Plant Growth and Development Seed Germination -Store seeds of ripe fruits Seed Dormancy They will not

germinate in an environment that is not their habitat Fossilized seeds can still be viable after remaining dormant. Ex. Cereals Seed coats protect the seed Farmers sift through dead seeds using water Seeds must be stored very dry (i.e. low moisture content) When you germinate the seed, you first introduce moisture Mungo seeds grow so fast that they can actually germinate in the fruit itself Germination of Beans The seed coat wrinkles when radicle is about to emerge Dicots have shorter germination time Palay vs. Maize: Maize germinates faster due to thinner testa 1. Imbition: Seed absorbs water 2. Protrusion of radicle-->root-->root system (depending on the organism) 3. Emergence of Plumule -->shoot (into leaves and stem Factors affecting germination Depends on the seed. Some germinate immediately with water. Some need CO2 or light/darkness or some other factor Notice that some cotyledons remain at the bottom of the soil or rises up Cotyledons =/= first seed leaves as they are part of the seed Remnant of the cotyledons present Legumes have compound leaves but have simple leaves during the first part of their life Chemical Coordination in Plants Makahiya droops when touched. Acacia leaves on vertical position on the daytime, horizontal position on nighttime. Sunflowers follow the sunlight But why? -Even if they don't have endocrine or nervous systems, they can react to stimuli Chemical Coordination=Plant Regulators Plant Vitamins Plant Hormones How can Plants respond to the Environment? 1. Can send signals between different parts of the plant Makahiya droops when touched 2. Track the time of day and time of year Fruits only grow at a particular time of the year 3. Sense and respond to gravity and direction of light Phototropism and gravitropism 4. Respond to environmental cues by adjusting their growth

Plant Hormones Same definition as animal hormones Compounds produced by one part trigger response in target cells and tissues Control plant growth and development by affecting division, elongation and differentiation of cells Effect are dependent on site of action, stage of plant growth and hormone concentration Hormonal signal is amplified, perhaps by affecting gene expression, enzyme activity or membrane properties Reaction to hormones depends on hormonal balance (relative concentration of 1 hormone compared with others) Plant Vitamins Plants synthesize their own vitamins Vitamins are needed for enzymes in life processes such as Photosynthesis Take note that no special organs produce hormones or vitamins. All parts of the plant produce hormones But some parts produce a specific hormone more. Plant growth is determined by 1. Genetics 2. Environment [6 plant hormones will be discussed] -No endocrine glands are present in plants -Cells produce the hormones Plant Hormones 1. Auxins major site of production is the apical meristem move apex down to zone of cell elongation promote cell elongation in coleptiles and stems involved in phototropism and gravitropism IAA (naturally occurring)-Indoleacetic Acid promotes uniform flowering helps set the fruit and helps premature fruit drop can also be applied so that a given tree wiil produce a smaller # of large fruits synthetic auxins like 2,4-D are used as herbicides (compounds w/c, at proper concentration, kill some plants not the others) to prevent broadleaf weeds from growing in fields of cereal crops 2,4 T---> Agent Orange: used in the Vietnam War to defoliate plants. Those exposed now have neurological diseases Hence, not all auxins are beneficial together with cytokinin contribute to the apical dominance through an antagonistic mechanism 2. Cytokinins Most abundant in the meristematic tissues of shoot tips move from the roots to target tissues by moving up in the xylem sap promote cell division and leaf expansion stimulate RNA and protein synthesis anti-aging hormone-retard leaf aging function in apical dominance; stimulates axillary bud growth while auxins restrain bud growth causing the shoot to lengthen Reason why we have Macapuno plants today 3. Gibberellins Produced primarily in roots and young leaves; a high concentration is found in many seeds in the embryo

promotes stem elongation might help break dormancy of seeds and buds stimulate the germination and support growth by stimulating synthesis of mRNA which codes for alpha amylase; the enzyme then digests the stored nutrients, making them available to the embryo and seedling cause bolting (rapid growth of floral stems, which elevates flowers) 4. Abscisic acid helps prevent water loss by promoting stomatal closure during water stress (antistress hormone) promotes bud and seed dormancy common in fleshy fruits where it seems to inhibit seeds from germinating prematurely applied to flower buds destined for shipment 5. Ethylene a gaseous hormone that diffuses through air spaces between plant cells; high auxin concentrations induce the release of ethylene promotes fruit ripening induces synthesis of enzymes that digest the polysaccharides in the cell walls use to brighten the color of citrus fruits rind triggers abscission, the dropping of flowers, fruits and leaves in response to environmental signals 6. Phytochrome related to the physiological response: photoperiodism (stimulus: day-length) short-day plants long-day plants day-neutral plants critical night length::critical period 2 forms Phytochrome red red to far-red (fast during the day) Phytochrome far-red The 2 forms are interconvertible Responses: seed germination, control of flowering [END OF AUGUST 23 LECTURE] August 30, 2013 Phototropism -When a plant is grown in a uniformly lit environment, it grows normally -However, if it grows in the dark, it grows long and slender [etiolated condition] -In an experiment, the plant always grows towards the light Explanation: Unequal distribution of auxins causes this movement and bending of the plant There is a faster elongation of cells on the dark side so that the plant moves to the lighted side Gravitropism Caused by unequal distribution of auxins unsymmetrical reaction of the stem and the root different reaction of different plant parts to auxin Roots elongate with less auxin Stems elongate with more auxin Thigmotropism Reaction to touch Influenced by the amount of water in the cell

Apical dominance In the shoot tip High Auxin Low Cytokinin Away from shoot tip Low Auxin High Cytokinin High concentration of Auxin and Low concentration of Cytokinin is not conducive to the formation of lateral buds In pruning, the apical buds are chopped off to promote lateral growth *Callus formation is promoted by Cytokinins. A group of cells in tissue culture* Gibberellins Recall: Internodes are more distinct in monocots (bamboo) Dwarf plants are determined by short internode length -Sprayed to seedless grapes to promote bolting -Water instigates mobilization of nutrients in the seed and induces production of Gibberellin -Gibberellin promotes the synthesis of alpha amylase to break down the sugar -Basically, they promotes seed germination -Promotes flower opening Abscisic Acid -The reason why you're not eating fruits with seeds that are germinating because ABA causes them to be dormant -Can be used to retain the bud form of flowers Ethylene -in gaseous form -When transporting fruits, they place dried banana leaves/newspapers are placed

September 4, 2013 A flash of light causes a difference in the flowering of day length dependent plants See notes for explanation Florigen-causes flowers to form Genetics Recall: Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Replication (DNA)-->Transcription-->RNA (3 types of RNA)-->translation-->protein Protein dictates your genetic constitution (genome) Genotype dictates the phenotype The environment can change the phenotype but the genotype is conserved Character=taxonomic features (i.e. color of the ears) Trait=alternative form of character (may be recessive or dominant) A branch of biology that attempts to Describe similarities and differences among organisms (Variation) Explain the way in which these characteristics are transmitted through generation (Heredity) Provide the cellular or physical basis of heredity (Cytogenetics) Characterize the chemical nature of the genetic material as well as the mode by which it brings about the traits it controls (Molecular Genetics) Describe the behavior of genetic material in large group of individuals with the passage of time (Population Genetics) To study a genetic problem, one needs at least 2 generations Methods of Studying Genetics Planned experimental breeding Kinds of variation Sexual reproduction or a system of recombination Controlled matings Short generation time Large number of offsprings Convenience of caring Pedigree analysis Family tree Male-square, female-circle Limitation: do not include other families Adopted children not included Statistical analysis (ex. Chi-square test) Twin study Karyotyping: amniocentesis DNA testing and Profiling September 6, 2013 Homologous chromosomes Same size Position of Locus Alleles are dependent of genotype *use the letter of the dominant characteristics -why use only one letter for recessive and dominant genotypes? All homozygous traits are homozygous All recessive traits are homozygous Law of Segregation of Genes True breeding, pure breeding plants are crossed to produce a hybrid All hybrids have heterozygous genotypes Monohybrid: from the cross of 2 contrasting homozygous plants

Monohybrid cross Cross of 2 heterozygous purple plants How many kinds of gametes are produced? 2 each w/ 50% chance of forming It is time consuming to make a punnet square Not advisable How many offspring are produced? #gametes x #gametes How many phenotypes? 2 kinds of phenotypes Phenotypic ratio Always label the phenotype 3A-:1aa Lowest terms if possible How many genotypes? 3 possible genotypes *always label How do you know the genotype of the plant of an unkown genotype? Use test cross: cross it with recessive phenotype A monohybrid test cross Only 2 offsprings 2 phenotypes, 1:1 2 genotype, 1:1 Law of independent assortment You can produce a dihybrid if YYRR x yyrr YyRr YYrr x yyRR YyRr No matter how many gene loci there are, what matters is the heterozygous loci in determining the number of gametes produced How many offsprings 16 offsprings How many phenotypes 4 phenotypes Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1 How many genotypes 3x3=9 What is the chance of getting a dihybrid from a dihybrid cross? What is the chance that you will get homozygous genotype from a dihybrid cross? Use a punnet square Dihybrid Test cross How many offsprings 4 How many phenotypes 2 x 2=4 What is the phenotypic ratio? 1:1:1:1 Dominance relations Incomplete dominance Blending of characters Codominance On cows, red x white= roam Multiple Alleles Forward mutation/backward mutation Other mutation Series of alleles are formed No matter how many alleles there are, it only controls 1 character Dominance hierarchy is present