Elements of Statistics The meaning of statistics It is frequently used to refer to recorded data such as the number of traffic accidents,

the size of enrollment, or the number of patients visiting a clinic. In everyday usage, statistics are numbers used to summarize information about objects or phenomena like the statistics pertaining to the performance of a football team, statistics to summarize characteristics of groups of human beings. It refers to a body of scientific principles and methodologies that are useful for obtaining information about a phenomenon or a large collection of items. It is a body of techniques and procedures dealing with the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of information that can be stated numerically. Statistical literacy is necessary if they are to read and evaluate reports and other literature critically and intelligently. Statistical literacy is important to health care workers if they are going to undertake an investigation that involves the collection, processing, and analysis of data on their own account. Statistics can help an investigator describe data, design experiments, and test hunches about relationships among things or events of interest. Statistics is a tool that helps acceptance or rejection of the hunches within recognized degrees of confidence. It should be noted that statistics never PROVE anything. ather, they indicate the likelihood of the results of an investigation being the product of chance. Population !sometimes referred to as a a statistical population" # is a collection !or aggregate" of measurements about which an inference is desired. Sample $ consists of a finite number of measurements chosen from a population. %he number of measurements in a sample is called the sample size. What is sampling? # is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. What is a sample? Is a subset of population elements. What is an element? Is the most basic unit about which information is collected. Types of Sampling Design &. Probability sampling $ involves random selection in choosing the elements. '. Nonprobability sampling $ involves nonrandom selection in choosing the elements. Types of Nonprobability Sampling 1. on!enien"e Sampling $ entails using the most conveniently available people as study participants. ( faculty member who distributes questionnaires to nursing students in a class is using a convenience sample, or an accidental sample. #. $uota Sampling $ is one in which the researcher identifies population strata and determines how many participants are needed from each stratum. )y using information about population characteristics, researchers can ensure that that diverse segments are represented in the sample, preferably in the proportion in which they occur in the population. %. Purposi!e Sampling or &u'gmental sampling $ is based on the belief that researchers* knowledge about the population can be used to hand#pick sample members. esearchers might decide purposely to select subjects who are judged to be typical of the population or particularly knowledgeable about the issues under study.

Types of Probability Sampling 1. Simple ran'om sampling $ is the most basic probability sampling design. #. Stratifie' ran'om sampling $ the population is first divided into two or more strata. %ypes+ a. Simple stratified random sampling b. ,roportionate stratified random sampling %. luster sampling $ there is a successive random sampling of units. %he first unit is large groupings or clusters. )ecause of the successive stages in cluster sampling, this approach is often called multistage sampling. (. Systemati" Sampling $ involves the selection of every kth case from a list or group, such as every &-th person on a patient list or every &--th person in a directory of .urses (ssociation members Steps in sampling in )uantitati!e stu'ies &. Identify the population '. Specify the eligibility criteria /. Specify the sampling plan 0. ecruit the sample

Statisti"al "omponents of a resear"h stu'y %hree stages in statistical methods applied in research &. 1ethods for designing the research study '. 1ethods for organizing and summarizing data /. 1ethods for making inferences. Statisti"s $ measures that describe a variable of a sample Parameter $ measures that describe a variable of a population Statistics is to sample as parameter is to population. Des"ripti!e statisti"s $ are used to organize, summarize, and describe measures of a sample *nferential statisti"s $ are used to infer or predict population parameters from sample measures Parametri" an' Non+parametri" Statisti"s Parametri" # (re used only with actual observations or their transforms # 2enerally restricted to observations on interval scales # 3ompare means and variances # equire data to be normally distributed and to have homogeneous variances # 3ounts must usually be transformed # 4erived data may first have to be transformed Non+parametri" # 1ay be used with actual observations, or with observations converted to ranks # 1ay be used with observations on nominal, ordinal, and interval scales # 3ompare medians # 4o not require data to be normally distributed or to have homogeneous variance # (re suitable for data which are 5counts6 # (re suitable for derived variables Dis"ontinuous an' "ontinuous !ariables Dis"ontinuous $ values assume integral whole numbers, and are usually count of things !frequencies" ontinuous $ values may fall at any point along an uninterrupted scale, and are usually measurements !lengths, weight, temperature, p7"

PRO ESS*N, D-T.our le!els of measurement 1. Nominal le!el $ is used to classify or categorize data to identify its nature or characteristics. Students may be classified as boys or girls8 school personnel are categorized into teaching and non#teaching staff. 9ther examples of nominal data are sex, civil status, religion, occupation, etc. #. Or'inal le!el $ is used to indicate the position of data like order or rank. 9rdinal data is arranged from highest to lowest, or vice versa. Instructional problems, for example, can be classified according to the magnitude of seriousness 5very serious,6 5moderately serious,6 5least serious6, 5not a problem6. (cademic performance of students and academic rank of faculty indicate their positions. %. *nter!al s"ale $ provides intervening space between variables to determine the relationships or differences with one another. (danza !&::;" defined it as a unit of measurement of the <ahrenheit and 3elcius scales, the test scores of students, etc. (. Ratio le!el $ is the highest level of measurement because it has an absolute zero value. %he zero has meanings like measuring height, weight, width, capacity, load, etc. %he ratio scale has all the basic properties of the other scales !nominal, ordinal and interval" plus an absolute zero point. Des"ripti!e Statisti"s Topi"s/ &. <requency distribution '. ,ercentages /. anking 0. 1easures of 3entrality ;. 1easures of =ariability

0ngroupe' .re)uen"y 'istribution - Is defined as a process of organizing and classifying the data into a desired form. - Is a systematic arrangement o f data values $usually from lowest to highest $ together with a count how many times each value was observed in the data set. 60 71 59 68 61 65 59 75 61 68 55 64 71 <ictitious 4ata 9n 7eart 65 63 57 67 70 72 67 61 66 63 69 70 61 65 67 65 66 58 59 85 68 75 63 70 61 58 62 68 63 65 55 69 62 64 66 58 64 67 57 ate for &-- ,atients 64 65 56 68 64 62 56 69 67 72 68 60 74 66 65 62 60 73 61 59 68 75 59 66 66 63 74 71 67 62 66 67 62 64 66 63 64 66 73 66 66 64 71 69 69 66 72 69

,roupe' .re)uen"y Distribution # Involves grouping together values into sets, called class intervals, and then tabulating the frequencies of cases within the class intervals. Steps/ &. 4etermine the range. /. Set up the class intervals. '. 3ompute the size of the class interval. 0. %ally the scores.

.re)uen"y 'istributions for $ualitati!e Variables #>hen a variable is qualitative, a frequency distribution can also be constructed. (s with qualitative variables, the variable categories are listed in the first column, followed by frequencies in succeeding columns. %able '. <requency 4istribution of a ?ualitative =ariable+ ,atients* 1arital Status Frequenc Percentage Marital Status y Married 124 49.6 Single 55 22 Di !rced 49 19.6 "id!#ed 22 8.8 250 100 Per"entage an' ran1ing # %he percentage of a given frequency is obtained by dividing the frequency with the total number of frequencies or number of population then multiply the quotient by &--. # anking is used to describe the order of data obtained in a study. It is usually arranged from highest to lowest or vice#versa. 2easures of entral Ten'en"y 2o'e $ is the frequently#used number in a given set of scores. It is the most usual value which is entirely independent of extreme values. 2e'ian $ is the half of the observation or scores. It is the most reliable measure of central tendency when the distribution is skewed or open#ended. 2ean $ is the average of all the scores obtained in the instrument, be it in the form of test or questionnaire. # It is the most reliable measure of regular distribution because the data is treated equally. # %he mean is the sum total of all the scores divided by the total number of population. 2easures of !ariability # @xplain the nature of the data whether homogeneous or heterogeneous. # %he distance between the observations of data are determined after the application of tests. # %hree commonly used measures of variability+ range, variance, and standard deviation Range $ is a poor measure of variation particularly if the size of the sample or population is large. It considers only the extreme values and tells us nothing about the distribution of numbers in between. Varian"e $ is the sum of the squared deviation from the mean divided by the total population. It is very useful in testing significant differences between two independent samples. Stan'ar' 'e!iation $ is essential in conducting research particularly in testing hypothesis. It is the most frequently used among other measures of spread or dispersion because it is more stable compared to range and variance. *nferential Statisti"s Types of inferential statisti"s use' in resear"h/ &. Parametri" $ is a robust test and is applicable when data is measured in interval or ratio scales '. Non+parametri" $ also known as distribution free statistics. Ased in ordinal or nominal data. Steps in hypothesis testing &. Select a test statistic. ;. 3alculate the degrees of freedom. '. @stablish the level of significance. B. 9btain a tabled value for the statistical test. /. Select a one#tailed or two#tailed test. C. 3ompare the test statistic with the tabled value. 0. 3ompute a test statistic.

Parametri" Tests
1. t+test for in'epen'ent groups 34et5een6 ,urpose+ to test the difference between two independent group means 1easurement Devel+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ Interval, ratio &. %he resting heart rates were measured in a sample of women smokers and nonsmokers at a state university. %here were &0 smokers and &E nonsmokers in the sample. >as there a significant difference in the resting heart rates of the two groupsF Ase G H .-;. !Ase a two#tailed test." Smokers+ CE, &--, EE, B', :0, EE, CB, :-, E;, E', CC, :&, :-, BE .onsmokers+ C', E', B', E0, B&, BE, C', B0, CB, B', BB, BE, :B, ;E, EC, E-, CE, B: #. Paire' t+test 3Within6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference between two related group means 1easurement Devel+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ Interval, ratio &. %he following are the data for subcutaneous oxygen tension &' hours after the start of two protocols, administered to the same &- healthy subjects in random order $ a bed rest protocol and a high#activity protocol+
Su$%ect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 &ed 'est 67 68 70 66 68 62 71 65 67 65 (ig) *cti ity 63 62 69 64 67 60 66 65 63 62

3ompute the t statistic for dependent groups using alpha H .-; for a two#tailed test. %. -nalysis of !arian"e 3-NOV-6 34et5een6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference among the means of /I independent groups, or of 'I independent variables 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ Interval, ratio &. Seven samples of individuals were selected randomly from three communities. %he ages of the persons were as tabulated+ +!,,unity * +!,,unity & +!,,unity + 16 65 45 15 43 30 25 77 22 30 90 66 39 82 47 20 69 33 16 73 50 Is there a significant difference in the agesF %est at alpha H .-;. (. Repeate'+measures -NOV- 3Within6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference among the means of /I related groups or sets of scores 1easurement+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ Interval, atio

7. Pearson8s Pro'u"t 2oment orrelation 34et5een9 Within6 ,urpose+ %o test that a correlation is different from zero !that a relationship exists" 1easurement level+ I=+ Interval, ratio 4=+ Interval, ratio &. %he following are data for &' individuals* daily sodium intake and their systolic blood pressure readings. Pers!n S!diu, &P 1 6.8 154 2 7 167 3 6.9 162 4 7.2 175 5 7.3 190 6 7 158 7 7 166 8 7.5 195 9 7.3 189 10 7.1 186 11 6.5 148 12 6.4 140 a. Is there a significant relationship between daily sodium intake and systolic blood pressureF %est at alpha H .-;. b. %o what extent the daily sodium intake determines the systolic blood pressureF :o5 to interpret results of "orrelation? r# value 4escriptive meaning J&.-,erfect positive or negative correlation J.E&# J.:: =ery high positive or negative correlation J.B&# J.ESubstantial positive or negative correlation J.0&# J.B1oderately positive or negative correlation J.'&# J.0Dow positive or negative correlation J.-&# J.'.egligible correlation J.o correlation

Nonparametri" Tests
1. 2ann+Whitney 0+test 34et5een6 ,urpose+ %o test in the difference between the ranks of scores of two independent groups 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ 9rdinal &. 3ompute the 1ann#>hitney U statistic for the following scores on a coping ability scale+ 1en+ '&, ';, /&, &B, &:, ':, 'C >omen+ '0, &E, 'E, &C, '', '/, '(re the mean significantly different from the women in terms of coping ability scores !G H .-;"F

#. 2e'ian Test 34et5een6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference between the medians of three or more independent groups 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ 9rdinal &. ( health worker collects the waiting times of five patients selected randomly from four different out# patient clinics, (, ), 3, and 4. (re there differences between the average waiting time at each clinic. Ase G H .-;. ( 'C, &0, E, &E, C ) 0E, &E, /', ;&, '' 3 &&, -, /, &;, E 4 00, C', E&, ;;, /: %. ;rus1al+Wallis test 3 4et5een6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference in the ranks of scores of /I independent groups 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ 9rdinal &. ( health worker collects the waiting times of five patients selected randomly from four different out# patient clinics, (, ), 3, and 4. (re there differences between the average waiting time at each clinic. Ase G H .-;. ( 'C, &0, E, &E, C ) 0E, &E, /', ;&, '' 3 &&, -, /, &;, E 4 00, C', E&, ;;, /: (. Wil"o<on Signe'+ran1 test 3Within6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference in ranks of scores of two related groups 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ 9rdinal )elow are scores on a self#care agency scale for &- patients before and after an intervention+ )efore+ &', &;, &&, &E, &C, '-, &/, &;, &-, &0 (fter+ &;, &C, &C, &C, '', 'C, '&, &&, '-, '/
3ompute the >ilcoxon signed#rank test to determine whether there is a significant change in scores !G H .-;".

7. .rie'man test 3Within6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference in ranks of /I related groups 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ 9rdinal
&. Suppose that nine nurses are asked to read descriptions of three patients with 4o#.ot# esuscitate orders $ an (I4S patient, a cancer patient, and a patient with (lzheimer*s disease. %est the null hypothesis that the nurses* scores on aggressiveness of nursing care are unrelated to the type of the patient*s illness. Ase G H .-;.

(I4S 3ancer (lzheimer

&C, &;, &0, &&, &E, &B, &', :, &B &E, '-, &', &:, '-, &0, &0, &/, &C &;, &&, &/, &E, &C, &;, &/, &', &;

=. hi+s)uare test 3 4et5een6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference in proportions of 'I independent groups 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ .ominal &. 3alculate the chi#square test for the following set of data+ 2roup ( 2roup ) 7ad a flu shot '/4id not have &&; Is the value of chi#square statistically significant at the .-; levelF >. 2"Nemar8s test 3Within6 ,urpose+ %o test the difference in proportions for paired samples !'K'" 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ .ominal ?. .isher8s e<a"t test 34et5een6 ,urpose+ %o test difference in proportions in a 'K' contingency table when . L /1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ .ominal @. Spearman8s rho 34et5een9 5ithin6 ,urpose+ %o test that a correlation is different from zero !that a relationship exists" 1easurement level+ I=+ 9rdinal 4=+ 9rdinal &. %he following are data for &' individuals* daily sodium intake and their systolic blood pressure readings. Pers!n S!diu, &P 1 6.8 154 2 7 167 3 6.9 162 4 7.2 175 5 7.3 190 6 7 158 7 7 166 8 7.5 195 9 7.3 189 10 7.1 186 11 6.5 148 12 6.4 140
a. Is there a significant relationship between daily sodium intake and systolic blood pressureF %est at alpha H .-;.

1A. ;en'all8s tau 34et5een9 5ithin6 ,urpose+ %o test that a correlation is different from zero !that a relationship exists" 1easurement level+ I=+ 9rdinal 4=+ 9rdinal 11. Phi "oeffi"ient 34et5een6 ,urpose+ %o examine the magnitude of a relationship between two dichotomous variables 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ .ominal 1#. ramer8s V 34et5een6 ,urpose+ %o examine the magnitude of a relationship between variables in a contingency table !not restricted to 'x'" 1easurement level+ I=+ .ominal 4=+ .ominal

P-T-BON .ile/ Major Parts of a Thesis/Research Proposal Chapter 1 : Introduction

M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M %he introduction generally consists of the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, significance of the study, scope and limitation of the study, and definition of terms ( brief statement of the origin of the problem (n account describing the circumstances, which suggested research. It may include a justification of the selection or choice of the study. ,resent global#national#local scenarios %he problem studied must be shown as one, which arose from a situation of need or unresolved difficulties. %he reader must be made to recognize this need. %he problem must be stated precisely, accurately, and clearly. %he problem must be defined in terms of the data that can be obtained. ( brief statement of the purposes which the study N research hopes to achieve. !one general problem statement in paragraph form" %his section should show why the problem investigated is important and what significance the results have. It should include a statement on relevance to felt needs, the potential contribution of the research to new knowledge and policy implications. %he boundaries of the study should be properly defined. %he scope is expected to indicate a reasonable area of study, which is large enough to be significant but narrow enough to permit careful treatment. State the nature of the subjects treated, their number, any limitations in the reference population. 1any terms are subject to a variety of interpretations. Such terms should be defined operationally according to the precise meanings they are intended to convey. <or clearer presentation, include both conceptual and operational definitions %his chapter consists of the review of related literature, the framework itself including its presentation in the form of paradigm, and the hypotheses %he purposes of this section are+ !a" to tell what research has or has not been done on the problem. !b" to explain or clarify the theoretical rationale of the problem. %his section provides a general picture of the research topic. 9nly studies which are related in purpose, method, or findings to current study should be included. %he discussion of such studies should be in the form of a brief critical analysis of the purposes, method of study, principal findings and conclusions 3larify the interrelationships of the studies reviewed. ,oint out the weaknesses and strengths of each study. ,oint out how each study reviewed is related to the problem at hand. Summarize the review and provide a transition from the past studies to the present one In the text, only the last names of the authors are given. In the case of citations of different works by persons with the same surname, initials should be included in the last names for proper identification Diterature review should cover all variables in the conceptual framework. 2roup same topics, both literature and studies. 1inimize figures N diagrams in the text. Shapes the justification of the research problems in order to provide the legal basis for defining its parameters.

ac!ground of the Stud"

Statement of the Pro#lem

$#jecti%es of the Stud" Significance of the Stud"

Scope and &imitation of the Stud"

'efinition of Terms

Chapter (: Re%ie) of &iterature and Theoretical *rame)or! Related &iterature and Studies

Theor" ase

M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M

Includes existing accepted concepts, principles, theories and frameworks. <rom the review of related literature and studies, the researcher formulates a conceptual scheme for his research problem which is a tentative theoretical explanation of the phenomenonN problem he is going to investigate. Should be reduced to a paradigm showing the variables and their interrelationships (ssumptions are presumed to be true statements of facts related to the research problems. 7ypotheses are conjectural statements of relationships between two or more variables. %hese statements are based on existing information and are tested empirically %he hypothesis should be + !&" rational, involving at least two variables, !'" precise and clear8 !/" non#judgmental8 !0" not answerable by yes or no8 and !;" measurable. %his chapter includes descriptions of the method used, sources of data, the data gathering instruments, sampling technique, procedure of the study and statistical treatment ( brief description of the method of research used in doing the study. !e.g. descriptive, causal etc." 4escribes the sources of data # whether primary or secondary %he report should include appropriate information on the total population, the sample and the source of evidence. ( description of the adoption, construction, and administration of instruments should be included. Instruments include tests, questionnaires, interview guides or schedules, and the like. Include discussion on validity and reliability of the instruments ! if survey instruments are self#constructed" ( description of the sampling technique used in determining the sample size of the subjects and how were they selected. ,robability Sampling techniques include simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic sampling, and cluster sampling. .on#probability sampling includes purposive, quota, convenience sampling. 4escribe briefly how the data collected are to be processed. It is only when the statistical technique used is new or unfamiliar that the formula is given. 1ention to which problem statement the statistical tool is usedN applied. >hat type of hypothesisF # difference of means or relationship of variablesF >hat type of 4ataF # nominal, ordinal, or interval N ratioF .ominal 4ata # 3hi Square test, 1c .emmar test 9rdinal 4ata # un*s test, 1ann >hitney test, >ilcoxon test, Oruskal#>allis 9ne >ay (.9=(, <riedman*s %wo#>ay (.9=( IntervalN atio 4ata #P test, t test, (.9=( .ominal 4ata #3hi Square test, 3ontingency test, ,hi 3oefficient 9rdinal 4ata # Spearman ank 9rder 3orrelation, Oendall*s tau IntervalN atio 4ata # ,earson r, regression analysis, discriminant analysis, conjoint analysis, canonical correlations

Conceptual *rame)or!

Research +ssumptions / Research ,"potheses

,"potheses - - Chapter .: Methodolog" Method /sed Sources of 'ata 'ata 0athering Instrument

Sampling Techni1ue

Statistical Treatment of 'ata

Some Considerations in the Choice of Statistical Techni1ue in Testing ,"pothesis

Tests of 'ifference

Tests of Relationship

.rom Other .ile/ What is sampling? # is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. What is a sample? - Is a subset of population elements. What is an element? - Is the most basic unit about which information is collected. Types of Sampling Design &. ,robability sampling $ involves random selection in choosing the elements. '. .onprobability sampling $ involves nonrandom selection in choosing the elements. Types of Nonprobability Sampling 1. on!enien"e Sampling $ entails using the most conveniently available people as study participants. ( faculty member who distributes questionnaires to nursing students in a class is using a convenience sample, or an accidental sample. #. $uota Sampling $ is one in which the researcher identifies population strata and determines how many participants are needed from each stratum. )y using information about population characteristics, researchers can ensure that that diverse segments are represented in the sample, preferably in the proportion in which they occur in the population. %. Purposi!e Sampling or &u'gmental sampling $ is based on the belief that researchers* knowledge about the population can be used to hand#pick sample members. esearchers might decide purposely to select subjects who are judged to be typical of the population or particularly knowledgeable about the issues under study. Types of Probability Sampling &. Simple ran'om sampling $ is the most basic probability sampling design. '. Stratifie' ran'om sampling $ the population is first divided into two or more strata. %ypes+ a. Simple stratified random sampling b. ,roportionate stratified random sampling /. luster sampling $ there is a successive random sampling of units. %he first unit is large groupings or clusters. )ecause of the successive stages in cluster sampling, this approach is often called multistage sampling. 0. Systemati" Sampling $ involves the selection of every kth case from a list or group, such as every &-th person on a patient list or every &--th person in a directory of .urses (ssociation members