-
sensitivity of the frequency deviation with respect to 𝐹 (𝑠) (the transfer lahi: Writing – review & editing, Methodology. Mohammad Hasan
function associated with rotating mass and load) is evaluated. Accord- Khooban: Investigation, Writing – review & editing, Methodology.
ing to Fig. 2, the MG frequency deviation with respect to 𝛥𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) is
presented as follows Declaration of competing interest
𝛥𝑓 (𝑠)
𝐾(𝑠) = The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
𝛥𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)
−𝐹 (𝑠) cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
= (22) influence the work reported in this paper.
1 − 𝐵(𝑠) − 𝐶(𝑠)
where
Data availability
1
𝐹 (𝑠) =
2𝐻𝑠 + 𝐷
1 1 1 The data that has been used is confidential.
𝐵(𝑠) = 𝐹 (𝑠) (𝛽.𝑃 𝐼 − )
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑔 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑡 𝑅
𝑠𝐾𝑉 𝐼𝐶 References
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