SOCIALISM.

BY

JOHN

STUART

MILL.

Review. from the Fortnightly Reprinted

"

'.

i"

rKs

-,-

SERViCIS
DATE..
BELFORDS,
CLARKE
MDCCCLXXIX.

J
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1990
CO

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HX

PRELIMINARY

NOTICE.

IT
last

was

in the

the

year

1869

that, impressed

with

degree in which, even

the world

during the
seemed
so

twenty years, when

other

with wholly occupied ideas of

matters, the socialist

had

thinkers speculative in every civilized

spread among

the workers

country, Mr. Mill

book
on

formed
ism.

the

designof writinga
that the

Social

Convinced

inevitable

tendencies

of modern involved

must society

be to
more

bringthe questions
and
more

in

it

always
it of

to

the

front, he
quence

thought

conse great practical

that

they should

be

and thoroughly lines

im

considered,and partially

the

pointed out

by

which

the

best

theories speculatively-tested the

might,without
one

of suffering on prolongation disturbance of

on

hand, or unnecessary

the

other,

be

applied to

the

order existing

things. He

INTRODUCTORY.

therefore

planned a

work

which

should

go

ex

haustivelythrough the

whole

subject, point by

point;
first

and

the

chaptersnow
thrown

printed are
down towards

the the

rough

drafts

foundation

of that work. the work and then

came

These
to be

might chapters
completelywrit

not, when
ten out

re-written, accordingto the

author's
order ;

habit, have

appeared
been work. I have

in

the

present

they might parts of

hesitation

have the that

into incorporated It has

not

different without

been
to

yielded

the

urgent wish
these with
me

of the editor of this Review the world

; but

to

give

chaptersto
his

I have

complied
to
as

request because, while

they appear
as

to

possess

great intrinsic value

the

well

to application special

problems now

forcing
not, I

themselves

on

publicattention,they will
even

believe, detract
of reputation
an

from

the

mere

Literary
form

their author, but will rather the

example of
is done.

patientlabor

with

which

good

work

HELEN

TAYLOR.

January,

1879.

SOCIALISM.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN
ably
the and

the

great country
is
now

beyond
the
soon

the
most

Atlantic

which

well-nigh
will

powerful

country in the world, and

so, manhood

be

indisput
is also

suffrage prevails.
France German several the the

Such since

of political qualification has become

not

1848,

that of

of

the

Confedera
states
com

tion, though

all the
Britain but

posing
yet
so

it.

In

Great

suffrage is
last the Reform

not

widely extended,
within
so

Act of the live

as

admitted Constitution
on

what

is called
a

pale
who
as

large
that
to

body
as soon

of

those and
a

weekly
shall for

wages, choose any

common

often

these
exert

act

together as object
our

class,and
of the

the

whole

electoral

power

which will

present

institutions
not
a

give them,

they

exercise, though

SOCIALISM.

a complete ascendency,

very
are

great influence
the very

on

Now legislation.

these

class

which, in the vocabulary of the higher ranks,

are

said

to

have have

no

stake

in

the

country. Of

course

they

in

stake, the greatest reality

since their

bread daily
not

depends on engaged (we

its prosper may

ity.

But

they are
any

call it
own,

bribed) by
the

interest peculiar

of their

to

least of all to support of property as it is, of property. inequalities So far

the support of
as

their power

reaches,or

may
to

hereafter reach,
for

the laws of upon

property have
of
a

depend

support
upon
to the
a

considerations
made

public nature,

the estimate

of their conduciveness
not

and welfare, general

upon

motives the

of

mere

personal character
those who It
seems

operating on
over

minds

of

have
to
as

control
me

the Government. the

that
no

greatness of

this

change is

yet by

means

real completely

ized,either by those
who say
are

who

opposed,or

by

those To

effected the of

our

last constitutional

reform.

truth, the
late somewhat

of Englishmen perceptions blunted

as

to

the

ten-

SOCIALISM.

dencies
so

of

political changes. They changes made,

from

have

seen

many in

which,

while
en

only

prospect,vast
of either far evil

expectationswere
and of

tertained, both
the results of

good,

while fol

kind

that of
come

actually
had feel
as

lowed

seemed

short have

what
to

been if it

that they predicted,

were

the nature

of

political changes not

have fallen into
a

to fulfil

and expectation, half-unconscious

habit

of

belief that
a

such

when changes, do revolution, in the practice

they take placewithout

aot
course

violent

much of

or

permanentlydisturb
to

thingshabitual
is but
a

the

country.
either

This,
of the of
as

however,

view superficial The

past
the

or

of the

future.

various been
as

reforms
at
was

last two

have generations

least

fruitful in told. The

importantconsequences
were predictions

fore
as

often

erroneous

to

the suddenness
as

of the effects,and of effect. those who We

sometimes the

even

to

the kind

laugh at

vain

of expectations

thought that

Catholic
re

emancipationwould

Ireland, or tranquilize
At the end

concile it to British rule.

of the first

10

SOCIALISM.

ten

years of the Reform

to think

Act

of 1832, few
remove

contin
every

ued

either that

it would

grievance,or important practical

that

it had But

opened

the

door

to

universal
more

suffrage.

five-and-twenty years

of its

operationhad
of
its

given
indirect
ous

scope

for

large development
is much
more

working,which
the direct.

moment

than

Sudden

effects in which

history
go

are

Causes superficial. generally into the roots serious of future

deep

down
most

events

producethe

and parts of their effect only slowly,

to

have, therefore, time

'

become

part of the

familiar order of
13

thingsbefore general attention

called

to

the

changes they
become

are

producing;
evident, they

since,when
are

the

changesdo
by

often not

seen,

cursory

to be in observers,

any The
are

manner peculiar

connected of
a new

with

the

cause.

remoter

conequences
understood have been

fact political

seldom

when

they occur,

except

when This
in
our

they

beforehand. appreciated

is particularly timely appreciation easy of the Reform

respect to tendencies
institutions

change
Act

made of

in

by

the

1867.

SOCIALISM.

11

The Act

great increase of electoral power

which

the

places within

the

reach

of

the

working
which
a

classes is have mited ary,

permanent.

The

circumstances

caused
use

them, thus
of that power,
even

far, to make
are

very

essentially tempor
most

is known jjt

to the

inobservant,
are

that the

working classes have, and

concern

to likely

have, political objectswhich

them

as

working classes, and

or wrongly,that rightly

on

which

they believe,
opin

the

interests and

ions of the other theirs. However

powerfulclasses are
much their

opposed to
these
want

pursuit of by

objects may
of electoral

be for the

present retarded

by organization,
not

dissensions

among
as

themselves, or by their
their wishes
it shape, is
as

having reduced

yet

into

definite practical sufficiently

as can anything in politics

certain

be, that they

will before

long find
electoral the

the

means

of effec their
so,

making

their

collective
to

power

tively instrumental
collective
it will tive way
not

proportion of
when

objects.
be in

And the

they

do

and disorderly
a

ineffec habitu-

which

to belongs

peoplenot

12

SOCIALISM.

ated

to

the

use

of

legal and
it be

constitutional

machinery,nor
mere

will

by

the

impulse of

instinct of the the press,

return

The levelling^

instruments

will

be and

publicmeetings and
to

associations,
the

Parliament

of

greatest

number possible cal aims aims of the

of persons

pledgedto
classes. The

the

politi

working
be for

political
definite scienti of
in

will themselves
;

determined

by
now

doctrines political studied fically

are politics

from

the

point of

view

the the

and working classes, interest special

opinionsconceived
are

of those classes

into organized
to
a

systems and
on

creeds

which

lay claim

place
the

the

philosophy, platform of political by

the

same

as right

systems elaborated
utmost

by previous

thinkers.
all

It is of the

importance that
into

reflecting persons
what these

should

take

earlycon
are

sideration

creeds popularpolitical

to be, and likely

that every under

article of single
the fullest

them

should

be

brought

light of
i

and investigation

so discussion,

that,if possible
is

when them

the time may be

shall be

whatever ripe, what

rightin,
wrong

adopted,and

is

SOCIALISM.

13

rejected by generalconsent,
a

and

that

instead

of

hostile conflict, or onhr physical

old and the new,

moral, between
may

the

the best

parts of both
At

be combined

in

renovated those

social fabric.

the

ordinary
which have
on are

pace
not
us

of

great social

changes

effected
an

we by physicalviolence,

before the due

interval

of about of which

generation
,

employment

it

depends
"

whether
to the

the accommodation altered

state

of social institution

of human
or foresight,

shall society,
of
a

be

the

work

of wise

conflict ol
will

(The future prejudices. opposite

be

of mankind

if great questions are gravelyimperilled,

left

to be

fought over

between

ignorantchange and

to change!] opposition ignorant And

the discussion
go down

that is

now

is one required first principles of doctrines

that must

to the very

existing society. The

which
were

fundamental incontestable

assumed
now

as

by

former
trial.

are generations,

put again

on

their
of

Until the
in the from

present age, the institution

which
it has

property
down

shape in
the

been
a

handed few

past,had not, except by

specula-

14
%

SOCIALISM.

tive

writers, been
the

into brought seriously

conflicts

ques have of of

tion, because

of

the

past

always
which

been
a

conflicts between
stake in the be

classes,both

had

constitution existing
to possible the
to
no

property.
in

It will not When have

next

go

on

longer
includes

this

manner.

discussion

classes who
own,

property of their
in the institution will
not
so

and
as

are

only interested

far

it is

they publicbenefit,
be taken for
"

allow

anythingto
the and

not granted certainly

of privateproperty,the legitimacy principle of utility who which look

are

denied
from

by
the

many

of the

reasoners

out

stand-point
classes
will

of

the

working

classes.
that

Those the

certainlydemand
its

in subject,

ai)

parts, shall be reconsidered from

;

the

fouiidL

dation the

that

all

proposalsfor doing
all modes
of

without

and institution,

of

modifying it
to

which

have

the appearance of the

being favorable

the interest

shall working classes, and

receive

the fullest consideration is decided As far

as

discussion remain

before
as

it

that the this

must subject

it is-

country

is

concerned, the disposi-

SOCIALISM.

15

fcionsof the

working

classes have

as

yet

mani

fested themselves

hostile

only to

certain

outlying Many
of

portions of
them the

the

proprietarysystem.
of questions
is

desire to withdraw freedom

wages
one

from

of contract, which
of

of

the
The

ordinary attributions
more

privateproperty.
that land is
a

of aspiring

them

deny

proper
com

and for private appropriation, subject menced

an

have

for agitation this is

its

resumption by
in the

the

State.
some

With
of

combined,

speechesof
of what

the

denunciation a agitators, but without

name

they
what
not

term

usury,

any
; and

definition, of the
to

they mean
seem

by

the

cry

does been has Conthe

to be of home

but origin,

have which

caught

up

from

the

intercourse

recently commenced
gressses and

through

the

Labor

the

International

with Society,

continental
on

Socialists who
and

objectto

all interest

money, income

deny

the

of deriving legitimacy

an

in any

form

from
does

property apart
as

from

labor.
of

This doctrine

not

yet show

signs

in being widely prevalent

Great

Britain,but
the
seeds

the soil is well

prepared to

receive

of

1C

SOCIALISM.

this those

which description

are

widely scattered
where

from

foreign countries
schemes

large, general
of

and theories,

of vast

promise,instead

are distrust, inspiring

essential to the
in

popularity
and

of

cause

It that

is

France,

Germany,

Switzerland widest
men sense

doctrines anti-property

in the

have

drawn

bodies large
In

of

working
countries

to

rally round
who

them.
aim
at

these

nearly all those

reformingsocietyin
classes themprofess

the interest of the salves

working

Socialists,a
of very and
a

designationunder
character
but
are

which compre

schemes
hended least

diverse

confounded,

which

impliesat

remodelling generallyapproaching to
of the

abolition
And

institution

of

privateproperty.
that active
even

it would
more

probably be
prominent
classes
are

found and

in

England the
of the

leaders
their

working

usually in
order
or

privatecreed

Socialists of
most

one

another,

.though being, like i than better aware

that

English politicians,
Continental
in
to

their

brethren
the be fundai

great

and

permanent changes
of mankind
.

mental

ideas

are

not

accorn-

SOCIALISM.

17

plishedby

coup

de

main,
ends

they
which

direct their
seem

efforts towards practical

easier
treme

within
all
ex

reach, and

are

content

to hold

back

theories until there has been the

same

of experience
a

the

of operation While

on principles

partial

scale. of the
men

such

continues

to be

the character

as Englishworking classes,

it is of

English
head of the Switzer

in

general, they are

not

to likely of

rush

longinto

the reckless extremities

even

some

who, foreignSocialists, land, proclaimthemselves

in
content

sober
to

begin by

the subsequentrecon simplesubversion,leaving

struction to take

care

of

and itself;

by

subver
of all

sion,they mean

not

only the

annihilation

all propefty of government, but getting

out

all kinds used it

of the hands

of the possessors
; but

to be

for

the

general benefit
be time

in

what

mode

will,
,

they say,
The

enough afterwards
by
a

to decide.

avowal

of this doctrine of
an

publicnews

paper, the organ

association
one

(La Solidarite
of the
most

published
curious

at

Neuchatel), is
the
times.

of signs

The

leaders of the the

at Englishworking-men--whose delegates

18

SOCIALISM.

congresses the
as

of Geneva

and

Bale

contributed

much
sense

common greatestpart of such practical

was

shown

there

"

are

not

likelyto begin
having
formed be it is

deliberately by anarchy,without
any

opinionas
in

to what

form

of

should society old. propose But

can

established
evident be
that

the

room

of the

whatever

they do
the

only judg
on

properly judged,and
made basis of

groundsof
the

the

ment

convincingto
a

generalmind,
of the
and two

the

previoussurvey
of
or

rival of

theories,that Socialism,one
furnish
most

private property
other

that

of which

must

necessarily
discussion.
this

of the

premisesin
can

the

Before, therefore, we
class of
to

usefullydiscuss
will be

in detail,it questions

advisable

examine

from

their foundations Socialism. made

And

the

general

questionraised by
nation

this exami
any

should

be

without the

hostile

prejudice.However
in favor

irrefutable of

arguments
appear
to

of the laws

property may
the of than double

those to whom immemorial

they have
custom

of prestige

and

persomal interest,
that
a

nothing

is

more

natural

workhx?

SOCIALISM.

19

man

who

has

begun
them

to
a

on speculate

politics,

should

regard

in

very

different
in

light.
some

attained Having, after long struggles, and countries,

at

nearlyattained

in

the point others,

no

which

for them, at
to

there is least, the

further

progress

make

in

department of purely
the less fortu
"

that is it possible rights, political

nate

classes among
ask themselves
?

the

"

adult

males

should
to

not

whether

progress

ought

stop there

all that ^Notwithstanding

seems

has been
in the

done, and all that

extension
of

to likely
are

be

done,
to

few a franchises, the many

to
a

born

great

riches,and
more

penury, No

made

only

grating by
made

contrast.
,

longer enslaved
great
still
con
/

or

dependent by
so

force of law, the

of

are majority

by force
an

poverty; they are

to

chained to

to place,

and occupation, of
an

formity with
debarred

the

will

employer, and
both

by

the accident from

of birth

from

the

enjoyments,and
which advantages,
and evil

the

mental

and

moral

others inherit without

exertion
is
an

this of deser""'fhat independently

equal to

almost

any

of tho^e

against which

20

SOCIALISM.

mankind
not

have
in told

hitherto

struggW,
it who the
a

iHc

pom

a.'e

wrong
are

1 Is believing.
so

necessaiy do not

o\il ?
"

They
by

by those
have
But

feel :t
in

those

who

gained
it
was

prizes

the

otteryof life.
-hat

also said that

slavery,
oli-

that despotism, necessary.

all the
-"
"

of privileges successive

were jarehy

the /All

steps

.hat have
won

been the

made

by

the poorer

classes, partly
the

from

better from
or

of feelings their

powerful,
partly

partly extorted

fears, and
in

bought with

money,
to
one

attained

exchange for

support given

section of

the

powerfulin

its quarrelswith

another, had
to
a

the

strongestpre
; but

judicesopposed
was acquisition
f

them

beforehand
power to

their the

sign of
means

gained by
those

subordinate

a classes,

classes of
to

acquiringmore
classes
power, tion in
a

; it

consequentlydrew

those
to

certain

share of the respect accorded

a

and

produced
creed "of

correspondingmodifica
;

the

societyrespectingthem
succeeded
in

whatever

advantages they
to be

acquir

ing

came

considered
had not

their due, while, of

those

which

they

yet

attained,

they

SOCIALISM.

21

continued

to be doomed t.hK

unworthy.
system of
reason

The

classes,

therefore,which subordinate, have

any of the maxims

societymakes
to
same

little

put faith
system

in of

which established

the
as

society may
that sidering
found
so

have the

Con principles.
have

opinionsof

mankind

been

wonderfully flexible,have
consecrate and facts, existing

always
to

tended

to

de

clare what

did not

or yet exist,either pernicious

what impracticable,
that
on a

assurance

have poor

those
is

classes

the distinction of rich and

more

grounded
other

than imperativenecessity
and

those

ancient

facts, which, having long-established

are

been those
cannot

abolished,
who be

now

condemned them
an

even

by
This

formerly profitedby
taken
on

?
^

the

word

of
are

interested entitled
to

party.

The the

working
whole

classes

claim that
should be
as

field of social institutions and every

re-examined,
if idea
are

question con
first time ; the per

sidered
with
sons

it

now

arose

for the view

are

the who

in constantly to be convinced

that
not

those who the

owe

their

ease

and

importance

to

present

22

SOCIALISM.

system, but persons

in the matter ral than

who

have

no

other

interest

abstract

and justice

the gene
be

good

of the

community.

It should

the

objectto
would

ascertain what

institutions
an

of property

be established

by

legisla unprejudiced
the
;

between tor,absolutely impartial

'

possessors

of

property
and
to

and

the

non-possessors

and

to de

fend would

them justify

by
a

the

reasons

which
not

influence really
as

such

and legislator, of

by

such

have
a

the appearance for what

being got up
Such
not to

to make

out

case

alreadyexists.
as

rights or
stand this

privilegesof property
test

will

will,

sooner

or

later, have

be

given up.

An

moreimpartial hearingought,

to be lever,

given

to

all

objections against pro

inconveniences form
attach

perty itself. All

evils and

ing
be

to the

institution in its best

and

ought

to
or

franklyadmitted,

the human

best

remedies

palliatives applied which

able to devise.
And

is intelligence social

all

plans proposed by
name

reformers,under
the purpose of

whatever

for designated,

the attaining

benefits

aimed

at

by

the institution of

property without

its inconveni-

SOCIALISM.

23

ences,

should

be examined

with
or

the

same

candor,

not

as prejudged

absurd

impracticable.
THE

SOCIALIST

OBJECTIONS
OF

TO

PRESENT

ORDER

SOCIETY.

As

in all
to

for change there proposals be considered that which considered taken

"

are

two

elements

that which

is to
"

be

changed,and
so

it is to be

changed to

in Socialism

and generally,

in each
are

of its varieties

there separately,
one

two

parts

to be

the distinguished, constructive. Socialism

on on

negativeand
There

the other critical, the

is,first,

judgment
and

of

existinginstitu
results ; and
it has pro

tions

and practices

their

the secondly,

various

plans which

pounded

for

doing

better.

In the former
are

all the

different schools agree almost

find
to

of Socialism in identity

at

one.

They they

the faults which order

oi

with

the
to
a

economical
certain

existingso
entertain
to

ciety. Up
the
same

point also they

the

generalconceptionof
faults ; but

remedy

be

provided for those

in the

not details,

this general agreement, withstanding

there

is

24

SOCIALISM.

wide

disparity. It
in

will

be
an

both

natural

and

convenient,

attempting

estimate

of their

doctrines, to begin with

which mention
is
common

the

negative portion
to

to them

and all,

postpone all
we

of their differences until

arrive

at

that second alone

This

part

of their

undertaking,in

which

differ. they seriously

first

part

of

our

task

is

by
an

no

means

dif

ficult ; since it consists of and

only in

enumeration
no

existingevils.
most

Of
are

these there is

scarcity
,

of them

by

no

means

obscure
com

or

mysterious. Many

of them

are

the veriest the roots

even

monplaces of moralists,though
these
to

of

lie

deeper than

moralists
are

usuallyattempt
the
an

penetrate. So various
to

they that
to

only
ex

is difficulty

make

any

approach
shall content
a

haustive for the

catalogue. We
present
with let
one

ourselves

mentioning thing be

few

of tho

And principal. the reader. vition after

remembered of the
one enum-

by

When

item

after item

passes before him, and which the he has

he finds

fact
tc

another among

been

accustomed
nature

include

necessities of

urged

SOCIALISM.

25

as

an

accusation

he againstsocial institutions,
to

is

not

entitled to cry unfairness, and evils

protestthat
in Man and
can

the

complained of
are

are

inherent
no

Society,and remedy.
question
Socialists
more

such

as

arrangements
be to
is
more

To
at to

assert this would issuer

beg the

very

No
"

one

ready than
much
the

admit

they

affirm it indeed
warrants
"

decidedly than they complain

**

truth

ih"t
in

evils

of

are

irremediable

the
to

present constitution
""HM*^""""*1"

of

society. They
^x-^..-.

propose

consider
be

whether
which

some

other form
not

of

society may

devised
or

would
be

be
to

liable to those them

in
to
a

evils,
much

would

liable

less

degree.

Those

who

object
as a

the

considered present order of society, and of

a

whole

who

accept as

an

alternative
a

the

possibility
all

total

change, have
at

rightto
in

set down

the evils which

presentexist
these
are

as society part

of their case, whether

apparentlyattri
or

butable

to

social arrangements

not,
which

provided
human

they do
power

not flow from

laws physical

is

not

adequate, or

human

knowledge
Moral evils

has not

yet learned,to

counteract.

26

SOCTALTSM.

and

such

physical evils
did
as

as

would

be remedied

if

all persons able them that

they ought,are

fairlycharge
admits

againstthe
; and
are

state of
as

which society

of

valid
state

arguments

until it is shown

any
or

other

of

societywould
of

involve
In

an

equal

greater amount
of Socialists, the

such

evils.

the

opinion
of

present arrangemejrts_
the
as

in respectto Property and society

Produc
means

tion and the

Distributionof Wealth,
total failure.
mass

are

to

good, a general
is
an

They

say

that

there

enormous

of evil which
in

these
that

arrangements
the

do not

succeed
or

preventing;

good,
is

either

moral

which physical,

they
the
this
means

realize
;

wretchedly small

compared
that

with
even

amount small

of exertion amount
are

employed, and
is

of

good

brought about by

Avhich
and

full of

pernicious consequences,

moral

physical.
social existing evils may The
be
men

First among

tioned

the is

evil of

Poverty.
and

institution

of

Property
as

upheld
means

commended
which

principally frugality
enabled

being the
insured

by

labor and
mankind

are

their reward, and

SOCIALISM.

27

to emerge

from

indigence. It
that
it has

may been

be
so

so

; most

Socialists allow

in

earlier
can

of history. But periods

if the institution

do

nothing more
hitherto
very

or

better in this

respectthan

it has

done, its capabilities, they affirm, are

What insignificant.

proportion
civilized

of

the

population,in
Europe, enjoy
worth
may be

the
in

most their

countries

of

own

persons of

anything
It

naming

of the but

benefits

property ?
in

said,that

for

property
be

the

hands

of their

employers they would though

this be

without
at

daily
least

bread ; but,
their

conceded,
;

dailybread

is all that

they have
almost

and

that
of

often in insufficient inferior

quantity;
with
no

always

quality ; and
have
it at

assurance

of contin

uing

to

all ;

an

immense
some

proportion periodor
be

of the industrious

classes

being at
all

other of their lives

(and
least

being

liable to

come) dependent,at
or

on temporarily,

legal

voluntarycharity. Any attempt

or indigence,

to

depictthe
propor

miseries of
tion

to

estimate the
most

the

of

mankind
arc

who

in

advanced
their

countries

habituallygiven

up

during

28

SOCIALISM.

whole

existence be

to its

and physical

moral
This

suffer may be

ings, would
left to
miseries
to say

here. superfluous

who philanthropists, in

have

painted these
Suffice it

colors

sufficiently strong.
of numbers and in

that the condition

even

civilized
moie

Europe,and
wretched
are

in that

England
of most

France, is

than to

tribes of savages

who

known It may

us.

be said that of this hard

to
are

lot

no

one

has

any

reason

complain,because

it befalls those
inferi
were

only who orityof

by others,from outstripped
or

energy

of
a

prudence. This, even

small

it true, would

be

very
or

alleviation
was

of the

evil. If
hundred condition hindmost any
or

some

Nero
to

Dom"itian
a race

to

requirea
on lives,

persons

run

for their who

that the
should

or fifty

twenty

came

in be

be

put

to

death, it would
the
some

not

diminution
nimblest

of the

that injustice

strongest
unto

would, except through

certain be
to escape.

ward and death

accident,be
the crime
at

The
were

misery
put
to

would So
who

that

they

all.
any

in the suffer

economy

of

society ;

if

there

be

physical privation or

SOCIALISM.

29

moral either which

whose degradation,
not

bodily necessities
satisfied in
can a manner

are

satisfied

or

only brutish

creatures

be content

with,

the crime this,though not necessarily

is pro tanto
to
a

of

society,

failure of the
as a

social arrangements the evil that

of add

And

assert

mitigationof
the weaker

tKbse who
the

thus suffer are

members
to

is community, morally or physically,

insult to misfortune.

Is weakness
on

justification
irre

^suffering?
sistible claim tection

Is it not,

the human

an contrary,

upon

every

being
the in
a

for pro
and

? against suffering the

If

minds

of feelings would

prosperous
their

were

right state,
for
the

they accept
even one

prosperityif
near

sake of it
other
cause

person

them

was,

for any from

than

voluntary fault,excluded

a obtaining

desirable existence ? there

One

thing

is, which
relieve the

if

it

could

be

affirmed
from any

truly,would
share in

social institutions these

of

of responsibility
race

evils.

Since

the

human

has

no

means

enjoyableexistence, or
what it derives from

of existence
own

at

all,but
abslin-

its

labor

and

SOCIALISM.

e', there

would

be

no

ground
who

for

complaint
to willing

if every against society

one

was

undergo
could

fair share of this labor and

a

abstinence
But is

attain

fair share

of the
reverse

fruits.

this the fact ? rThe

labor in
an

Is it not

the

of the

fact ?

to the reward, instead of being proportioned and

abstinence

of the
:

individual,is almost
who
receive the

inverse

ratio to it abstain

those

the

labor least,

and

the

most./ Even
poo'r, those

idle,
are

reckless, and
said blame
more

ill-conducted

who

with for
and born

most

justice to have

themselves

to

their
severer

condition, often undergo much labor,not only

than

those who than

of

are

to

pecuniary independence,but
of the
more

almost

any

highly remunerated
; and
even

those who

earn

their subsistence exercised

the in

adequateself-control
poor
costs them
ever more

by

the industrious
effort than

sacrifice and

more

is almost members tive

success

requiredfrom
The very

the

more

favored

of

society.

idea

of distribu

or justice,

of any

between proportionality
success

and

merit, or

between of

and

exer

is in the tioii,

present state

society so

marii-

SOCIALISM.

31

chimerical festly of
romance.

as

to be

to relegated

the

regions

It is true that

the lot of individuals

is not

wholly independent of
do
many
at

their virtue
in

and

these intelligence;
but there

reallytell
other

their favor,
which of
-

far less than

is
no

things in
most

merit

all.\ The

powerful
is birth. born
are

all the

circumstances determining
are
-"

The to

great majority
~~*

what
_'-J

they
-_,-"""""
"

were

be.

nj.J^3jj-!_"-"

IWHtMi

Some
to
a

are

born

rich without which

work, others
can

born

in position the

they

become
to

rich

by

work,
and

great majorityare

born

hard
to

work indi

poverty throughout life,numbers

Next to birth the and

gence. in

chief

cause

of

success

life is accident
not

opportunity.
succeeds in

When

person

born
own

to

riches

acquiring
gen

them, his

industryand
to

dexterityhave
result ; but

erallycontributed
:ind

the
not
a

industry
unless

dexterity would
had been
also

have

sufficed of

there
and small

concurrence

occasions

chances
number.
career

which

falls to

the
are

lot of

only
in

If persons

helped

their

worldly
and

by

their

virtues, so

are

they,
:

perhaps quite as

often, by their vices

by

32

SOCIALISM.

and servility
close-fisted tricks seldom talents of

by sycophancy,

hard-hearted

and
and

selfishness, by the permitted lies

not trade, by gambling speculations, and

by downright knavery. Energies

are

of much
;

more

avail for
man

success

in life

than

virtues energy

but if

one

succeeds

by employ

ing

and

talent thrives

in

something generally
same

useful, another

the by exercising

in out-generalling and qualities It is

as

ruining a
to

rival

much

as

any

moralist

ventures

assert,
is

that,other circumstances
the best

beinggiven,honesty
with
a

and policy,
honest Even

that has

parity of
chance

advan than

tages an
a

person

better

rogue.

this in many

stations and circum

more

stances than

of life is
is out

questionable ; anything question.

a

this

of the

It cannot

be

pretended
tells for
on as

that much

honesty,as
as

means

of success,
one

difference of
The

single step
between is

the

social ladder.
and

connection

fortune
a

conduct
bad

is

mainly this,that there

rather of
some

degree of

o^"Huct, or

kinds
amount

of bad

conduct, which
;
'

suffices to ruin any the

converse

of sfood fortune
o

but

is not

true

in

SOCIALISM.

33

the situation of

of most
can

peopleno
be counted

degree whatever
upon

good
in

conduct
the

for

raising

them

world, without

the aid of fortunate

accidents.
These

evils, then
very

"

great poverty,
with

and
"

that
are

poverty
the
ments
jrv^

little connected failure of the second

desert

first

grand

existing arrange
is human all the

of

society. The

miscon-

with duct; crime,vice,and folly, which follow in their train.

sufferings

For, nearly all the

committed be traced its towards
to
one

forms

of misconduct, whether
or

ourselves
of three the many;

towards
:

others, may
and

causes

Poverty

temptations in
in the few them
to

Idleness and

desceuvreraent
do
or

whose

circumstances

not

compel

work; bad
both. The

education,
first two the

want be

of education, in allowed
to

must

be

at least failures in

social arrangements, the

to

last is

now

almost

universally admitted
arrangements
I
am
"

be

the fault of those

be said

it may

almost

the crime.
a

speaking looselyand
of analysis and
errors

in the of

rough,for

minuter

the

sources

faults

of character

of

conduct

34)

SOCIALISM.

would
tion

establish which

far

more

the conclusively them with

a

filia

connects

defective
also

organizationof society, though

show
state

it would

the

dependence reciprocal society on

a

of that
state

faulty
of

of

backward

the

human At of

mind. this
in point,
mere

the

enumeration

of the

evils
times

the society,

levellers of their
more

former

usuallystopped;
cessors,

but

far-sighted suc
farther.
life In
as

the

present Socialists, go
foundation

their eyes
at

the very

of human very

present constituted, the

the

principleon
all mate

which rial

of productionand repartition is
now

products
and

carried

on,

is

essentially

vicious

anti- social.

It is the
one

of principle

each individualism, competition, and

for himself
oppo

againstall the
of

rest.

It is

grounded on
of

sition

interests,not
it every
a one

harmony
is

interests,
find

and

under

requiredto

his
or

place by

struggle, by pushing others

them.

back

being pushed back by

this

Socialists consider

system of privatewar
every
one

(asit
every

may
one,

be

termed)

between

and

especially

SOCIALISM.

35

fatal in
moral.
It is the

an

economical

point of

view
are

and

in

Morally considered,its
parent of envy,
every
cross

evils

obvious.

hatred, and
one

all uncharienemy one's

-f

tableness; it makes
of all others who

the natural
every
'

$
*"
.

his

path,and
to

\L
$

^
$
j,

path
the

is

liable constantly

be

crossed,
one can

I Under

v/
present system hardly any
the loss
v

gain
"^
one or

except by
of many
"

or

disappointment of
a

xfy

others.
^s

"In

well-constituted
be
a

commu-

V.
.

y
n

nity every

one

would

gainer by

every
we

other

successful exertions; while person's

now

gain gain,
worst

by
and

each other's loss and

our

lose
come

by

each from

other's the

greatest gains
from of all,

source

d^ath, the death of those who

be dearest
to

are

nearest

and

should

up^In

its in

purely economical
dividual demnation moral.
the
cause

of operationthe principle
as

receives competition from In the

the

con unqualified

social reformers laborers

as

in

its
see

competitionof
wages
; in

they

of low

the and

competitionof bankruptcy ; constantlyto

make pro-

producers the
and

cause

of ruin

both
as

evils, they affirm,tend

increase

population and

wealth

36

SOCIALISM.

gress ;

no

person

(theyconceive) being benefited

of land, the holders except the great proprietors of fixed money

incomes, and
wealth

few

great capi

whose talists,
to

is

graduallyenablingthem
the
own

undersell of the

all other

producers,to absorb

whole

of industry into their operations from the market all

to

sphere,to
of labor

drive

employers
the

except themselves,and
a

convert

laborers into
on

kind
means

of slaves

or

serfs, dependent

them

for the

of support, and
terms
as

compelled
to

to

accept these

on

such

they choose

offer.

in short, is travelling onward, Society,

to

according

these

towards speculators,

new

that feudality, As

of the

great capitalists.
in future

I shall have
state

ample opportunity
own

to chapters and
nate
on

my

opinion on
with

these
and

topics,

many

others connected
I shall now, the

subordi

to

them,

without of

further pre

amble, exhibit
Socialists
in
a

opinions

distinguished
society,

on

the present arrangements of from their

to

selection of passages the

mere

published
be
con

writings. For
sidered
as
a

present

I desire of the

reporter

opinions of

SOCIALISM.

37
how
my
own

others. what
ments. The

Hereafter

it will appear
or

much

of

I cite agrees

differs with

senti

the clearest,

most

compact, and
of the
case

the

most

and specific statement precise Socialists

of the of

order generallyagainstthe existing

societyin the economical

is affairs, to

department

of human of M.

be

found

in the

little work

Louis

du Travail. Blanc,Organisation this

My

first

on extracts, therefore,

part of the subject,

shall be taken
"

from

that treatise. for the

Competitionis
an

people a system
a

of
of
an

extermination.
or society,

Is the enemy

poor man We to it ?

member

ask

for

answer.
"

All around

him

he finds the

the soil

preoccupied.
No
;

Can

he

cultivate

earth

for himself ?

for the

rightof the first occupant has become a right of property. Can he gather the fruits which the hand of God ripens on the path of
man

No

for, like

the

soil,the fruits
he is hunt
or

have

been for

appropriated. Can that is a rightwhich

Can
a

fish ? upon
a

No;
the

dependent
water

government.
enclosed the field in in is,

he draw No

from

field ? virtue

; for

the

spring proprietorof
to

of his

ri^ht

the

field,

38

SOCIALISM.

of the fountain. Can he, dying of proprietor stretch out his hands for the hunger and thirst, No; for there charity of his fellow-creatures? laws against begging. Can he, exhausted are by and without lie down to sleep a fatigue refuge, No ; for the pavement of the streets ? upon laws againstvagabondage. Can there are he, ilyingfrom the cruel native land where every far of living thing is denied him, seek the means life was from the placewhere given him ? No ; for it is not permitted to change your country

except
cannot
"

on

certain conditions

which

the

poor

man

fulfil.
can

What, then,
'

the

unhappy
to

man

do ?
I have

He in

will say,

I have

hands

work

with,

I telligence, and all this, This is what

youth, I have strength ; take in return give me a morsel of bread.' the working-men do say. But even
have
man

here the poor work

to

may What

be

answered,

'

I have
?"

no

give you.'
is

is he to do then

#*##*##
"

What

from competition
? wants

the

point of
up three
"

view

of the workman A
contractor
"

It is work
a

put
:

to auction.

workman

present

themselves.
a-crown

How have
a

; I

Haif ? for your work Well ; arid wife and children. much
"

how

much

for yours I have for

me

?
"

Two
a

children, but
now are

how

much for

you
am

no : I have shillings wife. Very well; arid and One ? eightpence

" "

enough

; I

single. Then

you

shall

SOCIALISM.

3D

have

the

work.
And

It
are

is done

the

bargain
workmen

is
to

struck.
"

what

the other two

of hun hoped they will die quietly if they take to thieving But what Never ? ger. To murder have the police. have fear ; we ? We got the hangman. As for the lucky one, his triumph is only temporary. Let a fourth work make his appearance, man strong enough to fast down other day, and his price will run every lo ? still lower
new
"

It is to be

then

there will be

new

outcast,

recruit for the

Will

prisonperhaps !
these

melancholy results are exaggerated they are only ; that at all events when there is not work possible enough for the that seek hands employment ? But I ask, in the principle of competitioncon Does answer, itself any method tain, by chance, within by this murderous which disproportionis to be branch of industryis in want avoided ? If one
of hands, who fusion
is not millions
can answer

it be said that

for it that,in the

con

another by universal competition, And overstocked ? if,out of thirty-four created of

a

men,

twenty

are

really reduced
suffice to
condemn

to

theft for the

"

this living, principle. But who of is

so

would

blind

as

not

to

see

that under

the

system
a

unlimited is
no

ual fall of wages but

and necessary population a limit which

the contin competition, exceptionalcircumstance, Has the general fact ?

it cannot exceed ? Is

40

SOCIALISM,

it

for us to say possible given up to the accidents

and

to

of

industry industry individual egotism

"

fertile in ruin
no

"

can

'

we

say,

Thus

far shalt

thou go, and

farther ?' The

the
poor

increases population

constantly: tell
and sterile,

mother God
who

to

become her
soon

blaspheme the
if you
narrow
:

made

for fruitful, become machine

and
too

do

not, the
the

lists will combatants. it to be

for

is invented

command

broken,
not, the
de
of the

anathematize workmen
of

science,for
whom
will

if you
new

do

thousand

the
at

machine
door

prives

work

knock

the

neighboring workshop, and lower the wages of their companions. Thus systematic loweringof ending in the driving out of a certain wages,
number unlimited
tem

of workmen,

is the

inevitable
an

effect of
sys

competition.
means

It is

industrial

by

of which
one

the

are working-classes

forced to exterminate
**##*#*
"

another."

If there is

an

undoubted much

fact,it is that the

more

increase of

rapidamong the rich. According to the the poor than among Statistics of European Population,the births at of the popula Paris are only one-thirty-second while in the others they tion in the rich quarters, is rise to one-twenty-sixth. This disproportion
a

is population

M. de Sismondi, in his work and fact, general Political Economy, has explained it by the on for the workmen of hopeful pruimpossibility

SOCIALISM.

41

dence. of
of

Those
morrow

only who
can

feel themselves

assured
number income is under he it
;

he the

regulate the their children according to their from who lives day to day to yoke of a mysterious fatality,
the
his

which

sacrifices

children

as

he

was

sacrificed to
men exist,

himself.

It is true
an

the

workhouses
inundation

with acing society what

. .

of

beggars
"

? escaping from the cause where the It is clear that any society of subsistence increase less rapidlythan means is a society the the numbers of the population, on brink of an abyss Competition produces destitution ; this is a fact shown by statistics. Destitution is fearfully prolific ; this is shown by statistics. The fruitfulness of the unhappy creatures who upon society poor throws

way

is there

of

have shown

need

of

work

and At

cannot

find

it ;

this

is

point society is the poor or reduced to a choice between killing them gratuitously between atrocity maintaining or folly."* by
statistics. this
"

So middle
"

much

for the

poor.

We

now

pass

to

the

classes. of the economists political Smith and Leon Say, cheapness the
which
"

According to
of Adam word in Blanc,

school is the
*

may

be

summed

up

the

See Louis

du Travail," 4me Organisation

edition,

pp. 6, 11, 53, 57.

42

SOCIALISM.

advantages of unlimited competition. But why the effect of cheapnesswith in considering persist a view only to the momentary advantage of the ? consumer Cheapness is advantageous to the
consumer

at the cost of

ruinous

anarchy among the with which is,so to speak,the hammer ness the rich among producers crush their poorer rivals. Cheapness is the trap into which the hard-workers. daring speculators entice the Cheapness is the sentence of death to the pro
ducer invest rivals
on a

the seeds of introducing the producers. Cheap

small

scale

who

has

no

money

to

in the
can

purchase of machinery that his rich easily Cheapnessis the great procure.
in the

instrument the

hands

of

monoply
small
one

it absorbs

small

manufacturer,
of the middle

the

shopkeeper,
word, the de

the small struction

proprietor; it is,in
industrial
we,

classes for the advantage O

of

few

oligarchs.
consider

Ought
curse an

then, to
one

cheapness

as

No

would

absurdity. But it wrong to corrupt to turn good into evil and principles the system of competition all things. Under and fallacious cheapness is only a provisional only so long as advantage. It is maintained have the rich com there is a struggle sooner ; no rivals their poorer than out petitorsdriven prices rise. Competition leads to monopoly, for the same reason cheapness It-ads to high prices.

attempt to maintain of is the specialty

such

SOCIALISM,

4$

Thus,
the

what

has been between

a

made the of

use

of

as

weapon

in

contest

later becomes the

consumers. we

cause

or producers, sooner impoverishment among

And have

if to this

cause

we

add

the

others
which the

already enumerated,
the

first among increase of

must

be ranked

inordinate

we population,

shall be

compelled to
the
mass

recog
con

nize the
sumers
"

impoverishmentof
as a on

of the

direct consequence
the other
to

of

But,

hand,

this

competition. very competition

which

of demand, dry up the sources urges production to over-supply. The confusion producedby the universal struggle prevents each producer from knowing the state of the market. tends He
must
a

work

in the

dark,

and

trust

to

chance

for

sale.

Why
he
can

should throw
are so

he check
any loss

the
on

supply,es
the work

as pecially
man

whose

wages

rise and
on

fall ?

Even

liable to pre-eminently when productionis carried

still often carry it

at

loss the manufacturers

on,

because

they
or idle,

will
risk

not

let their loss of

raw

machinery.
material,

"c., stand
or

the
; and

lose their customers

because

industry as carried on under the tem being nothing else than a

the

productive competitive sys

of chance,

game

gambler
Thus, and

will not lose his chance

of

lucky
it.

stroke.
"

we

cannot

too

often insist upon

tends to increase supply competitionnecessarily diminish and to consumption ; its tendency

44

SOCIALISM.

therefore

is

the precisely

opposite of what
;
as

is
not

sought by economic merely oppressivebut

science foolish

hence
well."

it

is

"

And

in all

this,in
have

order

to avoid

truths sound

which

become

dwelling on commonplaces, and

their very truth, we declamatory from moral have said nothing of the frightful corrup tion which properly organized,or more industry, it is at the present day, as speaking,disorganized, the middle classes. has introduced Every among venal, and competition invades thing has become
even

the The

domain

of

thought.

factory crushing the workshop ; the showy establishment absorbing the humble shop; master the artisan who is his own replaced by the day-laborer by the plow super ; cultivation
"

spade,and bringing the poor field under man's homage to the disgraceful money-lender ; bankruptcies multiplied ; manu by the ill-regu facturing industry transformed seding that by
the
lated extention

of credit into
not
even
a

system
the
rogue,

of
can

gam

blingwhere no one, of winning : in sure

lated to
to
arouse

be

short

vast

confusion

calcu

mistrust,and hatred, and jealousy, all generous little by little, stifle, aspirations,
and faith,self-sacrifice, but

all

poetry

"

such

is the of the

hideous

only

too

faithful

picture

SOCIALISM.

45

results obtained

by

the

of the princi application

ple of competition."*
The
M.

Fourierists, through their principal organ,

the
evils of
:
"

Considerant, enumerate
the

the

civilisation in existing
1. It

order following

employs

an

enormous

quantity of

labor the

and work
"

of human

power

or unproductively,

in

of destruction.

In the first
as

placethere
all other

is the army,

which

in

France,

in

countries, absorbs
a

the

of largenumber and a consider the most talented and intelligent, The able part of the publicrevenue state o" society developsin its impure existing labor is outcasts, whose atmosphere innumerable not merely unproductive,but actually destruc tive : adventurers, prostitutes, people with no of living, convicts, beggars, acknowledged means healthiest and

strongest men,

swindlers, thieves, and

tend
"

others than
to

whose

numbers
. .

rather to increase
To

diminish.

the list of
of

unproductive labor fostered by

be added that of

our

state

Societymust

the

and of the bar,of the courts of law and judicature the police, "tc., executioners, jailers, magistrates, to the state of society functions indispensable
"

as
*

it is.
See Louis

Bla-c,

"

du Travail," pp. Organisation

1815.

58"

61,

65

"

66,

4me

edition.

Paris,

46

SOCIALISM.

"

Also

people of
pass

what
their

is called lives in

'

those

who

good society ; doing nothing ;

taxofficials,

'

idlers of all ranks. "Also the numberless

custom-house
; in

excise-men bailiffs, gatherers, army of

men

short, all that

which

overlooks,bringsto account,
of

takes, but produces nothing.

philosophers, sophists, working in mis men, political metaphysicians, do nothing to advance taken directions, who science,and produce nothing but disturbance and sterile discussions;the verbiage of advocates, witnesses,"c. pleaders, of commerce, all the operations And finally
"Also
the

labors

"

from

those of the bankers behind

assert

and

brokers, down

to

those of the grocer

his counter."* that

even

Secondly,they
and

the

industry
are

powers
to

which

in

the
not

present system

devoted
a

do production,

produce more

than

small

portion of employed and

with any

what

they might produce if

:
"

better
"

directed

Who
see

good-willand
the
want

reflection will coherence

"

not

how

much
want

of

the

the disorder,
out

of combination, the

parcelling

of labor

and

action
*

without

leavingit wholly to individual without organization, any any

Sociale," tome
i. pp.

See

Considerant, "Destines
ed.

35, 36,

37, 3me

Paris, 1848.

SOCIALISM.

47

causes are large or general views and of production, the possibilities

"

which

limit
at

destroy,or
Does
not

least waste, order

our

means

of action

dis

give

birth

to

poverty,
to

as

order

and

good
want

management
of combination ation that is
a

give birth
a

riches ?

Is not
as

source

of weakness, And

combin
can

source

of

strength?

who

say

industry, whether

domestic, agricultural,

artistic,or commercial, manufacturing,scientific, is organized at the present day either in the state Who in municipalities ? can or say that all the work which is carried on in any of these depart
ments

is executed
or

in subordination

to any

general

views,

with

Or, again, who present

each
state

education,
on

all

and order ? foresight, economy, can say that it is possiblein our of society to develop,by a good the faculties bestowed by nature
; to

of its members which he would

employ
like,which

each he

one

in

functions be the could himself much ed

as

would

most

capable of,and
on

which, therefore, he
to
so

carry and

with others

the ?

greatest advantage
Has it
even

to

been

attempted
the

to solve

the
so

by

varieties

of character varieties

problems present to regulate and as

in employments accordance with natural Alas ! The ? aptitudes is to Utopia of the most ardent philanthropists teach reading and writing to twenty-fivemillions of the French people ! And in the present state

harmonize

of

SOCIALISM.

of

thingswe
"

may

defy them
a

to

succeed

even

in

that ! And
is it not cries out of

too, and strangespectacle,

of us, to
see

one

which
state

in condemnation

this

where society sometimes

not

the soil is cultivated

ed, and
man

badly cultivat at all; where

lodged, ill clothed, and yet where whole masses are continuallyin need of work and piningin misery because they cannot find it r Of a truth we forced to acknowledge that it are the nations are starving it is not be poor and of producing has denied the means nature cause wealth, but because of the anarchy and disorder in our otliet employment of those means ; in words, it is because society is wretchedly consti tuted and labor unorganized.
"

is ill

But

this is not

and all,

you

will

have

but
con

faint

the evil if you do not which sider that to all these vices of society,

conceptionof
sources

dry
lie

up

the

of wealth

and

must prosperity, war,

added under

the many

the discord,the struggle,

names

in short

and

many

forms

which

society

cherishes
that

and

cultivates it. These

between

the individuals

compose
to

correspond
antinomies

radical

strugglesand discord? oppositions deep-seated

"

between
so

the
you
are

various
able
to

interests.

Ex

actly in
and you

far

as

establish classes

within the nation ; in so far,also. categories of interests and internal will have opposition

warfare

either

avowed

or

secret,

even

if you

SOCIALISM.

49

take

into

consideration

the

industrial

system

only."*
One of the

ideas leading
and
at

of this school time the

is the immor

wastefulness

the

same

alityof

the

existing arrangements
of the .of the the

for distribut among

ing

the

produce
consumers,

country

the

various

enormous

in superfluity of distribution' and

point of
the

number

agents

merchants, dealers, shopkeepers

and emplo}Tds,
a

their

innumerable
acter
"

the
of

depraving char

of such

distribution

occupations.
of the and trader of the

It is evident

that

the

interest
consumer

is

opposed to that producer. Has he

as

of the
not

valued with

much

as

bought cheap and under possiblein all his dealings

very
same

the.

producer,the
Thus the

article which
as

he vaunting its excellence, he

can

sells to you of the

dear

as

interest

commercial

is contrary and individually, body, collectively of the consumer of the producer and to that that is to say, to the interest of the whole body of society.
"

*******
"

The

the
*

by profits go-between, who generalanarchy and the non-organizationof

trader is
a

See

"Destinee

Sociale,"par

V.

Considerant,

tome

i. pp.

38-40.

50

SOCIALISM.

he buys industry. Th c trader buys up products, and detains everything, up everything; he owns
in such sort that
"

:
"

and Con Production holds both He Istly. both his yoke, because must sumption under for the productsto be either finally to him come

consumed,
worked up.

or

at first for the

raw

materials

to be

Commerce of

with

all its methods

of

buying, and
innumerable

raisingand
its

its lowering prices,

holdingeverything of middle-men, levies toll rightand in the hands left ; it despotically gives the law to Production it ought to be only and Consumption, of which
devices,and
the
"

subordinate.

profits by its enormous 2ndly. It robs society and the prothe consumer levied upon profits ducer, and altogetherout of proportion to the
"

services
persons
"

rendered, for which

twentieth be

of the

actually employed would

sufficient.

3rdly.It robs societyby the subtraction of its productiveforces;taking off from productive of the agents of trade labor nineteen-twentieths who mere are parj^ites. Thus, not only docs exorbi rob society an commerce b^ appropriating share of the common tant wealth, but also by considerablydiminishing the productive energy The beehive. of the human great majority of if a would to productive work traders return rational system of commercial organizationwere

SOCIALISM.

51

substituted
sent
"
^

for the inextricable of

chaos

of the pre

things. 4thly.It robs societyby the adulteration pushed at the present day beyond products,
state

of
all

bounds.
lish
were

And

in

if fact, in
a

hundred
where

grocers

estab there

themselves

town

before

not

only twenty, begin to consume

it is

plain that people will five times as many groceries.

virtuous Hereupon the hundred grocers have to them the profits which before dispute between were honestlymade by the twenty ; competition them it up at the expense of the to make obliges either by raising the prices as some consumer, the goods as times happens, or by adulterating always happens. In such a state of things there Inferior or adulterated is an end to good faith. goods are sold for articles of good qualitywhen is not too experi the credulous customer ever

enced has

to

be

deceived.

And

when

the

customer

thoroughly imposed upon, the trading conscience consoles itself by saying, I state my people can take or leave; no one is obliged price; losses imposed on the consumers to buy.' The by the bad quality or the adulteration of goods
been
'

are

incalculable.

"othly.It
cial
or

robs

society by accumulations,
of which
vast

artifi

not, in consequence

quanti

ties of and

des

are goods,collected in one place, damaged destroyed for want of a .sale. Fourier (Th. Quat. Mouv., p. 334-, 1st ed.) says : The
'

52

SOCIALISM.

of the commercial systems, principle the merchants, that to of leaving full liberty the gives them absolute right of property over goods in which they deal ; they have the right to withhold them or to withdraw altogether, than once to burn even them, as happened more with the Oriental Company of Amsterdam, whkh in order to publicly burnt stores of cinnamon it cinnamon it did with raise the price. What

fundamental

would

have stoned
some

done

with
the

corn

; but

for the fear of would

rest

being
burnt times
occurrence

by

populace,it
to sell the

have
at

corn

in order

four

its value. in into them

Indeed,

for ports,
sea

actuallyis of daily of grainsto be provisions

it the merchants have

thrown allowed

the

because

waiting for a rise. I myself,when I was a clerk,have had to superin in one and tend these infamous day proceedings, into the sea be thrown caused to some forty
tp rot while
thousand sold at
a

bushels fair

of

which rice,

might

have

been

been less had the withholder profit that bears the cost greedy of gain. It is society takes of this waste, which place daily under of fullliberty maxim shelter of the philosophical

for
"

the merchants'

robs society, by moreover, Cthly. Commerce that follows from all the loss,damage, and waste of products in millions of the extreme scattering and complica shops,and by the multiplication
tion of carriage.

SOCIALISM.

53

"c

society by shameless and un limited usury appalling. The usury absolutely with fictitious capital, trader carries on operations than his real capital. A much higher in amount
"

Tthly.It

robs
"

hundred of twelve pounds capital of bills and will carry on by means operations, thousand or twelve a scale of four, eight, on credit, pounds. Thus he draws from capitalwhich he trader

with

does not

possess, usurious

out interest,

of all pro

he actually owns. portionwith the capital by innumerable 8thly. It robs society of our for the daily accidents ruptcies,
"

bank
commer

cial system,

events, political
usher in
a

and when

any

kind

of

disturbance, must

day

the trader,
his means, his
severe

having
is
no

incurred

obligations beyond
to
or

longer

able

meet

them be

;
a

failure,
blow

whether

fraudulent

not, must

to his creditors.

entails bankruptcy of some that of others, so that bankruptciesfollow one And it another, causing widespread ruin. upon is always the producer and who the consumer
suffer ; for does in its
not
commerce,

The

considered and

as

whole,
little

produce wealth,
the wealth
many blows' up How these dried

invests

very

to proportion

which
are

passes

through
sources

hands.

the many

manufactures
fertile

crushed of wealth

by

how

by these
I

devices, with

all

their disastrous consequences

"

The

producer furnishes
the money.

the

goods, the

con

sumer

Trade

furnishes

credit,

54"

SOCIALISM.

founded

on

little

or

no

actual

different members
no

of the

and capital, commercial body are

the
in
a

way

for responsible
is the

one

another.

This, in

few

theory of the thing. robs societyby the inde 9thly.Commerce which permitsit to pendenceand irresponsibility buy at the epochs when the producers are forced to sell and. compete with another, in order to one
words,
"

whole

procure

money

for their rent

and

necessary

ex

penses

of

overstocked Then
manoeuvre
"

it

the markets are production. When and goods cheap, trade purchases. creates a rise, and by this simple both producer and consumer. despoils

^.

lOthly.It robs society by a considerable will return which to drawing off of capital, commerce plays its productive industry when subordinate part, and is only an agency proper the producers carryingon transactions between and the great centres of (more or less distant) societies. Thus consumption the communistic of com the capital engaged in the speculations merce (which, small as it is, compared to the wealth which immense passes through its hands,
"

consists nevertheless would selves),

commerce
was

of
to

sums

enormous

in them

return

stimulate
the

production if
pro
a

perty
matter

in

deprivedof goods,and their

the
most

intermediate became

distribution

of administrative odious

organization.
form

Stock

jobbing is
commerce.

of this vice

of

SOCIALISM.

55

"

or

IHhly. buying

It robs
up of

societyby
raw

the

materials.
p.

monopolising For' (says

'

Fourier,Th.
'

des

Quat. Mouv.,

359, 1st ed.),

are

the rise in

priceon

articles that

bought

up,

is borne

by the consumer, although in ultimately the first place by the manufacturers, who, being obliged to keep up their establishments, must and at make manufacture pecuniary sacrifices, it in the hope of better days ; and small profits themselves is often long before they can repay the rise in priceswhich the monopoliser has com pelledthem to support in the first instance. ..."
"

In

short,all
I

these
are

vices,besides

many

others

which

omit,

complicationof
do not pass
once

multipliedby the extreme for products mercantile affairs; onlythrough the greedy clutches
are some

of

commerce

there
or

which

pass

and

repass twenty
consumer.

In

times before reachingthe thirty material the first place,the raw

of
commerce

passes

through the grasp reaching the manufacturer

then
to be

before
it up;

who

first works
sent
;

it returns

to

commerce

to be

out

again
so

worked

up

in

second

form

and

on

until it receives into

its final of

shape.
to

Then

it passes
to

the

hands

merchants, who
these these the

sell

the

wholesale
dealers

and dealers,

great

retail

again to the little each time dealers and to the country shops ; and that it changes hands, it leaves something be
of towns, and hind it.

5G

SOCIALISM.

".

One
. . .

of my

friends much
to

who

was

ex lately

the Jura, ploring is

where

working
the

in metal of He
a

done, had

occasion

enter

house

peasant who was a the price. asked

answered ing,'
at

manufacturer Let
us

of shovels.
to
an

'

come

understand

but all,

man

the poor laborer, economist not an of common I sell them sense ;

'

for 8d. to the trade,which

in the
towns.
a

retails them could find

a

at Is. 8d.
means

If

you

of the

opening
workman

direct and the

communication
consumer,
we

between
you

them

for Is. 2d.,and

"

should

each

might have gain Qd. by

Book
the

the transaction.'
To
a

similar

effect

Owen,

in

the

of

New
"

Moral
The

World, part 2, chap.iii.

in practice is to induce now a principle largeportion of society to devote their lives to and a a distribute wealth upon a medium, large, it conveyed from place and to have small scale, smaller quantities, to meet or to place in larger

the

means

and

wants

of

various

divisions

of

situated as they are now societyand individuals, and in cities,towns, villages, country places. This

of principle
who"e

distribution is
to

makes

class in

society

business

and to sell to others. parties they are placed under circumstances

*

buy from some By this proceeding

which
i. pp.

in43-,,;.

See

Considerant,

"

Destinee

Sociale," tome

Sine, edition, Paris, 1848.

SOCIALISM.

57

duce

them

to
a

endeavor
low

to

pricein again at the greatest permanent profit which Their real objectbeing to get they can obtain. the seller to, and much as as gain between profit be effected in their the buyer from them, as can
at the time

buy at what appears the market, and to sell

transactions. and principle which evils in practice necessarilyproceedfrom the wealth of society. of distributing this mode
"

There

are

innumerable

errors

in

"

1st. A

whose

general class of distributers is formed, interest is separatedfrom, and apparently

of the
whom

opposed to, that they buy and to

"

individual

from

whom

they sell.
are

2nd.

Three

classes of distributers and the

made, dealers,
created

the small, the medium, sellers ; and

"

largebuyers and
wholesale

or

the

the retailers, merchants.

classes

the extensive 3rd.

Three

buyers constitute the small, the medium,

of

thus and

the

large

purchasers.
By this arrangement into various classes of the partiesare trained easily buyers and sellers, that they have separate and opposing to learn
"

interests, and

different

ranks

and

stations

in

society.
is thus

An

of feeling and inequality and

condition all the

created

maintained, with

these unequal arrange and pride which servility to sure ments are produce. The partiesare
i (

trained il;uly

in

general system

of

deception,

58

SOCIALISM.

in order

that

they

may

be the

more

successful

in

dear. buying cheap and selling The smaller sellers acquire habits of injurious idleness, waiting often for hours for customers. this evil is experiencedto a considerable And
"

extent dealers.
"

even

amongst

the

class

of

wholesale

There

are,

also, by this arrangement,

for than selling
are

many
neces

more

establishments
in the

towns, and cities ; and a very villages, benefit to without largecapitalis thus wasted society. And from their number opposed to each the country to obtain other all over customers, to undersell each other, and are they endeavor therefore continually endeavoring to injurethe producer by the establishment of what are called cheap shops and warehouses ; and t :j support
sary

their character be

the

master

or

his servants

must

on continually

the

watch

to

that buy bargains,

the cost of its

to is,

procure

wealth

for less than

production.
"

The

small, medium, distributers,

be

have the

all to

greaterthe the with the latter,

\vhich
the of

large, and supportedby the producers, number of the former compared

and

number of

greater will be the burden producer has to sustain ; for as the distributers increases, the accumulation
must

wealth

decrease,and

more

must

be

re

quired from
"

The

producer. distributers of wealth, under

the

the present

SOCIALISM.

59

system, are
and
are

most

the producers, upon Their of society. active demoralises dead

weight

dependent condition,at
their

the

commencement

of

task, teaches

or

induces
to

them

to to

be servile be
so as

to their

customers, and

continue

accumulating wealth by their cheap buying and dear selling.But when they have secured sufficient to be what they imagine business to be an independence to live without they are too often filled with a most ignorant insolent to their dependents. and become pride,
long as they
are
" "

most a arrangement is altogether whose interest it providentone for society,

"

The

im is to

of wealth of the produce the greatest amount the existing best qualities system of dis ; while tribution is not only to withdraw great numbers but to add from producing to become distributers,
to

the*cost of the
wasteful
and

consumer

all the expense

of
;

most

extravagant distribution distribution co.sting to the consumer many the priceof the original cost of the wealth
chased.
":

the

times pur

Then, by

the

positionin
desire

which for

the
on

seller is
the
one

placedby
hand, and

his created the

gain

with competition he meets opponents selling similar productions on other,he is strongly tempted to deteriorate articles
arc

from

the the
these

which

he

has

for sale ; and

when

of

provisions,either of home production or the effects upon the health, foreign importation,

60

SOCIALISM.

and

consequent comfort
are

consumers,

often

most

tive of

the

premature working classes,who,

to

much

happinessof the and produc injurious, death, especially among

and

perhaps made purchasing the

" """""
"

be

the
or

respect, are by greatest sufferers,

in

this

inferior

low-priced articles.

wealth in distributing Great Britain and Ireland,including transit from and all the agents directly and place to place, indirectly engaged in this department, is, per haps,little short of one hundred millions annually, without taking into consideration the deteriora of the articles con tion of the qualityof many this wealth, by carriage, and stituting by being divided into small quantities, and kept in im in which the atmosphere proper stores and places, is unfavorable to the keeping of such articles in less in the best,con " tolerablygood,and much
expense of thus dition In for use." further

The

illustration
person

of
and

the

contrarietyof
class and of

interests

between

person,

"lass,which
M. society,
"

pervades the present

Considerant
adds
:
"

constitution

If the

freedom facturers

wine-growers wish ruins the producer

of

for free trade, this

of corn, the and
"

manu
we

iron,of cloth,of cotton,

add
"

are

compelled to

the

smuggler

and

the customs'

SOCIALISM.

61

officer. If it is the interest of the machines

should
l"e invented

consumer

that

which

lower

prices
same

by rendering production
machines
men

less

these costly,

throw do
not

out

of work

thousands to, and

of work
cannot
at
one

who

know work.

how

once,

find other

Here, then, again

are
a

is

of the innumerable

vicious circles of civilisation

for there which

prove

thousand
in
our

facts

cumulativelythat
it
go find
some

existing-

social system the introduction

of any

good brings
and
come

always alongwith
"

evil.

In

short,if

we

lower
that

down

to

we vulgardetails,

it is the and

interest of hatter
worn

the

tailor,the shoemaker,
hats should

the
soon

that
out ;

coats, shoes, and

that the break
tect

be

by profits glazier
;

the
mason

hail-storms which
and

windows

that the

the

archi

profitby fires ; the lawyer is enriched by law-suits ; the doctor by disease ; the wine-seller : the prostituteby debauchery. by drunkenness be for the judges, And what a disaster it would
the

police,and

the

as jailers,

well

as

for the

barristers and

and the solicitors,

all the

lawyers'
were

and if crimes,offences, clerks,

at
once

law-suits

all

to

come

to

an

end

! "*

The

is one following
:
"

of the

cardinal

points of

this school
"

Add

to all

this,that
"

which civilisation,
Sociale,"tome

sows

Consiilerant,

Destinee

i.,pp. 59, GO.

"32

SOCIALISM.

dissension

and

war

on

every

side ;
in
;

which

employs
more

great part of
or even

its powers

unproduc
further
un

tive labor

in destruction the

which

diminishes

public wealth
discord

by the
this

necessary

friction and add

to

it introduces

into
same

industry ;
social

all this, I say, that

its

system has for produce a repugnance

labor.
"

characteristic to special for work a disgustfor

"

the artisan, Everywhere you hear the laborer, and his occu the clerk complain of his position while they long for the time when they pation, retire from work can imposed upon them by necessity. To be repugnant, to have for its motive and pivotnothing but the fear of starva tion, is the great, the fatal, characteristic of civilised labor.
demned
to

The

civilised

workman

is

con

So long as produc penal servitude. tive labor is so organized that instead of being with associated pleasure it is associated with it will always happen pain,weariness and dislike, that

all will avoid

it who

are

able.

With work the

few who
most

those only will consent to exceptions, Hence are compelled to it by want.

numerous

the artificers of social wealth, classes,

and direct creators of all comfort and

the active

to touch luxury, will always be condemned on closely poverty and hunger ; they will always and degradation be the slaves to ignorance ; they will continue to be always that huge herd of

SOCIALISM.

63

mere

beasts

of

burden

whom

we

see

ill-grown,

by disease,bowed down in the great the plow or over the workshop of society over the delicate counter, that they may prepare food, and the sumptuous enjoyments of the
upper
"

decimated

and

idle classes.
no

So

long as
devised,
must
a we

method

of attractive labor has

to

been
'

it will many
a

continue
poor
mean

be

true

that there

there be

be

in and

order

that

may

few

rich ; '
every

hateful

saying,

which
truth

hear

from

the mouths
or

selves
easy and
to

Christians understand

day quoted as an eternal of people who call them philosophers. It is very that oppression, trickery,
are

especially poverty,

the

permanent

and

of every fatal appanage state of societycl:rrin this case, acterized by the dislike of work, for,

there is
to
one

nothing but poverty that will force men labor. And the proof of this is, that if every of all the workers were to become suddenly
of
*

rich, nineteen-twentieths
done would be abandoned."

all the

work

now

In the of the

opinionof

the Fourierists, the

to
a

tendency
concentra

is present order of society in the rich

tion of wealth

hands

of

comparatively
or

few and
*

immensely

individuals

companies,
commun-

the reduction
Considerant,
"

of all the rest of the

Sociale,"
tome

Destinee

i.,pp. 60, 61.

64

SOCIALISM.

ity
was

into

complete by

dependence
la
M.

on

them.

This

termed
"

Fourier

jeodalite industriellc
Conside'rant,
"

'Ihis

feudalism/'
as soon

says
as

would of the

be

constituted and
to
a

the

largest part
cf the

industrial

territorial

property
which

nation

belongs
revenues,

minority
the

absorbs

all

its

while
or

great majority, chained

on

to the

work-bench
tent to

laboring
the

the

soil, must
which
is

be cast

con

gnaw

pittan2e

to

them."*
This

disastrous the
in
our mere

result

is to

be of

brought

about
as

partly by
sketched

progress

competition,
by
M.

previous by
the

extract

Louis

Blanc which
whole
"

assisted

progress

of national

debts"
of the

M. land

Conside'rant
and

regards
of
"

as

mortgages
of
a

capital

the

country,
in

which

les

capitalistes preteurs
greater
labor
measure,

become,

greater

and

co-proprietors, receiving
an

without

or

risk

increasing portion

of the

revenues.

Considerant

"

Destinee

Sociale,"

tome

i., p. 134.

SOCIALISM.

C6

THE

SOCIALIST ORDER

OBJECTIONS
OF

TO

THE

PRESENT

SOCIETY

EXAMINED.

IT is

to deny impossible to notice

that the considerations

brought
out
a

in the

precedingchapter make against the existing

man

case frightful

either

order of himself should

the which
case

or society, againstthe position of

in

this world.
to the

How
one,

much and

of

the much

evils
to

be referred is to

how

other,
has is

the be

principaltheoretic
resolved.
But

question
strongest
it will from

the

of exaggeration susceptible ; evident

I have
to

and

have

been

many

readers,even
su^

the passages tion is not ablest and

quoted,thau
the

^^6S^c*

wanting in
most

of representations

the

candid

Socialists.

Though
not
a

much
little
;

of their
is the

is unanswerable, allegations
errors

result of
let
me

in

political economy
mean

by
the

which,

say
any

once

I do not for all,

of rejection
have

rules practical

of

policy which

been
mean

laid

down

by
of

politicalecono
economic the

mists, I
and

ignorance
causes

facts,
economic

of

the

by

which

66

SOCIALISM.

phenomena
%

of

as society

it

are is,

deteractually

ruined. it is In the first place

wages

unhappilytrue
all the

that the

of

ordinary labor,in

countries of
to

Europe, are
and physical
in

wretchedly insufficient
moral

supply the population

it
remun

necessities of the
measure.

any

tolerable that alleged

a

But, when
this insufficient to

is

further

even

eration has
in the is,

tendency
of M.
;

diminish

that there
une.

words

Louis

Blanc,

baisse

continue des salaires

tion
to

the assertion

is in

opposi
many that

all accurate

information,
has

and be

to

notorious

facts.

It

yet

to

proved

L ",ivr"'"Ll"uutry in the civilized world tltC-rc

the

where
in

ordinarywages
or

of

labor,estimated

either

money

in articles of in

consumption,are
are,
on

declin
on

ing ; while

many
an

they

the

whole,

the increase ; and

not

increase

which There
are

is becoming,
are, occasion

slower, but

more

rapid.

branches ally,

of

industrywhich

being gradu
in

and, allysupersededby something else,

until wages

those,

accommodates production
are

itself to is
an

demand,
a

depressed;which

evil, but

SOCIALISM.

temporary
tion
A
even

one,

and

would

admit

of

great allevia-,
economy. of *r
.-*""-

in the

presentsystem of social
thus

diminution
some

produced

of the

reward

labor in
and

particular employment
of increased

is the effect
or

the
a new

evidence
source

remuneration,
some

of

of the
or

in remuneration,

other
.

the

total

and

average

remuneration

being
make
out

undiminished,
an

even

increased.

To

appearance

of diminution
of

in the rate it industry,

some

of wages
is

in any

leading branch
necessary

always
or

found of

to compare

month

year

and temporary depression at special

the present excep vicissi

were as

time, with the average

rate, or

even

some

tionally high rate,at

tudes
are no

an

earlier time.

The

doubt
as

great evil,but they

in
now.

frequent
economical

and

severe

former The

periods

of

historyas

greater scale of
of per

the transactions, and

sons

the

greater number

involved

in each

fluctuation, may

make
a

the

fluctuation

appear

but greater,
more

though

larger
does

populationaffords
not

the sufferers, each of them of

evil

weigh

heavier

on

individually
and

There

is much

evidence

improvement,

68

SOCIALISM.

none,

that is at all of

of deterioration, trustworthy,

in the mode
of the

livingof
of

the

laboringpopulation
when

countries
to the

Europe ;

there
or

is any

appearance and of
can

contrary it is local
traced either
to

partial,
pressure

always be

the

some

temporary
or

calamity, or
act

to

some

bad

law

unwise

of

government
while the the

which
per

admits
manent

of
causes

being corrected,
all

operate

in

direction

of

improvement.
M.

Louis

while showing Blanc, therefore,

more

him

self much

than enlightened

the older school

as

of levellers and

democrats,inasmuch
between of
same

he recog
and the
to at

nizes the connection

low

wages

over-rapid increase
have

population,appears
error

fallen into

the

which
his

was

first committed

by

Malthus because

and

followers,
a

that of

supposing that
power upon
severe.

has population

greater
pressure

of increase subsistence The

than
must

subsistence, its
be

always

grow

ing more

difference is that the

this
an

early

Malthusians

thought
M. Louis

ten irrepressible

dency, while

Blanc

thinks

that

it

can

SOCIALISM.

69

be

but only under repressed,

It is it
comes
a

system of Com

munism.

great point gained for truth

be
seen

when

to

that

the

tendency

to
as

is a over-population well
as

fact which of

Communism,

the

order existing And

would society,
to

have

to deal with.

it is much

be the

at rejoiced

that this siderable

ism.

is necessity

admitted

by

most

con

chiefs of all and

schools existing less than

of Social
11. Louis

Owen

Fourier,no

Blanc, admitted
tive with

and claimed it,

a

for their respec power of

systems
this

pre-eminent

dealing
be,
ex

However difficulty. that of

in

this may

perienceshows
the society

the

existingstate

of

pressure

on subsistence, population

which
a

is the

cause principal

of low wages,
;
on

though
con

great,is

not

an

evil increasing
of all that

the

trary,the progress
tion has
more a

is called

civiliza

tendency to

diminish
means

it, partlyby the

of the

rapid increase

of the

employing
increased

and

maintaining labor,partly by
opened
to

facilities
to
new

labor and

for

itself transporting of
em

countries

unoccupied fields
a

ployment,and partlyby

generalimprovement

70
in the

SOCIALISM.

and intelligence This progress,

no

prudence of the popula

doubt,
should the
is slow
;

tion. much while

but it is

that such
we are

progress

take first

placeat all,

still

only in

stage of that
of the whole
must

publicmovement
people,which greatlyto
the

for the education when

more

advanced
two
causes

add of im
open

force of all the

It

above. provement specified

to discussion est power
sure

is,of

course,

what

form

of

has society

the
the
on

great
pres this
;

of

with dealing successfully

of

population on
is much

subsistence,and
to

questionthere
what
was

be be
one

said for Socialism its weakest of

long thought to
to

point

\\rjll, perhaps,prove
/"''But it has
sole
means
no

be
to

its

strongest.
as

just

claim

be considered

the

of

preventing the generaland

the
mass

grow

ing degradationof
the

of mankind

through

tendency peculiar

of

poverty to produce over

at

population. Society as
not

present constituted

is

descending into

that

abyss,but
of it,and

gradually, improve
laws do

out though slowly,rising ment

this bad

is

likely to

be
'

if progressive

not

interfere with

SOCIALISM.

71
that Socialists gene

Next, it must
and rally,
even

be observed the
most

enlightened of them,
one-sided
see

have the

very

imperfect and

notion half

of its

operationof competition. They

overlook for for the other half ;

and effects,

they regard
every one's

it

as

an

agency
"

grinding down
one

remuneration less wages

obligingevery
labor,or
would
a

to

accept
his

for his

less

price for

commodities, which
one

be true
or

only if every
his commodi the

had

to
some

disposeof

his labor

ties to tion

and great monopolist,

competi

were

all
a

on

one.

side.
of

They forget that

is competition
as

cause

and values high prices

well

as

of low ; that

the

buyers of
one

labor and
as

of commodities
as

compete with

another

well

the sellers ; and

that if it is competition which

and

of labor keeps the prices

as

commodities

as

low

they

are,

is

competition which
lower.
on

prevents

them

from

fallingstill

In

truth, when
both
its sides,
or

competition is perfectlyfree
tendency
lower the is not

either specially
to

to

raise

to
to

but priceof articles,

equalizeit ;

of remuneration, and level inequalities

to reduce

72

SOCIALISM.

all to
as

generalaverage,
(no
doubt

result which, in

so

far

realized

very

is, on imperfectly),
But the

Socialistic

dcsi Table. principles,

if,disre
effects of

garding

for

the

time

that

part of
in

competitionwhich
we

consists
on

keeping up prices, keeping them

fix

our

attention

its effect in

down, and
to solely

contemplate this
interest

effect in reference it laboringclasses,

wages, to

the

of the

would
and
so

seem

that if competition keepsdown motive

to

gives a

the

laboringclasses
the

withdraw
ence

the labor

market

from

full influ
on

of

if they can, competition,

it must

the the

other

hand

have

credit
on

for

keeping down
wages
are

pricesof the articles

which

expend depend

ed, to the great advantage of those who

on

wages.
we

To

meet
our

this consideration

Socialists, Blanc,
com

as

said in

quotationfrom
the

M. Louis

are

reduced

to affirm that

low

of prices

modities
and

produced by competition are

to

delusive

lead in the end

when

than before, higher prices

because of
"can

the richest

competitor has
the

got rid
and the

all his rivals, he

commands

market

demand

any

price

he

pleases. Now,

SOCIALISM.

73
that this state of

commonest

experienceshows

under things,

is wholly reallyfree competition,

imaginary. /The
nor can

richest

competitor neither
and rivals,

does

get
in

rid

of all his

establish
market
;

himself

exclusive

of possession
any

the

and
of

it is not
or industry

the fact that

commerce

important branch
among

formerlydivided
shows of
a

many
come,

has the

become,

or

any

tendency to

be

monopoly
of
as

few.'
is sometimes

The

kind

policydescribed
in the
case

pos

sible where,

of

the only railways,

two
or

competition possibleis

between

three

the operations great companies, beingon

a

too vast

scale to be within this is

the reach
one

of individual
reasons

capi
busi

talists ; and
nesses

of the

why
on

which

require to

be carried

by great
to
com

cannot joint-stock enterprises

be trusted

but, when petition, itself, ought

to

not

reserved
on

by
under

the

State to

be

carried time
of

conditions

and, prescribed, State,for

from

to

time, varied
the

by

the

the purpose

insuringto

publica

cheaper supply of
ed

its wants

than would

be afford
of sufficient

by privateinterest

in the absence

74

SOCIALISM.

competition. But

in rich

the

ordinarybranches
it in

of his

industry no
power
to

one

competitor has
smaller'
to
ones.

drive

out
a

all the

Some
of the
a

businesses
hands smaller

show

tendency

pass

out

of many number

small

producers or

dealers into the

cases

of

largerones
are

; but

in

which
session of
more more

this
of
a

happens

those

in which
the

the pos

larger capitalpermits

adoption

powerful machinery,more
"V

efficient(by

expensive) processes,
more

or

better

organized
busi

and
ness,

economical
thus

mode

of

carryingon

and

enables

the

large dealer legiti

mately and permanently to supply the commodity cheaper than

the
can

be done

on

the small

scale ; to and

great advantage of

the consumers,

there

fore of the

and classes, laboring

waste

diminishing, pro
of
the
com

tanto, that

of the

resources

munity

so

much

the complained of by Socialists,

mere

unnecessary and of the

of multiplication
various

distributors,
Fourier

other

classes whom this

calls the is
or

of industry. When parasites

change

either individual the larger effected, capitalists,

jointstock,

among

which

the

business

is

SOCIALISM.

75in
as

divided, are
branch

seldom,

if ever,
so

any
that

considerable

of commerce,

few

competition
so

shall not

continue

to

act between

them;
them

that

in cost,which -.ing .xt.-Ii the small

to first,

enabled

to uncleras

continues dealers,
on,

afterwards,
to prices,

at

be

passed
The

in

lower

their

customers.

therefore,of competi operation,

the

tion in

keeping down
on

of commodities, prices wages

we are

those including
is not

which

expended,
add, is
a

illusive but
a

and, real,

may

growing,not
But in there

fact. declining,
other

are

equallyimportant, respects,
Socialists

which

the

charges brought by
not

do competition against
an answer.

admit the
a

of best

so

complete

Competition is
no means

securityfor

but by cheapness,
In former
were

for quality. security

consumers

times, when
it not

producersand
was a

less numerous,

securityfor
nor

both.
means

The of
a

market

was

largeenough
enable
a

the

sufficientto publicity
fortune
:

dealer

to make
cus

by continuallyattractingnew
his
success

tomers

depended
; and

on

his

retaining
furnished

those

that he had

when

dealer

76
or good articles,

SOCIALISM.

when

he did not,the fact

it

was

soon

known ed
more a

to those whom

concerned, and he acquir

or

character

for honest him

dishonest the

dealingof
would
on

importanceto

than

gain that

be made

by cheating casual purchasers.But

with transactions,

the

great scale of modern

the the

great multiplicationof
immense increase in the
are

competition quantity
so

and

of business

competed for,dealers
permanent
essential
to customers

little

dependent on
less

that character is much there is also

them, while
their low

far less

certaintyof
deserve. -advertises
has

obtaining the character they prices which

to
a a

The
are

tradesman for
one

known,

thousand
or

who

discovered

for himself

learned from

others,
than
at the

that the bad

.an

quality of
their

the

goods

is

more

for equivalent time

some

cheapness ;

while
now

same

the much dealers of

greater fortunes
the

made

by
the the

excite

and cupidity of all,

greed
modest

rapid gain substitutes

a

itself for

desire to make In this manner,

as

livingby
wealth

their

business.

increases

seem greater prizes

to be within

reach,more

SOCIALISM.

77"
into
are-

and

more

of

is introduced gambling spirit where this of

commerce

; and

prevailsnot only

the

simplest maxims
the most receive
a

prudence disregarded,
of

but all, even

forms perilous, terrible

pecuniary
This
is

improbity
the

stimulus. the

meaning

of what

is called

intensityof
to

modern

competition.
that when
this

It is further

be

men

tioned
certain of. an any

intensity has
a

reached

a.

height,andwhen
or

portionof

the

producers
to

article

the dealers of

in it have
as

resorted

of the modes

fraud, such

adulteration,.

givingshort
there is
now

measure,
so

increase of which "cu ol.th.e

the temptation. complaint,
to
not
aware

much these would

is immense who practises, for the

on

adopt
have of

the

fraudulent
;.

them originated

public are

the

low

pricesfal
do not
find

laciously produced by
out

the frauds,but

at

if first,

ever,

that the

article is not
not

worth

the lower
a

and price,
a

they
better

will

go

on

pa}7in:;

higher pricefor
is

and article,

the honest Thus of

dealer

placedat

terrible
a

disadvantage.

the

frauds, begun by

few, become

customs

78
the trade,and
is
more

SOCIALISM.

the

classes morality of the trading

deteriorated. have
a

and this
out

more

On made
but

Socialists therefore, point, the existence

grows not and

really

only of
tends

greatevil,
with
must

of

one

which of

to grow

the

growth

populationand

wealth^AEt
never

be said,however, that the

means

has society

yet used
of

which

are

already
The

in

its power

with grappling mercial

frauds

this evil.
are

laws

againstcom
execu

very

and their defective,

tion still more

no

so.

Laws

of this

have description unless

it is

chance

of

being really enforced

of
some one

the

specialduty
are

to
a

enforce

them.

They

in specially

need

of

public prosecutor.
far it is

It is still to be
to repress

discovered

how

possible
class of

by

means

of the criminal
are now

law

misdeeds
the

which

seldom

brought before
the brought,
is most

and tribunals,

to

which, when
of
most

administration judicial

this

country

unduly
ever,

lenient.

The

how important class,

mass

of these which

frauds,to the

of the

people,
articles

those of

affect the

priceor qualityof
be in
a

dailyconsumption,can

great measure

SOCIALISM.

79 of
stores. co-operative

'"

overcome

by

the institution

By

this

plan any
into
to
an

body

of

consumers

who

form

themselves
are

association
over

for the

purpose, and

enabled

pass

the

retail dealers the

obtain

their articles direct

or, what

from

wholesale whole

merchants,
sale from the
and

is better

(now
been

that

have co-operative agencies the

established),
from

themselves thus freeing producers, tax

same now

heavy
at the

paid to
time

the

classes distributing the

eliminate and
a

trators of adulterations

other work those

frauds,

j Dis

tribution

thus

becomes

performed by
who

agents selected and

interest in
ness

paid by
the

have

no

anythingbut

cheapnessand good
the distributors
to to be
are

of

the

article ; and

capable of being thus

which the

reduced work

the

numbers

quantity of

done

really

requires.The
the skill

difficultiesof the
trustworthiness

plan

consist in
the

and
and

required in

managers,

the

nature imperfect
over

of the control

which
at

can

be exercised

them
and

by

the

body
of

large.

The

great success

rapid growth

the system prove,

however, that these difficulties

80

SOCIALISM.

are,

in

some

tolerable

overcome. degree,

At

all

events, if the beneficial tendency of the competi

tion of retailers in gone, and is promotingcheapness

fore

has to be

by replaced
the

other
same

securities,

the mischievous
tion in rid

tendency of

competi
rate

quality is deterioratiDg
the

at

any

got

of; and
shows without

prosperityof
this benefit
to

the

co-operative
not

stores

that

is obtained

only

detriment
to

but cheapness,

with

great advantage
concerns

of the since the profits it,

to return to the
consumers

enable them

largepercentage on
them.

the

price of

every

article

to supplied

So far,therefore, as effectual

this class

of

evils

is

concerned,'an

remedy

is

which, though suggestedby already in operation,

and

partly grounded
with the

on

socialistic

is principles, of

consistent

existing constitution

property/'
With

regard to

those

greater and
or

more

con

spicuous economical

frauds,
which

malpractices
many
"

equivalentto frauds, of
able
cases

so

deplor

have

become and

notorious

committed them-

by

merchants

bankers

between

SOCIALISM.

81

selves
trusted
as

or

between
them

them

and

those such

who
a

have

with

money,

remedy
the

above

described which

is not the

available, and

only
of

resources

present constitution
are a

societyaffords against them

a

sterner

reprobationby opinion, and by the law. repression

dies has It is
on

more

efficient
reme

Neither
to
an

of these

had
the

any
occurrence

approach

effectual trial. that these

of insolvencies
to

dishonest

usually come practices

their
not place,

light ;

the

take perpetrators

in

the class of debtors

were

malefactors, but
and the laws

in that

of

insolvent

of this and savage of

other

countries

formerly so
that

against simple insolvency,

reactions
are

by

one

those

to

which

the
came

opinions of
to be

mankind

insolvents liable,

regardedmainly
to be

as

objectsof compassion,
the hand both

and

it seemed and

thought that

of law
too

of

publicopinion could
them.

hardlypress
in
a

lightly upon

By

an

error

contrary

direction to the
in the

ordinaryone

of

our

law, which

punishment

of offr.nces in

general wholly
the

the questionof reparation to neglects

sufferer,

82

SOCIALISM.

our

bankruptcy laws

have

for

some

time

treated

the recovery

for creditors of what almost the sole

is left of their

property as

scarcelyany object,

importance beingattached
the

to the

punishment of
which
does
not

bankrupt

for any

misconduct that

directlyinterfere
For three
or

with

primary
has
one

purpose.
been bank
a

four years

past there
more

and counter-reaction, slight

than

ruptcy gent

act

has been

somewhat passed, but

the

less indul

to the

bankrupt ;
stillbeen

primary object
of

regardedhas
the

the

pecuniary interest
the

and creditors, the

in criminality

bankrupt
number with

himself, with
of

exception of

small

well-marked

offences,gets off almost

be in

impunity.

It may least the

there affirmed, confidently this

fore,that, at
not

country, societyhas
of

exerted

power

it possesses

making

mercantile
tor.

dishonesty dangerous to the perpetra

the it contrary,
is is
a

On

gambling
on

trick in

which

all the
:

advantage
the trick

the

side of the
his is at

trickster

if

succeeds
if it

it makes

fortune,
most

or

preserves
to

it ;

fails,he
was

reduced

poverty, which

perhaps

SOCIALISM.

83

already impending
the chance, and
not

when

he determined

to

run

he is classed the

by

those

who
even

have

looked who the rational

into closely

matter, and
the Until
a

by
but

many among and

have,

not

among

infamous
more

unfortunate. mode been of

moral

dealing with
and

culpablein

solvency has

tried be
is

failed,commercial
among

dishonesty cannot
of prevalence
cial

ranked

evils the
commer

which

from inseparable

competition. point
on

Another

which

there

is much

mis
as

apprehensionon
of Trades

the

well as part of Socialists, and other

to

Unionists

of partisans the

Labor

relates against Capital,

whicti the

proportionsin

produce
the

of

the of

country is really
what
is

shared
diverted other of the

and

amount

actually
enrich

from

those

who

produce it,to
for the

persons.

I forbear
is
a

present to speak
But with

land, which

subjectapart.
in

respectto capitalemployed
in

business,there is

the

popular notions
for instance, a

great deal of illusion.

"20,000
income
of

When,
in his

invests capitalist

business,and

draws

from

it

an

84

SOCIALISM.

"2,000 (suppose)
is
as

year, the

common

impression
both

if he

was

the beneficial of the

owner

of the

"20,000
own

and

"2,000, while
wages.

the laborers

nothing but

their

The

truth,how
on

ever,

that he only obtains is,

of

the "2,000

condiown

ton
use.

applyingno part of
fie has the

the "20,000 to his

over

control legal

and might it,

squander it
not

if he

chose,but
a

if he also.

did he would
As

have
an

the "2,000 income

year
his

long as

he

derives

from

he capital the
use

has not the of others. consists of of

not

optionof withholdingit
As

from

much

of his invested
and

capitalas
other

machinery, buildings,
are production,

instruments
are

and to production applied the

to applicable
one.

support

or

enjoyment

of any is

What

is

so

what (including applicable

or

laid out in
and

keeping up

renewing the buildings

away
to

is paid instruments) their

form laborers, share

in the

ing

remuneration of the

and For

their
all

division

produce.

personalpur
has but
on

poses

and they have the capital it to only yields is

he him

the

which profits, that the

condition

itself capital

employed

in

satisfying

SOCIALISM.

85

not

his

own

wants, but
the

those

of laborers.

The

proportionwhich
bear
to

of capitalusually profits
to the

itself (orrather capital the

ratio

circulating capitalist's

portionof it)is
share of the
of

which
to the
own

the

produce bears
Even
him

aggregate share
share of
a

the laborers.

of his
as

small

part only belongsto

The

the

owner

capital. capi

portionof merely
as

the

produce

which

falls to

tal

is capital

measured is all that

by

the interest
owner

of money,

since

that

the

of
to

obtains capital

when the

he

contributes

nothing
Now

productionexcept
interest of

itself. capital

the
are

in capital
to be

the

funds, which public

is security,
not and varied

considered
sent

the best have

at the pre

prices (which years)about

much per

for
cent.

many Even "risk

three

one-third
some

in this investment

there is
of

little risk

of
at

risk repudiation,
a

being obliged to
commercial crisis.
re

sell out

low

pricein
risks may

some

Estimating these maining

3 per
cent,

at

J per cent.,the
considered
from
a

be

as

the

remuneration

of

capital, apart
the

insurance

against loss.

On

securityof

mortgage

86

SOCIALISM.

per

cent,

is

generally obtained,
are

but

in

this

transaction
"

there

considerably greater risks

titles to land under of
in
our

the

of uncertainty

bad

system of law
the
at security

; the chance
a

having
law

to

realize and

great cost
the

charges;
the When

to delay in liability
even

receiptof
safe.

interest
mere

when

the

principalis

money

independentlyof
as

exertion

yieldsa larger

income,
shares is

it sometimes other

does, for example, by

the surplus companies,
the risk of

in

railway or
an

hardly ever
or

for equivalent
the

losing

the whole,

part,of
case

capital by mismanage
the Brighton Eailway,

ment,

as

in the

of the

dividend
per annum, and
not

of which, after
sunk
to from

having been

6 per cent, per

nothing to 1| bought
about
at

cent.,
could

shares be

which for
at

had
more

been

120 43.

sold
is lent

than

When
one

money

the

high

rates

of interest

hears of,rates only given by spend occassionally thrifts and

of loss is
can
so

needy

persons,

it is because

the

risk

great that
to lend

few

who
at

possess all.

money

be induced
is there

to them

So
"

little
"

reason

for the

outcry against

usury

SOCIALISM.

87

as

one

of the

burthens grievous

of

the

workinga manu

classes.
facturer his

Of the
or

which therefore, profits,

in business

other person
more

obtains
cent,
were

from
can

no capital

than

about

3 per If he

be able

set down

to the

capitalitself.
the whole

and

willingto give up

of this to them

his
the

laborers, who
whole from wages obtains
ance

already
capitalas
the

share

among

of his
year

it is

annually reproduced
to

to year,

addition

their Of

weekly
what he

would

be

inconsiderable.
cent,
a

beyond

3 per

great part

is insur

againstthe
cannot

manifold

losses he is his
to
own

exposed to,
use,

and

be appliedto safely be

but

requiresto
losses when

kept
occur.

in

reserve

cover

those
is pro

they

The

remainder

perlythe
"

remuneration

of his skill and

industry

the wages

of his labor of

superintendence.^^
in

doubt wages of

if he is very of his
are

successful

business

these

and quite out extremely liberal, what

to proportion

the

same

skill and

indus

try would

command

if offered for hire.

runs
a

But,

on

the other hand, he

worse

risk than that

that of the

being

out

of

employment;

of

doing

88

SOCIALISM.

work

without

earninganything by it,of having

anxiety without
the drawbacks
no

the labor and

not

the

wages,/!
the

do

say

that

balance

privi
the
em

or leges,

that he derives makes

advantage
a

from

which position

him

and capitalist

ployer of labor,instead
ent

of

skilled
to

superintend
the

out letting of his

his

services
must

others ; but
not

amount

advantage

be

estimated from

by
the

the

great prizesalone,
of
some

/(.i
we

subtract

gains
from

the
a

losses fair

of

others, and
for

deduct

the balance

compensation

the

and skill, anxiety,

labor of both, grounded on what superintendence,

the market remains when the

priceof
be, no

skilled

will

doubt, considerable,but
to

yet,

compared

the

entire

capital of
dis it

country, annually reproduced and

wages,
the it is very

pensed in
appears
the whole
ers

much

smaller

than
were

to

popular imagination;
to the

and

of it added make be made

a

share

of the
to

labor share

it would

less addition

that

than
in

would

by
the

any

important invention
unneces

machinery,or by

suppressionof
"

sary

of other distributors/and parasites

indus-

SOCIALISM.
..

89

try."

To

complete the estimate,however,

the

of the goes
at to

portionof
remunerate

produce of industrywhich
must
not

capital we
earned
out

stop

the
the

interest

of

the
in is

produce by

capitalactuallyemployed
must
owners

producing it,but
to

include

that

which

paid
has

the

former unprois

of

capital which
and
out
no

been

ductively spent
paid,
of
course,

longer exists,and
the

of

produce

of

other

capital. Of
debts, which
with

this nature
is the

is the interest of national

a

cost

nation

is burthened

and for past difficulties of profligacy

its

or dangers,

for
or

past
less be

folly or
shared added and
as

rulers,more

by the nation
the
interest
on

itself. To the
debts

this must of
;

landowners

other

unproductiveconsumers
borrowed

except so far spent in

the money

may

have
of

been the

remunerative powers self

"

improvement
As for

productive
property
of land
I it

of the land. the

landed the
rent
as

of appropriation
"

by
said,
the

privateindividuals
this
tenure

reserve,

have
; for

question for
of
land

discussion be

hereafter in any

might

varied

manner

90

SOCIALISM.

considered clared the

with fering

desirable,all the land

might be

de

property of the State, without

the the

inter

right of property product

of human

in

anything
labor
and

which

is

abstinence. It seemed of the desirable

to

begin the
these

discussion
remarks

Socialist

question by

in abatement

of 'Socialist
issues

in order exaggerations,

that the

true

between

Socialism be
is

and

the

existing sta"eof societymight

ceived.

con correctly

/The present system

believe, hurrying
us

not,
a

as

many of

Socialists

into

state

generalindigenceand
Socialism
suffered
can save

slavery from

which

only

us.

Theeyilsand
are

injustices
but great,

under
not

the

present system
the

they

are

on increasing;

contrary, the
diminu

generaltendency is
tion.

towards

their slow

/Moreover

the

in inequalities

the distribu

tion of the however

produce
may
not
means

between the

and capital

labor,
natural

they

shock

feelingof
mere

would justice, afford the

by
so

their

equalisation
fund
as

by

any

large a

for

raising

lower

levels of remuneration

Socialists,

SOCIALISM.

91

and There

many

besides any

are Socialists,

apt

to

suppose.
pre

is not

one

abuse

or

now injustice

which vailingin societyby merely abolishing the human

race

would

pass out

of
on

into suffering
us

happiness.

What

is incumbent
two

is

calm
01

comparison between
with society,
them
a

different

systems

view

of

determining which
for
overcom

ot

affords the

greatestresources

ing the inevitable difficultiesof life.

find the
answer

And

if

we

to

this

question more
intellectual

difficult,
and moral

and

more

dependentupon
is

conditions, than

it usually thought, is time

on

is satisfac
us

tory to reflect that there

before
an

for the

questionto

work

itself out

experimental
we

scale, by actual trial.

that
no

I believe

shall find

other

test

is

possibleof

the

practica

of Socialist arrange or beneficial operation bility

ments
;

but

thajXthe intellectual
Socialism deserve the
many

and
most
cases

moral
atten-

grounds
o

of

tive

study, as

affording in
the

the

of guiding principles
to

improvements necessary system

of

give the present economic

society

its best chance/

C2

SOCIALISM.

THE

DIFFICULTIES those of who

OF

SOCIALISM.

Among
two

call themselves
may be

Socialists,

kinds
are, in
new

persons
first

distinguishes!.
whose

There
'*-~".,-^.".

the

those place, which

plans

for

order of

in society,

privatepro
to be

are perty and individual competition

super

seded
are on

and

other

motives
a

to action

substituted,
or

the scale of would be

village community appliedto

such
an

town

and ship,

entire

country
;

by
of

the'
this

of multiplication character
and the
are

units self-acting

the

systems of Owen,
and

of

Fourier,

more

thoughtful

philo

sophicSocialists generally. The

are more a

other class, who

than of

product of
and
may

the

Continent

Great
ary

Britain

be called the
to

revolution
a

Socialists, propose
stroke.

themselves
is the

much

^
f

bolder

Their

scheme

management

of the whole

productiveresources

of the

country

by
ment.
as

one

central
And with

the general authority, govern this view

,--oine

of them

avow

their

purpose
in their

that

the

working classes,or
take

somebody

behalf,should

possession

SOCIALISM.

93

of all the it for the

property of the country,and general benefit.

be forms
the

administer

/Whatever

difficulties of the

first of
must

/ these

two

of Socialism,the the
same

second

involve evidently
more.

difficulties and

many

The

former, too, has the great advantage

be
can

that

it

can

brought into operation progres

prove
a

and sively,

its

capabilities by populationand
and

trial.
ex

TTcan
tended

be tried first on
to others
as

select

their education

cultivation
order

permit.

It need

not, and

in the natural
an

of

things would
sion until

not, become
shown

engine

of subver

it had

itself

capable of being
It is not
so

also

means

of reconstruction.
:

with

the other
new

the aim the

of that old
at
a

is to

substitute

the
to

rule for

singlestroke,and
under

exchange the

amount and

of
its

good realised

the
im

present system, provement,

into for
a

of largepossibilities
any

plunge without
form

preparation problem
of

the

most the

extreme

of the of the
power

carryingon

whole the

round
motive

of operations which has It

social life without alwavs

hitherto

worked

the social

machinery.

D4

SOCIALISM.

must

be
this

acknowledged
game
on

that

those

who

would
own

play

the

strength
as

of their

opinion,unconfirmed private

yet by any

ex

perimental verification^rwho would prive all who

existence have
now

de forcibly

comfortable

physical
of preserv

of their would that

only present means

brave the
ensue

ing it,and
and

bloodshed frightful
if the

misery
"

would

attempt
in

was

resisted
own

must
on

have the

serene

confidence and
the
a

their

wisdon

one

hand

recklessness

of other

on sufferings people's

other, which
the

Robespierre and
instances
came

St. Just, hitherto united

typical

of

those

attributes, scarcely
this scheme the
more

up

to./ Nevertheless
of

has

great

elements
and

which popularity form

it of

cautious has

reasonable what

Socialism
do it
to

not;
do

because

to professes
out

promises to

quickly,and
i/f seeing the in their The ary
own

holds

hope

the

enthusiastic

whole time

of their and
at
a

aspirationsrealised
blow.

however, peculiarities,
of Socialism will be

of the
most

revolution

form

conveniently

SOCIALISM.

95

examined both The

after

the

considerations
been

common

to

the forms

have

duly weighed.
could
not attain
nor

produce

of the

world its

to anythingapproaching

present amount,

support anything approaching to the

number

present
two
con

of its inhabitants,except upon abundant other

of and

ditions:
and ings, the

costlymachinery,buildof

instruments

production ;

and

power

undertaking long operations and

time be in
a

waiting a
other
of

considerable
must

for their

fruits.

In

words, there

largeaccumulation
implements
is and
in

both capital,

fixed

the

and buildings,

that circulating, laborers and

employed

maintainingthe ing the

time

their families the

dur

which

before elapses
and

productive

are operations

completed

the
on

products come physical laws,

of

in.

This

necessitydepends
in the

and

is inherent

condition

human

life ;

the capital, of production, but/these requisites fixed and has to

tained

of the country (to which circulating, added the

be
in

land, and

all that

is

con

it), may

either be
use

the

collective pro

perty of those who

or it, may

belongto

indi-

90

SOCIALISM.

viduals; and
arrangements

the

question is, which

conducive
to

of

these

is most

human

hap

piness. What
v

is characteristic

of Socialism., is

the

jointownership by

all the

members
and
means

of the
of pro-

community
duction that of

of the instruments

; which

carries with
of the be
a

it the

consequence the

the division
must
to

produceamong

bodj.

owners

public act, performed ac by

the

cording
Socialism

rules
no

laid down
means

community
-

by

excludes

private ownei

ship

of

articles

of

consumption; the
or

exclusive

rightof
when

each

to his

her
to

share

of the

produce
to
ex

recieved,either
it.

enjoy,to give,or

change wholly
cultural

The

land, for

example, might
for

bt

the

property of the community

other
on

agri
and
and
or

and

productive
their

purposes,

might
yet
the

be cultivated

joint account,
each individual

dwellingassignedto

familyas part

of their remuneration

might
to any

be

as

while they theirs, exclusively their share house

now

continued

fulfil one's any

of the
is ; and

common

labors, as

not

the

but dwellingonly,

ornamental

ground which

the circumstances

of the

SOCIALISM.

97
to the house

association allowed
purposes of

to be attached The

for

enjoyment.

distinctive feature
in common,
on

of Socialism is not that all

but that
common

thingsare

productionis only carried

account, and
held
as

upon

the of

that
common

the

instruments

are production

property,f Th"the

then practicability
Mr.

of Socialism, on

scale of of
no

Owen's

or

H. Fourier's

admits villages, the whole

[ j
i

\The attempt to dispute.

x**~"^

manage

pro-

duction is
a

of

nation

by

one

central
/
a

organization f***^ .x""

\

different matter^ but totally

mixed

agri-j

cultural and
two

manufacturingassociation
to four thousand

of from

thousand

inhabitants under climate

a

any

tolerable circumstances
be

of soil and than many

be is

would

easier to The

manage

joint
IL,

stock company. whether is,

as

questionto

considered
to likely

this

jointmanagement
successful
as

be
of

efficient and

the managements

privateindustryby private capital.And

has question the
and
to be considered

this

in

double
or

aspect; minds,
in order

of efficiency
that of the

the

mind, directing
And

simple workpeople.

to state this
a

in question

its simplest form,we

will

98

SOCIALISM.

suppose

the form

of Socialism

to be

simpleCom

munism, -i.e. equal division of the produceamong

all the sharers,or,

according to
of

M.

Louis

Blanc's

still higher standard

it

apportionment of justice,
of

according to difference
any

need,

but

without the

making
nature

difference of reward

accordingto
the

of the
or

duty

nor

to according

supposed
There
are

merits

services of the

individual.

other forme which

ency,

of Socialism, Fourierism, particularly

considerations differences
or

do, on
allow

of

or justice expedi

of remuneration service
to

for dif the

com

ferent kinds

degrees of

munity
for the

but

the

consideration

of these

may

be

present postponed.
difference of between the motive
powers in

The
the and
case

economy

societyunder
would

private property
be greatest in the Under the present the hands of

under
of the

Communism

minds. directing direction

or

system,the
the person

in being entirely

persons

who

own

(or are
whole

personally
benefit of

the for)the capital, responsible the and difference the worst between under the best

administration
can

which

the business

con-

SOCIALISM.

99

tinue to persons
reap
so

be carried who

on

accrues

to

the person
:

or

control

the

administration

they

the whole
as

of good management profit

or

except

far

their self-interest share

it with

induce liberality subordinates

;

them

to

their

aud

they suffer the whole

ment

detriment this may

of

mismanage
sub

except so far
of

as

their cripple labor. This

sequent power
motive personal for the would managers the
same

employing

strong
utmost

to do their very economy

best and of the

and efficiency
not

operations,
;
as

exist

under

Communism

the

would

only

receive out of the

as

produce
of be

equal dividend
What

the other members remain

so

the association. the interest

as

would
to all in
as

would

common

managing

affairs

to make

the dividend

as large possible ; the

incentives of
the honor of these and

of conscience, and public spirit, credit of the managers. The

of

'

force
is

when motives, especially

But it varies

combined,

great.
and

greatlyin
some

different persons, purposes than the for

is much

greater for
verdict of moral

others. fect

The

in experience,

imper

degree of

cultivation

which

mankind

100

SOCIALISM.

have
and

yet reached,is that the motive

that
are

of conscience when

of credit

and

even reput:.',ion,

they

of

some

strength, are,
as

in the

majorityof
as

cases, much

stronger
"

than restraining to be

im

pellingforces

are

more

depended

on

for

preventingwrong,
est

than

for

forth calling

the full occupa

energiesin
the .xl'n. which

the
case

pursuit of ordinary
of most found
men

tions,
ment

the

only induce

has been

constant sufficiently

and

to unflagging

overcome

the

in ever-present and

fluence of indolence
men

and

love of ease,

induce work

to

apply

themselves

to unrelaxingly

for the most

L

part
of

in itself dull and

is unexciting,
own

the

prospect

betteringtheir
of

economic and
the

,'

condition

and; that

their

family;

closer the connection with

more a

of every

increase of exertion of its fruits, the

suppose
men

correspondingincrease
is this
be to

powerful
would
are,

motive/ To

the
as

contrary

imply
honor

that with
are more

they now

duty
action

and

powerful

of principles
as solely

than and

not personal interest,

to

acts special

forbearances have been

respect

ing

which

those sentiments

exception-

SOCIALISM.

101

but ally cultivated, whole

lives ; which

in
no

the
one,

regulationof
I suppose,

their

will affirm.

/It

may

be said that this inferior

is not feelings

of public efficacy
"

"ind social of
to

inevitable This
I
are
am

is the result

education. imperfect

quiteready
now

admit, and also that there

even

many

individual exceptionsto the generalinfirmity.

But

before these
even

can exceptions

grow

into

ma

or jority,

into

very

much large minority, of human

time ';

will be
one

required. /The education

of the most

beingsis
this is
been
one

difficultof all arts, and

which it"Jis hitherto

of the

pointsin
moreover

least successful ;
are

improvementsin gradual
"

general education
because the future the

necessarily very
educated the

generationis

by

the

present,and
set
an

imperfectionsof
limit to their
must

teachers
in

invincible
can

the

degree
be

which than
,

they

train

pupils to
therefore
a

better

themselves.
we

,/We

unless expeqiy,

are

operatingupon

select

portion of
will for
to
a

the

interest population^hat personal

time

long
most

be

more

effective stimulus careful conduct

the

vigorous

and

of the

industrial

102

SOCIALISM.

business
V

of

than sjociety be

motives that
at

of

higher

""^\/

character.

V It will

said

present the
excess coun

greed orpersonal gain by

teracts

its very

its

own

end

by

the

stimulus risks. that

source

it

givesto
it does, of
evil

reckless and
and under

often dishonest Communism

This

would

generally be

absent.

It
a

is

probable,
or

either of indeed, that enterprise

bad

of

good kind
business

would

be

deficient element, and fall very

;

that under per

to be

in

general would
of routine

much

the dominion formance enforced each

the

the rather,as communities

more

the has

of

duty

in such

by

external
can

the sanctions, be reduced him

to

nearly
rules,

person's duty

to fixed

easier it is to hold which is the have

course

its

performance.

circumstance

increases

the

probability
which
the

of this result managers

limited
of

power

would
of

independent action.
from authority whom their from for

They
the

would

hold their

choice

of the

community, by
any time

function them

might at

be

withdrawn it necessary

; and
even

this would
if not
so

make

them,

requiredby

the constitution

SOCIALISM.

103

of the
of

community, to
body
before of

obtain

the
any

generalconsent change
concern.

the

making

in

the The

established

mode

carryingon
numerous

the

of persuadinga difficulty
a

body
of

to make
01

change

in their accustomed

mode

working,

which
risk

change the
more

trouble is often
to

great,and the
c
~

obvious

their
a

minds

than

the

advantage,would

have

great tendency to keep

track.

thingsin

their accustomed choice

in

Against this^,
persons

"*

it has to be set,that
are

by
the

the

who

directlyinterested
who have

success

of

theft--1
and
c

work, and

practical knowledge
be

of judgment, might opportunities

on

\ expected

the average

to

produce

managers
now

of greater \
so

skill than the chances determine This may that the the
than
same

of birth, which
owner

often

who

shall be the

of the may
can

J capital.
replied

be true \ and

though it
inheritance manager

be

capitalist by

like also,

community, appoint a
himself,this would
level of
a

more

capable
on

only place him

as

the
not

advantage
But

the

community,
be said
on

on

higherlevel.

it must

the

other side that under

the Communist

system the

104

SOCIALISM.

persons

most

for the management qualified often to

would under

be

likely very
At

hang

back

from
even

takingit.
a

presentthe manager,
a

if he be

hired servant,has

very

much

remun larger

eration than the other persons

concerned

in the

business ; and

there

are

open

to his ambition

social positions to higher manager

is
none

which his function of

the Communist be
same

On stepping-stone. of these

system

advantages would

by him; possessed
dividend labor
as

he could obtain

onlythe

out of the

produce of
member of

the

community's
would
no

any

other

of it ; he

have longer
a

the chance

himself raising

from

receiver of wages

into the class of

no

capitalists ;

and while he could be in

any

way

better off than

other

laborer, his
be
so

and responsibilities

anxieties

would

much would

greaterthat
be

large

of proportion the less

onerous

mankind

to prefer likely

This difficulty was position.

as an

foreseen

by

Plato his

to objection

the of

system

in proposed

Republicof community
and

goods
cii

among

class ; governing

the

motive

which

he relied for

inducingthe

fit persons **

to

*-.

SOCIALISM.

105

take

on

themselves, in the
the

absence
cares

of

all the
of

ordinary inducements,
government,
worse men.
Avas

and

labors

the fear

of

being governed by
motive

This, in truth, is the

to

which
upon
;

would the

have

be

in the

main

depended

persons be

most

competent
to

to the

management
the

would

prompted

undertake

office to

into less competent hands. prevent it from falling

And times

the motive when there

would
was an

probably be

effectual at in

impressionthat by
the affairs of the
even com

competent management

munity

were

going to ruin, or

only decid
could
not*

But edly deteriorating.

as a

this motive

rule,expect

to

be called into action of

by

the

less

stringentinducement
;

merely promoting
of inventors
or

improvement
schemers

unless in the
to

case

eager for

try

some

device immediate
very

from

which

they hoped
persons

great and
kind
are

fruits ; and unfitted

of this

often

by

over-sanguine temper
for 'the when

and of

imperfect judgment
while affairs,
even

general conduct they are

fitted for it

the precisely
man

kind
is

of '
to

persons

againstwhom

the average

apt

106

SOCIALISM.

entertain unable
to

and prejudice, the

they would

often

be

overcome

of preliminary difficulty

persuadingthe
and project rnunistic
to

community
accept them
would

both
as

to

adopt their
Cornall pro

managers. thus

management
favorable

be, in

less bability,
to that

than of
new

privatemanagement

out striking

paths and
and

making
uncertain

immediate

sacrifices for distant

which, though advantages,

with

seldom

unattended

to great risk, is generallyindispensable

improvements
mankind, and

in
even

the
to
a

economic

condition the

of

keeping up
continual

existing
of the

state in the face number We

of

increase

of mouths have

to be fed. account

thus far taken motives upon Let

us

only of

the

of operation of the the

case

the
now

managing

minds

association.
stands in

consider

how

to regard

the

ordinaryworkers.
would have
no

These, under

Communism,

interest,except their share of the generalinter est,in doing their work

honestly

and

energeti
be
no

cally. But
worse

in this

respect matters
are

would

than

they now

in

regard to

the great

SOCIALISM.

107

majorityof paid by

the

producingclasses. These, being

are so

fixed wages,

far from
in not

having any
of efficiency

direct interest

of their

own

the
even

their work, that in the

they have
interest the

that

share

general
have
in

which

every

worker

would

Communistic

organization.

the inefficiency of hired labor,the Accordingly,

imperfect manner
real
common

in

which the

it calls forth matter

the of
fol

of capabilities remark.

laborers, is
that
a

It is true

character

being a good workman

its

is far from
to

being without
a

value,as

it tends

give him

in preference

employment, higher
wages. the

and

sometimes There
are

obtains also

for

him

of possibilities
or

to rising

positionof foreman,

other
are

sub
not

ordinate

administrative

posts, which
than
to

only
but

more

highly paid
open
on

ordinary labor,
ulterior advan is
to

sometimes
But

the

way

tages.
that

the

other the

side

be

set

under

Communism

generalsentiment
of the comrades

of the
under be
sure

community,
whose
to

composed
each
favor person

eyes
be in

works, would

of

good

and

hard

108

SOCIALISM.

working,

and

unfavorable
waste. not

to

laziness,care present system

lessness,and
not

In the case,

the

only is this

but the

public opin
in
some

ion of the workman

class often acts

:

the

very

opposite direction
societies
a

the

rules

of

trade
to exceed

forbid actually of

their members

certain standard
the number

lest they efficiency, of laborers

reason

should the

diminish

requiredfor
|

work; and for the

same

they often

violent

ly resist contrivances

for
a

economisinglabor.
which
every

The
per

change from
son

this to have
as an

state in

would

interest in

rendering every
careful

other
as

person

and industrious,skilful,

(which would possible

would be
a

be the

case

under

Com

munism),
better.
,

change

very

much

for the

It is, however, to be considered defects cipal the of the

that the
in

prin
to

present system
be

respect

of efficiency

labor may

and corrected, in

tLe

chief
may

advantages of Communism
be

that

respect

obtained, by arrangements compatible

individual is

with

private property and

competition.
obtained

Considerable

improvement

already

SOCIALISM.

109

in by piece-work, of it. is

the kinds
workman's

of labor which

admit

By

this

the

personal interest quantity of

its work

connected closely
out
"

with
so

the

he turns

not

much

with
to

the quality,
on

security for which

still has neither

depend
does

the

employer's vigilance ;
carry

piece-work

with

it the
is

publicopinionof
the

the workman

class,which

often, on
a means

contrary, strongly
of

opposed

to

it, as

(as they
And of

think

diminishingthe
is

market

for laborers.

there

really good ground

is

for their dislike

is
a

piece

as work, if,

it alleged,

oi frequentpractice

after usingpiece-workto employers,

utmost

ascertain the

which

good

workman

can

do, to

fix the

price of piece-workso
utmost

low
to

that

by doing
than wages

that

he
be

is not

able

earn

more

they
for

would

obligedto give

him

as

day

ordinary work.
But

there is

far

more

completeremedy
hired

than

piece-workf ;r
what viz.,
is
iiow

the

of disadvantages

labor,

industrial callet}/

partnershir"Xof laborers to
a

the admission

of the whole the

body

in participation

profits, by distributing among

1 10

SOCIALISM.

/ all who

share
on

in the

work,

in the form

of
or a

perfixed

j centage

their the

the earnings,
a

whole

portion of
has been been

gains after
to the

certain

remuneration

allowed

capitalist.This plan has

both efficacy, enlisted
on

found

of admirable
abroad.

in

this

country and
ments

It has

the the

senti side
to

of the workmen careful

employed

of

the most

regard by
of the
concern

all of them
; and

the

generalinterest
effect in

by
and

its

joint

promoting
very of every
in

zealous

exertion

checking
the
in
re

waste, it has
muneration
concerns

materially increased descriptionof

it has

labor

the is

which
this of

been admits

adopted.
of

It

evident extension share of

that and

system
an

indefinite
in

indefinite the

increase

the

profits assignedto
would leave of

laborers,short of
less than
in

that which
the
success

to the managers

needful

degree
the
concern.

personal interest
It

the

of such

is

even

likely that
many
or

when

arrangements become
would
or

common,

of these

concerns

at

some

period
of the

an

other, on

the death

retirement

chief'si

SOCIALISM.

Ill

pass,

by arrangement,

into the state of

purely co

associations. operative
It thus motives munism
to

appears exertion
no

that

as

far

as

concerns

the

in the

general body, Com

which
may
as

has
under

advantage

not

be

reached
the

while private property, heads

it is at
some a

respects
disad

managing

considerable

vantage.
seem

It has also

disadvantageswhich

to be inherent

in

it,through the necessity

under

which

it lies of

decidingin

more

or

less

manner arbitrary

which, questions

on

the

present

system, decide
but

themselves, often badly

enough}

spontaneously.
a

It is

simple rule,and
to

under

certain

aspectsa
share

justone,

give equal payment

But

to all who

in the work. unless Now the

this is

very

imperfect justice

work

also is

apportioned equally.
of work

the many

different very

kinds

required
and

iu every

are society

unequal in
these

hardness

unpleasantness. To
another,
so as

measure

against one
to

to

make

quality equivalent
Communists
work

is so quantity,

difficult that
that all should

gener
turns
at

ally propose

by

112

SOCIALISM.

every

kind

of labor.

But

this involves

an

almost

complete sacrifice
the
are

of the economic

advantages of

division indeed
counter

of

employments,advantages which
(or rather

frequentlyover-estimated
considerations
are

the

under-estimated)
are

by political economists, but which

in the point of less, view

neverthe

of the

of productiveness double
reason

labor,
that

very

for the considerable,

the

of employment enables co-operation itself with

some

the the the

work

to distribute

regardto

special capacities and

worker,
and

of qualifications every
one

also
and

that

worker kind

acquires
of work

greater skill

in rapidity
to it.

by

himself confining

The

arrangement, there
a

fore,which
tribution

is deemed

to indispensable
a

just dis

would

probablybe
in

very

considerable But of

disadvantage
further,it
to justice

respect of
a

production.

is still

very
same

imperfectstandard
amount

demand

the

of work

from

every

one.

People

have

of unequal capacities what is a

work, both mental

task

and

and bodily,

light
an

for

one

is

an

burthen insupportable

to

other.

It

is

necessary,

therefore, that

there

SOCIALISM.

113

.should be

dispensing power,

an

com authority

petent
amount
measure

to ot

grant exemptions from

work, and
to

the

ordinary
in
some

tasks proportion

to

As capabilities.

long

as

there
to

are

any

lazyor
for

selfish persons

who

like better

lie

"worked

by

others than to work, there will l"e favor

frequent attempts to obtain exemptions by

or

fraud, and
be
an

the

frustration

of these

attempts

will will

affair of considerable
means

and difticulty,

by

no

be

always
be

successful.

These
some

inconveniences
time
at

would

little felt,for

least, in
persons, of

communities

composed
of

of the for

select
success

earnestly

desirous but

the

experiment;

plans

the

regenerationof societymust
and beings, of
not

consider

aver

age human

only them

but

the
the Tl
it-

large residuum
average
in the

persons

greatly below
social virtues. could
not

and personal

and squabbles

ill-blood which the

fail to work

be

engendered by
such
a

distribution have
to

of

whenever would and

be

persons

be

dealt with,

great

abatement

from

the

harmony
would

unanimity which
H

Communists

hope

114

SOCIALISM.

be

found

among

the

members

of their associa
even

tion.

That

concord

would,

in
more

the

most

fortunate disturbance institution

be much circumstances, than Communists that there

liable to
The be
no

suppose. shall

provides

about quarrelling
ism is excluded

material that

interests ; individual

from other

department

of affairs. which
no

But

there

are

departmentsfrom
it: there

institutions

can

exclude

will

still be

rivalry for reputationand

When field in selfish ambition
most is

for

personal power.
from the

excluded
men,

which, with

it

exer chiefly

that of riches and cises itself,

it would

pecuniary interest,
to greater intensity
we

betake

itself with
to

the domain that the

still open

it,and

may

expect
and of for

struggles for pre-eminence

in the when

influence
bitterness from their

management
the

would

be

great

diverted personal passions,

driven to seek direc

their

ordinary channel, are

in gratification principal

that

other

tion. that
a

For

these

various

reasons

it is

probable

Communist
the

association attractive

would

frequently

fail to exhibit

picture of mutual

SOCIALISM.

115

love and

unity of

will and

which feeling
to

we

are

often told

by Communists

expect,but would
not

:"ften be torn

by
it.

dissension

and

unfrequently

broken Other inherent

up

by
and

numerous

sources
-

of the

discord Communist the

.

are

in the

which necessity

involves,of decidingby principle

voice
every

general
to

of questions
one,

the

utmost

importance
can

which

on

the present system

to

be

and
own

are

left to individuals As
an

decide, each for his

the

case.

example, take
are

subjectof

education. with the

All Socialists

stronglyimpressed training given to

which demands other

of all-importance
not

the

the young,

only for

the

reasons

apply
being
system
indi stake of

but universally,

because

their of any

much
upon vidual than their

greater than
the

those

and intelligence

moralityof
even more

the
at

citizen,they have
any

other

societies

on

the

excellence Now

educational these
for every

arrangements.

under have
to

Communism
he made

arrangements would
citizen

by

the collective

body,

since individual

parents, supposing them

to pro-

116

SOCIALISE.

fer

some

other have
no

mode

of

educatingtheir children,
of

would and their

private means
to what

paying

for it, do

would
own

be limited

they could
influence. would

by
But
an

"

personalteaching and
member in of

ever}7 adult

the

body

have

equal voice

determining the
benefit of
all.

collective system

designedfor
most

the
source

Here, then, is
associa

fruitful All who

of discord in every
any

tion.
to the

had

a,-. opinionor preference

education

they would
have
to

desire

for their

own

children,would

rely

for their

chance
/""

oi

obtainingit upon
cise in the

the influence of the

they

could

exer

jointdecision
to

community.
number mode

It is needless

specify a

of other of
em

the important questions affecting

ployingthe productive resources

tion,the conditions
the

of the associa

the of social life,

relations

01

body

with

other

associations, "c.,on

which

difference of
be

often irreconcilable, would opinion, arise. be But

even

likelyto
might

the be

dissensions
a

which

expected

would

far less
a

evil to the sive

prospects of humanity than

the

delu

unanimity produced by

of prostration

1
SOCIALISM.

117
wishes before the

all individual decree of the

and opinions

majority.The

obstacles to human
a require con

and are always great, progression

currence

of favorable
; but
an

circumstances

to

overcome

them

condition indispensable

of

their /

being overcome
iiave freedom
ous

is, that human

to

nature

should vari

in expand spontaneously in

both directions,

thought and
think for

practice;
themselves

that and
not

peopleshould

both

try experiments for themselves,and should

resign into the

name

hands
a

of rulers,whether
or

acting in the
the business

of

few

of the and

majority,
of

of

thinkingfor them,
But

pr"P

how scribing associations

most

they shall act.

life private

in Communist be

would

broughtin

within unexampled degree there

the dominion be

of

and public authority, for the

would

less scope

of development

individual

character anil

individual
lining

than preferences

has hitherto existea

state

tlio full citizens of any

to belonging

the

branches progressive

of the human

family.
indi

Already in

all societies the

of compression

viduality by

the

is a great and growing majority

118

SOCIALISM.

evil

it would/

probablybe
so
as

much
it

greater under

Communism/exceptfar
power

might be
to

in the

of

individuals
to

to
a

set

bounds

it

by

to belong selecting

community

of persons

like-minded

with

themselves.
considerations I do
not

From
seek
to

these draw

various any

inference

against the possi

that Communistic bility of

production is capable
time
the

being at

some

future the
wants

form

of

society
of

best

adapted to

and

circumstances will

mankind.
an

I think

and that this is,

long be,

open

question, upon

which both

fresh

light will
the

continuallybe obtained,
Communistic stances, and

by

trial of

principleunder
by
the

favorable
which

circum will be

improvements
in the

gradually effected

working

of the exist
one

ing system, that of privateownershipL The

certaintyis,that/Communism,
requiresa high
tellectual
standard in

to be

successful,
and in

of both all the

moral

education

members

of the for

to qualify them communityv^moral,

doing

their

part honestlyand
no

in energetically but their

the labor share

in

of life under

inducement

SOCIALISM.

Ill)

the

and general interest of the association,

and

their it ; in

of duty feelings
to tellectual, make

sympathy
them

towards

capable of estimating
con

distant interests and

enteringinto complex
matters, good counsel
notion

at least siderations, sufficiently

to be able to dis from

criminate, in
bad.
is
as

these

Now

the reject altogether education these

and

that it such

impossiblefor
is

cultivation be made nation

implied in

thingsto
in

the in
;

heritance
am

of every that
to

person

the

but I that

convinced

it is very
our

and difficult,

the passage

it from I admit
on

only be slow.
of moral munism

the which

condition can present pleathat in the points the

success

education

of

com

depends,the present
that

state
a

of

is society
as

and demoralizing, sociation

munism.
can

only

Communistic

train effectually

mankind

for Com
prove,

It is for

Communism,

then, to
of

its power by practical experiment,

giving this
whether

training. Experiments
there is
as

alone

can

show the

yet

in any

portionof
moral

a population

sufficiently high
make
next

level of

cultivation
to

to

Communism

succeed, and
themselves that

give

to

the

generation among
to

the education

necessary

keep

up

high level permanently.

that

If Communist

associations show

they can

be

120

SOCIALISM.

durable and
will

prosperous, be

they

will

ana multiply,

probably

adopted by
the
more

successive advanced
for

portions
countries

of the
as

populationof
become
to

they
^

morally
force

fitted

that mode

of

life.

But

unprepared populationsinto
if make
a

Communist tion gave

would
"
^

even societies,

revolu political

the
in

power

to

s/uch an

attempt*

end

disappointment/
X

If

trial is necessary practical

to test the capa

bilities of those other

Communism,
forms
of

it is

no

less

requiredfor recognize
means

Socialism

which

the difficultiesof Communism

to surmount

and

contrive

them.

The

of principal
if

these

is

Fourierism, a system which,

of intellectual attention
the
or a

only as

specimen
of the

is highly worthy ingenuity,

of

any

of student, either of society or

There is
an scarcely

human

mind.

objection
and forsee,

which difficulty he did

Fourier
not

did

not

againstwhich
hand
ever,

make

before provision

contrivances, by self-acting grounded, how

upon
a

less
that

of high principle

distributive

iustice than

of Communism,

since he admits individual

owner

of inequalities

distribution and
not

but ship of capital, it. The

the

of arbitrary disposal
he

great problem which

to

grappleswith
'

is how

make

labor

attractive,since, if this

SOCIALISM.

121

could
would

be be

of Socialism done,the principal difficulty

overcome.

He is

maintains

that

no

kind

of useful labor

or necessarily

re universally

pugnant, unless
devoid of the
or

either stimulus

excessive of

in

amount

or

companionship
mankind with

and
con

emulation,

regarded by
workers
in
a

tempt.
to

The

Fourierist

are village

class themselves

in spontaneously

groups, of

each

group

undertaking a
same

different kind
be
a

work, and

the
one

person

may

member
a

not

only of

group

but of any
set

number;

certain minimum

having first been

every
or

apart for the subsistence of

member

of the

community, whether

capable

not

of labor,the

divides society

the remainder in

of

the

produce
as

among

the

different groups,
to each the
;

such

shares

it finds attract
no more

amount

of labor

and required,
run

if there it is

is too
a

great

upon

particular groups
are

sign

that those groups

to others ; if any

over-remunerated

relatively
remunera

are

neglectedtheir
The

tion must

be made

higher.

share of

produce

assignedto
tions among

each group three

is divided
"

in fixed propor

elements

and labor, capital,

talent ; the part

assignedto
the

talent

being awarded
it is

by

the

suffragesof the
among

group

and itself,

hoped that

varietyof

human

capaci-

122

SOCIALISM.

ties all, or
some

will nearlyall,
or

be

to qualified

excel

i.

group

other.
as

The

remuneration

for

capi

tal is to be

such

is found

sufficient to induce
order
to

savingsfrom
increase desired. trivances the The for

individual
common

consumption,in
stock and
to

such

point as
the
con

if

number

of ingenuity

meeting

minor

and difficulties,
very
re

getting rid
markable. it is the sonal

of minor

inconveniencies,is
of these various Fourierists exertion taken
at

By

means

provisions

of expectation
to

that the per the

inducements of

for
away,

public
be

instead interest,

being

would

made

much

greater than

since every present, would of be much

reward

increase
more

of the service of

rendered

certain
it is now,

leading to
when

increase

than
so

accidents The

of

positionhave

much

influence.

of labor,they efficiency be

therefore

would expect, labor would

unexampled, while

the

saving of
to useful
on

be

by diverting prodigious,
which
is
now

occupationsthat
or

wasted

things useless
the vast

hurtful,and
of

by dispensing

with
the

number

distributors, superfluous
the whole

buying

and

for selling
a

community
The free of life
would

being managed by
choice of individuals be
no

single agency.
as

to

their

manner

would

further

interfered with

than

SOCIALISM.

be necessary

for

gaining the
the

full

advantages of

in co-operation

industrial
a

operations.Al community
from less requires

the pictureof together,

Is both
common

Fourierist

attractive

in itself and any

humanity than
;

other known
to be

system

of Socialism the scheme

can

and

it is much

desired that trial which of

any
new

should
test

have

that

fair

alone
scheme The

the

workableness

of social life.* result of

our

review
has

of
us

the
to

various the

diffi

culties of Socialism
that

led

conclusion the
pro

the

various
resources

schemes of

for
the

managing

ductive

country by public
a

instead and
some

of

privateagency
of them
may

have

case

for

trial,
their
of

establish eventually the

at

claims

to

preferenceover
that

existingorder
present
workable

but things,
*

they

are

of Fouriemm are clearlyset principles powerfullydefended in the various writings of

The

forth and M. Victor Sociale

;

Considerant,
but
the

especially that inquirer

will

entitled do well

La to

Destinee

curious

study

them

in the

writings of Fourier himself ; where he will find unmistakable with the wildest and most of genius, mixed, however proofs;

respectingthe physical world, and much the past and future history on interesting but rash speculation that on to add It is proper some of humanity. important for instance on social questions, marriage,Fourier had pecu.
unsc:eutifie fancies
are which, however, as he himself declares, opinions, of independent of, and separable from, the principles

liar

quite
his in

dustrial system.

124*

SOCIALISM.

only by
prove
to the

the

Jlite of mankind, and

of

have

yet
at

their power
state

trainingmankind
which
may

large

of

improvement
of course,

they
this

presup-

pose.
""*!

Far

more,

be
at

said of

the

more

ambitious

plan

which and
once

aims

taking
the

of the whole possession

land
at

capitalof
to

country, and
it
on

beginning public
of

administer from
all

the

account.

Apart
the

consideration
sors,/

to injustice

present posses
the
a

the

very
a

idea

of

conducting

whole

industryof
centre
ventures

country by direction from

single nobody

is

so

obviously chimerical, that

propose it
can

to

any

mode

in which be

it should

be done 3 and the

hardly

doubted

that

if

Socialists revolutionary

attained

their imme

diate

had and actually object,

the whole

property
find

of the country at their

no

disposal, they
of

would

other
over

mode practicable it than

to

their exercising
into por

power

that made

of
over

dividing it
to

each tions,
tion of
a

be

the

administra
The pro

small

Socialist

community.
we

blem
so

of

management, which
to
a

have

BfcNfr-to be
pre
to

difficult even

select

populationwell
thrown down

pared beforehand, would

solved
as

be

be

best

it could taken

by aggregationsunited
from indiscriminately

or only by locality,

SOCIALISM.

125

the

all all the malefactors, population, including

most

the idlest and

the vicious,

most

of incapable

and self-control, or steadyindustry, .forethought,

a

majority who, though

yet,in
far
as

not

equally degraded,
for the

are
as

the

opinionof

Socialists themselves.

essential regardsthe qualities

success

of

Socialism, profoundlydemoralised
of

by

the

state existing

society.It
could
its

is

saying but
effect but have

little to
under

say

that

the introduction have

of Socialism
no

such

conditions failure, and

disastrous

could apostles of

only the consolation

it
now

that the order have

as society

exists benefit ruin

"

would

and perishedfirst, be involved

to

all

who
mon

by
a

it would

in the

com

consolation- which

some

of them
can

would

for probably be real^

if appearances

be trusted
of the

of too many animatingprinciple Socialists is hate ; a very revolutionary hatred of which existingevils,
would

the

excusable
vent
tem

itself by

puttingan
even

end to the present sys suffer

arise
in by it,
a

at all costs

to those who

the

hope

that out and any

of chaos

would

better

Kosraos,

in the
more

impatienceof desperation
unfavor-

Respecting
re unaware

gradualimprovement. They
in the construction

that chaos is the very most

ble fa

for setting out position that many

Kosmos, and

ages

of conflict, vio-

12G

SOCIALISM.

and lence,

of tyrannical oppression
intervene
;

the

weak
not

by
that
of

the strong must

they by

know

they
nature

would
so

plunge

mankind

into the Hobbes

man

state

described forcibly

(Levia
is enemy

where than, Part I. ch. xiii.),

:o
"

every

every

man

:
"

In such condition
the fruit

there is no
thereof

placefor
is

indus

because try,

no consequently

culture of the
commodious and

uncertain,and earth,no naviga

that may
be im

tion,no

use

of the commodities
sea,
no

ported by
instruments
as

of

moving

no building, removingsuch things

no requiremuch force, knowledge of the face of time, no of the earth, no account arts, no is worst of all, no letters, society ; and, which continual fear and danger of violent death ; and and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty,brutish,

short."
If the
a

poorestand

most

wretched
in
as

members
bad
a

of
con

so-called civilised
as

are society

dition

every

one

would

be in that worst

form of
to

of

barbarism

produced by
not

the

dissolution
the way to

it does civilised life, raise them

same

follow that

would

be to reduce

all others

the

miserable

state.

On

the contrary,it is
risen that
so

by
it

the aid of the first who

have

many

others have
is
cess

escapedfrom
better be

the

and general lot,

only by

of organization

the
to

same

pro in

that it may

hoped

in

time

succeed

raisino- the remainder.

SOCIALISM.

127

THE

IDEA

or

PRIVATE
BUT

PROPERTY

NOT

FIXED

VARIABLE. appear

The
to show

precedingconsiderations
that
an

sufficient social

entire is

renovation

of the

fabric, such

as

contemplated by Socialism,
constitution of

the establishing
upon
an

economic

society
that of

new entirely

other basis,

than

however privateproperty and competition, able

mate
as an

valu

ideal,and

even

as

prophecy of
as a

ulti

is not possibilities,

available from

resource,
are

since
carry
on

it

requires
the
new

present whcT those

of

to

order

things

qualitiesboth requireto
most;
and
this

moral
in

and and all,

which intellectual,
to be

be tested

created
an

in

cannot must

be

done
the

by
most

Act

of

Parliament, but

be, on

favorable

a work supposition,

of considerable

time.

For

long periodto
if in any

come

the

of principle

individual

property will be
even

in

of possession
a

the field ; and

were

country

popularmovement
of
a

to

placeSocialists

at the head

revolutionary they might

itself

government,
violate
would them

in however

many

ways

private property, the

survive,and
would either

institution be

accepted by

or

brought
that

back

for the by their expulsion,

not

plainreason

people will

lose

their hold

128

SOCIALISM.

of what

is at

present their sole reliance for sub

until security
a

sistence and
beeen any,

substitute Even

for it has

got into working order.

who had shared
among

those, if
what
was

themselves desire to

the

property of others would

to

keep

what

and they had acquired, in the

not
new

give back

to

property

hands

the sacredness the old. these

a

which

they had

in recognised

But

though, for

reasons,

individual
term
are

pro

perty has

presumably

long

before

if it,

we existence, only of provisional

not, there

fore,to conclude
whole
term

that

it must

exist

during

that

unmodified, or that

all the

now rights

regardedas appertainingto property belong

it

to

and inherently, the

must

endure
is both

while the

it endures.

On

contrary, it
of
from

duty
most

and

the

interest benefit

those

who of all

derive

the

direct

the laws

property to give impar

tial consideration to those

proposalsfor rendering
onerous

laws

in any

way

less

to the
case

major
obli

ity. This, which

also, in order

would
an

in any

be

an

is gationof justice, to

injunctionof prudence
in
sure

place themselves
which
are

the
to be

right
fre

againstthe attempts
quent
to

bring the

Socialist forms

of

society pre

maturely into operation.

"r
SOCIALISM.

129

One which
errors

of the mistakes
are

uftenest

committed,and

the

sources

of the

practical greatest
for the
has been
same

in human
same name

that is that of supposing affairs,

the

always
ideas.

stands
word

of aggregation of subject
than
more

No

the

of this kind
,

o/misunderstanding
in every of exclusive

the word. property. It denotes the largest society powers

over

state of
use or

exclusive control

some things-^and

over times, unfortunately,

persons)which
state

the of

law

which or accords,

custom, in. that

powers

but these society, recognizes/; sive

use

of exclu

and

control

are

very

and ditier various,

in difierent

greatlyin
states of

different countries and

society.

For

the instance,in early states of society,

of property did not include the right of right of property bequest. The power of disposing by will was in most countries of Europe a rather late institution ; and long after it was intro
duced
were

it continued

to be limited

in favor of what

called natural heirs.

Where

bequestis not
is

individual property permitted,

interest.
set fully

only
so

life

And forth

in

as fact,

has been
Maine

well

and

by

Sir
on

Henry

in his most

instructive work
I

Ancient

Law, the primitive

130

SOCIALISM.

idea

of

property
the
the

was

that

it

belonged to
head the of

the the

family,not family had

v"vho
in

individual.

The and
was

management
the
in

person

exercised really

proprietary rights. As
this, he

other

respects,so

governed
But he

the
was

familywith
not free
so

nearlydespotic power.
to exercise

his power

as

to defeat

the

of co-proprietors
"

the other

portions ;
to

he could not of the

disposeof

the

property as

deprive them By

'he iaws

enjoyment or joint
and
not
customs

of the succession. nations the

of

some

property
of the

could male

be alienated

without
cases

the consent

children ; in other
a

the child could

by
the

la\v demand

division

of the

property
in

and

assignment
of

to him

of his share, as If the of the

his

the

story

the

Prodigal Son.
the death of it, noi of the

association

kepi
othei the
one

togetherafter
member eldest

head, some
son,

alvays

but

often the

or family,the strongest,

selected
ment

by

the

rest,succeeded

to

the

manage others

and to the

all managing righx;1,

as

the

theirs retaining
the

before.

If,on the oth?r hand

body
took the

broke
away

up

into separate families, each o"

it
a

these

with

part

of the

property.

I say

not property,
was a mere

the

because inheritance, of

the process

continuance

existing

SOCIALISM.

131

rights,not
share
"

creation

of

new

the

manager's

alone

lapsedto

the association.
to

Then, again,in regard

over

proprietaryrights
of

immovables
a

kind (theprincipal

property varying
law
pro
con

in

rude

were age) these rights

of very Jewish
a

extent

and

duration.
was

By

the

perty

in immovables
on

only

temporary

cession ;
common

the Sabbatical year

to

it returned
;

to the
we

stock surmise

be
in

redistributed the

though
of

may

that

historical times have

been

the

Jewish evaded.

state this rule may

successfully
Asia, before
to
we

In

many

countries

of

European
which the understand

ideas

intervened, nothing existed

in

expression property
the
was

land,

as

is strictly The phrase, applicable. broken

up

ownership

among

several distinct rather

was

whose parties,
custom
owner,

were rights

determined

by
part

than

by

law.

The
a

government

having
and
even

the

rightto

heavy

rent.

Ancient
govern of
no

ideas ment gross limit.

ancient
to
some

laws

limited the

share

fraction particular
was

the

there produce,but practically

The
to
an

fixec^ its

government
who individual,

might
then and

make became

over

share
ed of

possess

the

right of
the

collection
not

all the

other

of rights

state, but

those of any

private

'.32

SOCIALISM.

person

connected

with

the soil. kinds.

as

These

private

rightswere
vators
on or

of various

The
been

actual culti

such

of them
a

had

long settled
possession ; it they paid
agree

the land, had held unlawful

rent
"

right to
to evict

retain them

was

while

the

rent

not

in

generalfixed by
of the and the

ment, but
Between

by

the

custom

neighborhood.
state,or
transferred
persons
were

the actual

cultivators

the substitute
its

to whom
were

the state had intermediate There

there rights, various who

with

of rights

extent.

officersof

government

collected the state's share of the

produce, though

sometimes
to

for
over

large districts,who,
to

bound

pay

government
a

all

they

collected, after
often
many

deducting

percentage, were
were

hereditary officers.
cases

There

also,in

of villagecommunities, consisting

the

reputed descendants
shared

of the first settlers of

themselves either

who village, land

or

among

the

its

produce accordingto
either

rules established themselves

or

by custom,

it cultivating
to

employing
whose
those

others

cultivate
land

it for

them,
nearer

and
to

rights in
of
a

the

approached

landed
those

as proprietor,

understood

in

England, than
But the

of any

other party concerned. the

was village

right of proprietary

not

SOCIALISM.

183

individual,but collective ; inalienable

of individual

(the rights
or

sharers the

could

only be

sold

mort and

gaged

with

consent

of the
In from

community)
mediaeval
the

governed by
almost
tenure

fixed
was

rules. held

Europe

all land

on sovereign

of service,either
in
as

militaryor agricultural ;
now,

and

Great well

Britain
as

even

when

the

ser

vices

all the

reserved
fallen

rights of
into disuse

the
or

sovereign have
been law

long
for

since

commuted
does not in

taxation, the
an

theory of

the

acknowledge
land
in

absolute
;

rightof
the fullest free

property
landed

any

individual
to

proprietorknown
but when
"

the

law, the

holder,is sia,even
serfs of

tenant"

of the Crown. of

In Rus

the

cultivators

the

soil

were

the

landed
was

his proprietary proprietor, limited

a

right in the land

of by rights

theirs

belongingto
its

them

as

collective

body managing
he could of
not
con or

and own|^affairs, And

with

which

interfere. tinental
went out
as

in most

of the

countries

Europe
of use,

when those

serfage was
who
in had

abolished cultivated

the

land

serfs remained

as possessionof rights

well

as

subjectto obligations.The
of
in

great land
in

reforms consisted

Stein

and

his

successors

Prussia the

abolishing both

the

rightsand

134

SOCIALISM.

and obligations,
tween

dividing the
with
cases,

land

bodily be
of

the

and proprietor of them

In

the peasant, instead

a

leaving each
the whole.

limited
as

right over

other is

in

Tuscany, the
not

metayer
the

farmer

with co-proprietor virtually

landlord, since
to

custom,

though

law,

guarantees

him

permanent

possessionand
he

half the gross

produce, so long as
of his tenure.

fulfils the

customary conditions

Again thingsare
so tries,

if

rightsof property
in

over

the

same

of different extent also

In
are

different
over

coun

they exercised
at
a

different

things.
in
some

all countries

former

time, and
ex

countries and extends

the rightof property still,

to the

tended

ownership of
property
a

human

beings.

There

has often been

in

public

trusts, as in

and offices, judicial

vast

multitude

of others in France
are

before the Revolution; there

still

few

patent offices in Great

Britain,

though I
law
are on

believe

they will

cease

by operation of
we

the death

of the present holders; and

in army

only now

abolishing property
and the

rank.

Public

bodies, constituted
still claim in

endowed

for

publicpurposes,
viduals
have in

same

inviolable which
a

right of property

their estates

indi sound

theirs, and

though

SOCIALISM.

135

political moralitydoes
claim,the law
the and

not

acknowledge this
thus
see

supports it. We
of different
that

that

interpreted, rightof property is differently

held
and
to be

extent,in different

times

places ;
a

the

conception enter
been/
stil

tained

of it is

has varying conception, and may

frequently revised,
further revision.
revisions progress ments.

admit

of

It is also to be noticed that th"

it has hitherto

which
of

undergone in
is

the

have generally been improve society

When,

therefore,
some

it

maintained,
or

rightlyor wrongly,that
fication in the
the powers

change
over

modi

exercised

thingsby proprie
con

persons

recognisedas legally
be beneficial
to

their

tors would

the

public and
no

ducive
answer

to the to

generalimprovement,it is merely to
with is say that

good

this

the
of

proposed property.

change
The
.

conflicts of

the
not

idea
some

idea

property

one

thing,

identical

throughout history and

is variable

incapableof
all other
creai

but alteration,
tions it is
a

like
at

of the

human

mind;

any

given
of
on

time

brief

expressiondenoting the rightsover

the law
or

thingsconferred by
at givensociety

custom

some

that
other and

time

[/out neither
the

this

pointnor
of
a

on

any

has

law

and to be

custom

given time

place a

claim

stereo-

136

SOCIALISM.

typed
customs

for

ever.

proposedreform
not imply,

in laws

or

is not

because necessarily objectionable the

its

adoptionwould
the
to

adaptationof
of pro

all human

affairs to

the

existingidea
and

perty, but

adaptationof existingideas of growth

of

property
human

the

improvement
be

of

affairs.

This is said without

to proprietors

to prejudice

the

claim equitable

compen
a

sated

by

the state for such

as

of legal rights be

pro

nature prietary

they

may

of dispossessed

for the the

publicadvantage.
the
as

That
"

equitableclaim
of it, are
a

groundsand
Under

just lirr ts

sub

and jectby itself, after.

this
to

such will be discussed here

we

condition,ho

ve?,

societyis particular public

as

fullyentitled right
ation

abrogateor
on

alter any

of

property which

sufficient consider of the

case

it, judges to stand in the way

And in
a

assuredlythe terrible
former

which,
are

Socialists chapter,

able to order of
of

make

out

againstthe present economic

a

society, demands

full

consideration
may
a manner

all
a

\. \ I

means

by
of

which

the
made

institution
to work

have
more

\/ \

chance

being

in

beneficial to that

largeportionof societywhich
least

l\ at present enjoys the

benefits.
THE

share

of its direct

END.