ECT 2036:

ECT 2036:
CIRCUITS &
CIRCUITS & SIGNALS
SIGNALS
Chapter 2:
Introduction to Signals
CONTENTS
§ Definition and Classification of Signals
§ Mathematical Model of Ideal Signals
§ Linear Convolution
§ Discrete-time Signals
§ Discrete-time Convolution
 1. DEFINITION
1. DEFINITION && CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
OF SIGNALS
OF SIGNALS
§ SIGNAL: A function of one or more variables and it carries
qualitative as well as quantitative information of a physical
event.
§ Single variable function: most common is the time variable,
t (continuous-time) or n (discrete-time) -> mathematically
denoted by f(t) or f[n] respectively.

§ Classifications:
a) Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
b) Even & Odd Signals
c) Deterministic & Stochastic Signals
d) Energy & Power Signals
 CONTINUOUS &
CONTINUOUS & DISCRETE
DISCRETE
Continuous-time Signal
-Signal is defined for all time instants
-Occurs naturally in any physical process
-We use a round bracket ( ) to denote the function: f( )
-Commonly used: f(t) or f(τ) for single variable
-f(t) = t, f(t) = t2, f(t) = sin(t), etc.
-Example: voice signal
 CONTINUOUS &
CONTINUOUS & DISCRETE
DISCRETE
Discrete-time Signal
-Signal is defined only at discrete values of time variable
-We use a square bracket [ ] to denote the function: f[ ]
-Commonly used: f[n] or f[k] for single variable
-f[n] = δ[n], f[n] = u[n], f[n] = 2n, etc.
-Example: sampled voice signal
§ Some discrete-time signals can be obtained from continuous-time
signals by sampling operation mathematical given by:
f[n] = f(nT) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, …
where T is the sampling period. :

Continuous-time signal f(t) Sampling at T=1

For instance, let T = 1
Then:
n = -1; f[-1] = f(-1)
n = 0; f[0] = f(0)
n = 1; f[1] = f(1)
n = 2; f[2] = f(2)
n = 3; f[3] = f(3)
: Discrete-time signal f[n]
 EVEN &
EVEN & ODD
ODD SIGNALS
SIGNALS
§ EVEN signals: signals which are symmetric with respect to
the vertical axis. Mathematically described by: f(t) = f(-t)
§ ODD signals: signals which are anti-symmetric with respect
to the origin. Mathematically described by: f(t) = - f(-t)

Even (symmetric) signal Odd (anti-symmetric) signal

f (t ) = f (-t ) for all t f (t ) = - f (-t ) for all t
 EVEN &
EVEN & ODD
ODD SIGNALS
SIGNALS

• Any arbitrary signal, f(t) can be expressed as a

sum of even and odd components:

f (t ) = f e (t ) + f o (t )
1
f e (t ) = [ f (t ) + f (−t )]
2
where
1
f o (t ) = [ f (t ) − f (−t )]
2
 Example 1.1:
Example 1.1:
Even &
Even & Odd
Odd
§ Find the odd and even components of continuous-
time signal, f (t ) = t 2
+ 4t 3
+ 6t 5

Solution:

1
2
(
1 2
)
f e (t ) = [ f (t ) + f (−t )] = t + 4t 3 + 6t 5 + t 2 − 4t 3 − 6t 5 = t 2
2
1
2
(
1 2
)
f o (t ) = [ f (t ) − f (−t )] = t + 4t 3 + 6t 5 − t 2 + 4t 3 + 6t 5 = 4t 3 + 6t 5
2
 Example 1.2:
Example 1.2:
Even &
Even & Odd
Odd
§ Find the odd and even components of the signal f(t).

½[(f(t)+f(-t)]

=1.5

3 3 ½[(f(t)-f(-t)]
 + t , −2 ≤ t ≤ 2
f (t ) =  2 4
 0, elsewhere
=(3/4) t
 Example 1.3:
Example 1.3:
Even &
Even & Odd
Odd
§ Find the even and odd components of the following signal:
f(t)
1 1, 0 < t < 3
f (t ) = 
t 0, elsewhere
-3 0 3

fe(t) fo(t)
0.5
0.5
t t
-3 0 3 -3 0 3
 EVEN &
EVEN & ODD
ODD SIGNALS
SIGNALS
§ Bear in mind that any arbitrary signals can be expressed
as sum of odd and even components. Look at Examples
1.1 to 1.3, the main signal f(t) itself is neither even nor odd
but when decomposed, has odd fo(t) and even fe(t) parts.
§ If the signal f(t) itself is already an even signal, then its
even part is exactly the same as itself, f(t)=fe(t), the odd
part being zero.
§ If the signal f(t) itself is already an odd signal, f(t)=fo(t), then
its odd part is exactly the same as itself, the even part
being zero.
§ Thus, a signal can be purely even, purely odd or neither
even nor odd.
 Example 1.4:
Example 1.4:
Even &
Even & Odd
Odd
§ a) Is sin(ωt) an odd or even signal?
Let f(t) = sin(ωt)
sin(ωt) = - sin(-ωt) for all t
f(t) = - f(-t)
∴ It is an odd signal.
§ b) Is cos(ωt) an odd or even signal?
Let f(t) = cos(ωt)
cos(ωt) = cos(-ωt) for all t
f(t) = f(-t)
∴ It is an even signal.
§ c) Is sin(ωt+(π/6)) an odd or even signal?
sin(ωt+(π/6)) = sin(π/6)cos(ωt) + cos(π/6)sin(ωt)
= 0.5cos(ωt) + 0.866sin(ωt)
∴ sin(ωt+(π/6)) is neither an even nor an odd signal.
0.5cos(ωt)
Even
0.5
sin(ωt+(π/6))
1 ωt
0 π 2π
0.5 -0.5

-π/6 5π/6 11π/6

ωt = 0.866sin(ωt) +
0.866 Odd
-1
ωt
Original signal is 0 π 2π
neither even nor odd -0.866
 DETERMINISTIC &
DETERMINISTIC & STOCHASTIC
STOCHASTIC
§ DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS:
The signals whose characteristics are well known and completely
specified for all instants of time.
e.g.: sine wave f(t)=sin(t), linear function f(t)=mt+c
§ STOCHASTIC SIGNALS:
The signals whose characteristics are not fully known before its
occurrence (random signals).
e.g.: throwing of die, noise generated in an electronic circuit, unwanted
disturbances in the atmosphere, etc.
sin t Deterministic # on a die thrown Stochastic
4 Value at T4?
All values at t are 3
well defined 2 Value=Random
between 1 to 6
t t
T1 T2 T3 T4
T1 T2 T3 T4
§ Deterministic Totally predictable

§ Stochastic
(Random Signal)
 ENERGY &
ENERGY & POWER
POWER
Continuous-Time Discrete-Time
Signal f(t) f[n]
T N
Total
Energy, E E = lim
T →∞ ∫
2
f (t )dt E = lim
N →∞
∑
n =− N
2
f [n]
−T
T
Average 1 1 N

Power, P P = lim
T →∞ 2T ∫ f (t )dt P = lim
2
N →∞ 2 N
∑
n=− N
f 2 [ n]
−T

§ Energy Signal if: 0 < E < ∞ (finite positive value )

§ Power Signal if: 0 < P < ∞ (finite positive value )
 Example 1.5:
Example 1.5:
Energy &
Energy & Power
Power
§ A signal f(t) is defined as f (t ) = sin(ω t ) ; − ∞ < t < ∞.
Determine whether f(t) is an energy or power signal.
T T
E = lim ∫ f 2 (t )dt = lim ∫ (ωt )dt
2
sin
T →∞ T →∞
−T −T
T T
1 1  sin(2ωt ) 
= lim ∫ [1 − cos(2ωt )]dt = lim t − 
T →∞
−T
2 T →∞ 2
 2ω −T

1 2sin(2ωT ) 
= lim  2T −  =∞
T →∞ 2
 2ω 
E=∞ (the value is indefinite). ∴ f(t) is not an energy signal.
 T T
1 1
P = lim ∫ f (t )dt = lim ∫ (ωt )dt
2 2
sin
T →∞ 2T T →∞ 2T
−T −T
T
1 1
= lim
T →∞ 2T ∫−T 2 [1 − cos(2ωt )]dt
1  2 sin( 2ωT ) 
= lim 2T − 
T →∞ 4T 2ω
 1 2 sin( 2ωT )  1
= lim  −  =

T →∞ 2 8ωT  2

P=1/2 (the value is definite and positive).

∴ f(t) is a power signal.
 Example 1.6:
Example 1.6: Energy
Energy &
& Power
Power
§ Determine whether f(t) is an energy signal or a power
signal or neither.
0 for t < 0
f (t ) =  αt
e for t ≥ 0

T T

∫ f (t )dt = lim ∫ e dt2α t

Energy, E: E = lim 2
T →∞ T →∞
−T 0
T
1 2α t 1 2αT
= lim e = lim e − 1
T →∞ 2α T →∞ 2α
0

If α is negative, E = -1/2α à f(t) is an energy signal.

If α is positive, E = ∞ à f(t) is not an energy signal.
 T T
1 1
∫ ∫
2α t
Power, P: P = lim f (t )dt = lim
2
e dt
T →∞ 2T T →∞ 2T
−T 0
T
1  1 2α t  1
= lim  2α e  = Tlim 
 e − 1
2α T
T →∞ 2T →∞ 4α T
 0
If α is negative, P = 0 à f(t) is not a power signal.
If α is positive, P = ∞ à f(t) is not a power signal.

f (t ) = eαt u (t )

t t
Positive α
Negative α à Neither energy signal
à Energy signal nor power signal
 ENERGY &
ENERGY & POWER
POWER
§ Observations:
– Bounded periodic signals are power signals (Example
1.5).
– Bounded decreasing signals are energy signals
(Example 1.6).
– Unbounded growing signals are neither energy nor
power signals (Example 1.6).
– Energy signal: E is finite and nonzero, P is zero.
– Power signal: E is infinite, P is finite and nonzero.
– Neither energy nor power signal: E and P infinite.

Bounded: the amplitude of the signals has definite

upper and lower limits. If one limit is indefinite, it is
unbounded.
 2. MATHEMATICAL
2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
MODEL
OF IDEAL
OF IDEAL SIGNALS
SIGNALS
§ We will discuss mathematical model of the
following signals:
a) Sinusoidal Signal
b) Exponential Signal
c) Unit Step Function
d) Unit Pulse Function
e) Unit Impulse Function
f) Approximation of signals by Impulse Functions
 SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL
SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL

 2π t 
f ( t ) = A sin  +θ 
f1(t)  T 
= A sin (2 π ft + θ )
f2(t)
= A sin (ω t + θ )
A = signal amplitude
where T = period
θ = phase angle

f(t) = 5 sin (ωt)

f1(t) = 5 sin (ωt + π/2)
f2(t) = 5 sin (ωt - π/2)
 EXPONENTIAL SIGNAL
EXPONENTIAL SIGNAL
A
V initial=A

V final=A
V final=0
V initial=0

Decaying Exponential Signal Growing Exponential Signal

f (t ) = Ae − t /τ (
f (t ) = A 1 − e − t /τ )
Arbitrary Exponential − t /τ
Signal:
f (t ) = V final + (Vinitial − V final )e
 Example 2.1:
Example 2.1:
Exponential Signal
Exponential Signal
§ Draw the exponential signals described by:
i) 5exp(-t/τ) and
ii) 5[1-exp(-t/τ)]

(i) (ii)
5exp(-t/τ) 5[1-exp(-t/τ)]
Decaying Growing
Approaches 5
5 5
3.16
1.84 Approaches 0

t=τ t t
0 0 t=τ
 UNIT STEP
UNIT STEP FUNCTION
FUNCTION

Unit Step Delayed Unit Step

1 t ≥ 0 1 t ≥ T
u (t ) =  u (t − T ) = 
0 t < 0 0 t < T
 Example 2.2:
Example 2.2:
Unit Step
Unit Step
§ Sketch the waveform of
f (t ) = u (t ) + u (t − 2)
 Example 2.3:
Example 2.3: Unit
Unit Step
Step
§ Draw the exponential signals described by:
i) 5exp(-t/τ)u(t) and
ii) 5[1-exp(-t/τ)]u(t) Note that the functions are
now zero for t < 0.
5exp(-t/τ)u(t) (i) 5[1-exp(-t/τ)]u(t) (ii)

Approaches 5
5 5
3.16
1.84 Approaches 0

t=τ t t
0 0 t=τ
§ Unit step function can be used in converting an arbitrary
function into a right-sided function.
 UNIT PULSE
UNIT PULSE FUNCTION
FUNCTION

Unit Pulse Delayed Unit Pulse

0 t < −∆ / 2 0 t < (T − ∆ / 2)
 
P∆ (t ) = 1 − ∆ / 2 ≤ t ≤ ∆ / 2 P∆ (t − T ) = 1 (T − ∆ / 2) ≤ t ≤ (T + ∆ / 2)
0 t > ∆ / 2 0 t > (T + ∆ / 2)
 
UNIT PULSE
UNIT PULSE FROM
FROM UNIT
UNIT STEPS
STEPS

Construction of unit pulse from step signals

P∆ (t ) = u (t + ∆ / 2) − u (t − ∆ / 2)
 UNIT IMPULSE
UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION
FUNCTION

let ∆
approach 0

P∆ (t )
lim = δ (t )
∆ →0 ∆ Unit Impulse

Area = ∆×1/∆ =1 δ (t ) = 0 t ≠ 0
∞
Area = ∫ δ (t )dt = 1
−∞
 Properties of Unit Impulse Function
Property 1: Property 4:
f (t )δ (t − T ) = f (T )δ (t − T ) δ (−t ) = δ (t )
Property 2: Property 5:
∞ 1
δ ( βt ) = δ (t )
∫
−∞
f (t )δ (t )dt = f (0) β
Property 3:
∞

∫ f (t )δ (t − T )dt = f (T )
−∞
Unit Impulse
Unit Impulse Function:
Function: Properties
Properties 11 &
& 22
f(t) δ(t-T)

δ(t-T)=0, t≠T
X
0 t T t
f(t)δ(t-T)
f(T)
=
f(t)δ(t-T)=f(T)δ(t-T)
T t
f(t) δ(t)
δ(t)=0, t≠0
X
0 f(t)δ(t) t 0 t
= f(0) When T=0
f(t)δ(t)=f(0)δ(t)
0 t
 Unit Impulse
Unit Impulse Function:
Function:
Properties 22 &
Properties & 33

§ Property 2
∞ ∞ ∞

∫
−∞
f (t )δ (t )dt = ∫
−∞
f (0)δ (t )dt = f (0) ∫ δ (t )dt = f (0)
−∞
1 424 3
1
§ Property 3 Property 1
∞ ∞ ∞

∫
−∞
f (t )δ (t − T )dt = ∫
−∞
f (T )δ (t − T )dt = f (T ) ∫ δ (t − T )dt
−∞
14243
1

= f (T )
 Example 2.4:
Example 2.4: Unit
Unit Impulse
Impulse
Evaluate the following integrals:
∞ ∞
a) ( t + 3) δ (t + 3)dt
∫ b)
∫ sin(2π t ) δ (t − 50)dt
5

−∞ ∞ −∞
∞
c)
∫ ( t + 2 ) δ (2t )dt
−∞
d)
∫ cos(2π t )δ (2t − 1)dt
−∞

Solution:
∞ ∞
a)
∫( t + 3) δ (t + 3)dt = ∫
5
f (t )δ (t + 3)dt
−∞ −∞

= f (−3) = ( −3 + 3) = 0
5
Property 3
b) ∞ ∞

∫ sin(2π t ) δ (t − 50)dt = ∫
−∞ −∞
f (t ) δ (t − 50)dt

= f (50) = sin(2π × 50) = 0 Property 3

c) ∞ ∞
1 
∫ ( t + 2 ) δ (2t )dt =
−∞
∫−∞ ( )  2  dt
t + 2 δ (t ) Property 5

∞
1
= ∫ f (t )δ (t )dt = f (0) = ( 0 + 2 ) = 1 Property 2
−∞
2
∞ ∞
d)
∫ cos(2π t )δ (2t − 1)dt = ∫ cos(2π t )δ [2(t − 1/ 2)]dt
−∞ −∞
∞
1 
= ∫ cos(2π t )  δ (t − 1/ 2)  dt Property 5
−∞ 2 
∞
= ∫
−∞
f (t )δ (t − 1/ 2)dt

1 1 Property 3
= f (1/ 2) = cos(2π ×1/ 2) =−
2 2
APPROXIMATION OF
APPROXIMATION OF SIGNALS
SIGNALS BY
BY
IMPULSE FUNCTIONS
IMPULSE FUNCTIONS

∞
f (t ) ≅ ∑ Tf (kT )δ (t − kT )
k = −∞

This equation is the impulse approximation of the signal f (t).

Valid iff the pulse width is very small à sampling frequency is
very high (higher than frequency of signal f (t))
 Signal Approximation
Signal Approximation by
by Impulse
Impulse
f(t)

… …

-2T –T 0 T 2T

f(-2T)PT(t+2T) f(-T)PT(t+T) f(0)PT(t) f(T)PT(t-T) f(2T)PT(t-2T)

… + + …
+ +

-2T -T 0 T 2T
∞
f (t ) ≅ ∑
k =−∞
f (kT ) PT (t − kT )
 Signal Approximation
Signal Approximation by
by Impulse
Impulse
f(t) f(t)
Let the pulse width be very
small so the unit pulse
becomes unit impulse
-2T –T 0 T 2T

∞
PT (t − kT ) ∞

∑
k =−∞ T
≅ ∑ δ (t − kT )
k =−∞
T T→very small
∞ ∞ ∞
f (t) ≅ ∑ f (kT)PT (t −kT) = ∑ f (kT)T [ PT (t −kT)/T] ≅ ∑Tf (kT)δ(t −kT)
k=−∞ k=−∞ k=−∞
 3. LINEAR
3. LINEAR CONVOLUTION
CONVOLUTION

Input-output model of a linear time invariant

continuous-time system

Input Output
Transform operator
 3. LINEAR
3. LINEAR CONVOLUTION
CONVOLUTION

Single Impulse
Impulse response

•If input x(t)=δ(t), then output y(t)=h(t) is called the

impulse response.
y(t)=G[x(t)]=G[δ(t)]=h(t)
 3. LINEAR
3. LINEAR CONVOLUTION
CONVOLUTION
•Let x(t) be signal approximated using impulses:
y (t ) = G[ x (t )] ∞
x(t ) ≅ ∑ Tx(kT )δ (t − kT )
 ∞ 
≅ G  ∑ Tx(kT )δ (t − kT ) 
k =−∞

 k =−∞ 
∞
= ∑ Tx(kT )G [δ (t − kT )] → Linearity Property
k =−∞
∞
= ∑ Tx(kT )h(t − kT ) → Time invariant Property
k =−∞
Time invariant Property:
Linearity Property: If G[δ(t)]=h(t);
G[kx(t)]=kG[x(t)]; k=constant
then G[δ(t-τ)]=h(t-τ); τ=constant
 3. LINEAR
3. LINEAR CONVOLUTION
CONVOLUTION

Approximation Output
by Impulses response

∞
y (t ) = ∑ Tx(kT )h(t − kT )
k =−∞

Let τ=kT, as T à 0, τ à 0, y (t ) = ∫ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ

−∞
Σ à ∫, T à dτ
y (t ) = x(t ) * h(t )
Convolution Integral
Properties of Linear Convolution
∞
x(t ) * h(t ) = ∫ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ
−∞
∞
h(t ) * x(t ) = ∫ h(τ ) x(t − τ )dτ
−∞
 EVALUATION OF
EVALUATION OF
CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL
CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL
§ There are two widely known procedures for
evaluation of convolution integral:
1) Graphical Evaluation
This method is very useful when mathematical models of
the signals are not available.
2) Numerical Evaluation
Performed by approximation of both the functions by
finite-width pulse trains.
 GRAPHICAL EVALUATION
GRAPHICAL EVALUATION
§ Steps involved in the graphical evaluation of two
signals à y(t) = h(t)*x(t) ∞
y (t ) = ∫ h(τ ) x(t − τ )dτ
1. Plot h(τ) and x(τ). −∞

2. Obtain x(-τ). = h(t ) * x(t )

3. Shift x(-τ) by t to get x(t-τ)= x(-(τ - t)).
4. Multiply h(τ) and x(t-τ). Area under h(τ)x(t-τ) is
equal to convolution of two signals, y(t).
5. Repeat steps 3 - 4 for various values of t = t1, t2,
t3, ….
6. Plot y(t), the convolution.
 1.
same as flip or mirror
at the y-axis

2.
shift forward if t is
positive, backward if
negative
3.
multiply both signals, then
compute the area
5. Repeat

4.

6.
 Example 3.1:
Example 3.1:
Graphical Linear
Graphical Linear Convolution
Convolution
§ Evaluate the convolution of f1(t) and f2(t) at t = 0 and
t = 1.
 y (t ) = f1 (t ) * f 2 (t )
∞
= ∫
−∞
f1 (τ ) f 2 (t − τ )dτ

At t = 0 At t = 1

f1(τ) f2(-τ) f1(τ) f2(1-τ)

× ×
τ τ
τ τ

Area f1(τ). f2(-τ)=0 y (0) = 0 Area f1(τ). f2(1-τ)=1/2 y (1) = 1/ 2

 NUMERICAL EVALUATION
NUMERICAL EVALUATION

§ Let’s approximate both functions by finite-width

impulse trains: n
y (t ) = lim T ∑ f1 (kT ) f 2 (t − kT )
T →0
k =0

§ At t = nT, T = sampling period, n = positive integer

n
y (nT ) = lim T ∑ f1 (kT ) f 2 (nT − kT )
T →0
k =0

Numerical evaluation form of convolution

 Example 3.2:
Example 3.2:
Numerical Linear
Numerical Linear Convolution
Convolution
§ Perform numerical convolution of the following
functions with sampling time T = 0.1 for three
consecutive sampling instants, n = 0, 1, 2.
n
f1 (t ) = t u (t )
2
y (nT ) = lim T ∑ f1 (kT ) f 2 (nT − kT )
T →0
f 2 (t ) = u (t ) k =0
n
y (0.1n) = 0.1∑ f1 (0.1k ) f 2 (0.1n − 0.1k )
§ At n = 0, k =0

0
y (0) = 0.1∑ f1 (0.1k ) f 2 (−0.1k )
k =0

= 0.1{ f1 (0) f 2 (0)} = 0

0 1
At n = 1, 1
y (0.1) = 0.1∑ f1 (0.1k ) f 2 (0.1 − 0.1k )
k =0

= 0.1{ f1 (0) f 2 (0.1) + f1 (0.1) f 2 (0)}

= 0.1{0 + 0.01} 1 1
0 0.01
= 0.001

At n = 2,
2
y (0.2) = 0.1∑ f1 (0.1k ) f 2 (0.2 − 0.1k )
k =0

= 0.1{ f1 (0) f 2 (0.2) + f1 (0.1) f 2 (0.1) + f1 (0.2) f 2 (0)}

0 1 = 0.1{0 + 0.01 + 0.04}
0.01 1 0.04 1
= 0.005
 Interpretation of
Interpretation of Numerical
Numerical Evaluation
Evaluation of
of Convolution
Convolution
Graphically using
Graphically using Example
Example 3.2
3.2

§ From Example 3.2

f1(τ)= τ 2u(τ) f2(τ)=u(τ)

T=0.1
τ τ

1
0.04
0.01

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

 Interpretation of
Interpretation of Numerical
Numerical Evaluation
Evaluation of
of Convolution
Convolution
Graphically using
Graphically using Example
Example 3.2
3.2

f1(τ)= τ 2u(τ) f2(-τ)=u(-τ)

1
0.04 X = y(0)= f1(τ)f2(-τ)
0.01
τ =0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0
τ
f1(τ)= τ 2u(τ) f2(0.1-τ)= u(0.1-τ)

1 = y(0.1)=f1(τ)f2(0.1-τ)
0.04 X
0.01 =0.01x0.1
τ τ
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 =0.001
 Interpretation of
Interpretation of Numerical
Numerical Evaluation
Evaluation of
of Convolution
Convolution
Graphically using
Graphically using Example
Example 3.2
3.2

f1(τ)= τ 2u(τ) f2(0.2-τ)= u(0.2-τ)

y(0.2)=f1(τ)f2(0.2-τ)
1
0.04 X = =0.01x1+0.04x1
0.01
τ τ =0.005
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2

§ The Numerical Evaluation of Convolution

performs by approximation of both the
functions by finite-width pulse trains at T=0.1.
 4. DISCRETE-TIME
4. DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
SIGNALS

§ Some basic sequences

– Unit step: u[n]={…0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1…}

The arrow indicates the origin, n = 0

1, n≥0
or u[n] = 
0, n<0
 4. DISCRETE-TIME
4. DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
SIGNALS

– Unit sample/impulse: δ[n]={…0 1 0…}

The arrow indicates the origin, n = 0

or 1, n=0
δ [ n] = 
0, n≠0
 4. DISCRETE-TIME
4. DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
SIGNALS

§ Both discrete-time functions can also be

used without arrows to indicate the origin:
– Unit step: u[n]={…0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1…}
– Unit sample/impulse: δ[n]={…0 1 0…}

§ In such a case, the first nonzero value at the

left hand side of the sequence denotes the
position of the origin.
Manipulating Sequences
q Shifted unit step

1, n ≥1
u[n − 1] = 
0, n <1

q Shifted unit sample/impulse

1, n = 1
δ [n − 1] = 
0, n ≠ 1

1, n = 2
δ [n − 2] = 
0, n ≠ 2
q Unit sample/impulse using unit step

1, n ≥ 0
u[n] = 
0, n < 0

1, n ≥ 1
u[n − 1] = 
0, n < 1

δ [n] = u[n] − u[n − 1]

q Unit step as sum of unit sample/impulse

∞
u[n ] = δ [n ] + δ [n − 1] + δ [n − 2] + δ [n − 3] + ... = ∑ δ [n − i ]
i =0

q Sample/impulse of arbitrary amplitude

x0 x2

x1

x-1
∞
x[n ] = ... + x−1δ [n + 1] + x0δ [n ] + x1δ [n − 1] + x2δ [n − 2] + ... = ∑ x δ [n − i ]
i = −∞
i
 Example 4.1:
Example 4.1:
Discrete Sequences
Discrete Sequences

§ Express the following signals graphically:

(i) x[n] = u[n] − u[n − 5]

(ii) x[n]={…0 5 0…}

(iii) x[n]={…0 0 5 0…}

(iv) x[n] = δ [n] + 2δ [n − 2] − δ [n − 3]

§ Solution:
(i) x[n] = u[n] − u[n − 5]

- =

(ii) x[n]={…0 5 0…}

(iii) x[n]={…0 0 5 0…}

(iv) x[n] = δ [n] + 2δ [n − 2] − δ [n − 3]

=
+
 5. DISCRETE-TIME
5. DISCRETE-TIME
CONVOLUTION
CONVOLUTION
§ For a LTI discrete-time system, the discrete-time
convolution is given mathematically by:
∞
y [ n] = ∑ x [k ]h [n − k ]
k =−∞

§ If the LTI system is causal, then:

n
y [ n] = ∑ x [ k ] h [ n − k ]
k =0

§ By causal system, we mean that the input and output

signals of the system start from t≥0.
 Example 5.1:
Example 5.1:
Discrete-Time Convolution
Discrete-Time Convolution
§ Perform convolution mathematically for the following
sequences at n = 3.
f1 [ n ] = nu [ n ]
n
y [ n ] = ∑ f1 [k ] f 2 [ n − k ]
n k =0
1
f2 [ n] =   u [ n] Causal signals
3
§ For n = 3 1 (1/3)2 2 (1/3)1
3
y [3 ] = ∑ f [ k ] f [3 − k ]
1 2
k =0

= f 1 [ 0 ] f 2 [3 ] + f 1 [1] f 2 [ 2 ] + f 1 [ 2 ] f 2 [1] + f 1 [3 ] f 2 [ 0 ]
0 2
1 1
(1/3)3 = 0 +   + 2 + 3
3 3 3 (1/3)0
= 3.777
 5. DISCRETE-TIME
5. DISCRETE-TIME
CONVOLUTION
CONVOLUTION
§ All the properties for continuous-time convolution
still hold for discrete-time convolution.
§ Graphical method can be performed on discrete-
time signals to obtain discrete-time convolution.
Same procedures as in continuous-time case.
 GRAPHICAL EVALUATION
GRAPHICAL EVALUATION
§ Steps involved in the graphical evaluation of two
signals à y[n] = h[n]*x[n] ∞
y [n] = ∑ h [k ] x [n − k ]
1. Plot h[k] and x[k]. k =−∞

2. Obtain x[-k]. = h[n]* x[ n]

3. Shift x[-k] by n to get x[n-k]= x[-(k - n)].
4. Multiply h[k] and x[n-k]. Area under h[k]x[n-k] is
equal to convolution of two signals, y[n].
5. Repeat steps 3 - 4 for various values of n = n1,
n2, n3, ….
6. Plot y[n], the convolution.
 Example 5.2:
Example 5.2:
Discrete-Time Convolution
Discrete-Time Convolution
§ Repeat Example 5.1, now using graphical convolution.

§ At n= 3

x =
 Example 5.3:
Example 5.3:
Discrete-Time Convolution
Discrete-Time Convolution
§ Find mathematically, the discrete time convolution of
the two signals below.
f[k] h[k]

n y[0] = 6; y[1] = 13; y[2] = 10;

y [ n] = ∑ f [ k ] h [ n − k ]
k =0 y[3] = 10; y[4] = −11; y[5] = 2
Causal signals n ≥ 6 ⇒ y[n] = 0
 Example 5.4:
Example 5.4: Discrete-Time
Discrete-Time Convolution
Convolution
§ Repeat Example 5.3, now using graphical convolution
f[k] f[k] f[k]

h[-k] h[1-k] h[2-k]

5 5 5
3 3 3

k k k
-2 -2 -2
n=0: n=1: n=2:
y[0]=2x3=6 c[1]=2x5+1x3=13 y[2]=2x(-2)+1x5+3x3=10
 f[k] f[k] f[k]

h[3-k] h[4-k] h[5-k]

5 5 5
3
3 3

k k -2 k
-2 -2
n=3: n=4:
y[3]=1x(-2)+3x5+(-1)x3=10 y[4]=3x(-2)+(-1)x5=-11 n=5: y[5]=(-1)x(-2)=2
 Example 5.5:
Example 5.5:
Discrete-Time Convolution
Discrete-Time Convolution
§ For the two discrete signals defined below:

x[n] = u[n] − u[n − 6]

h[ n ] = u [ n − 2 ] − u [ n − 5 ]

(i) Sketch the two sequences.

(ii) Compute the convolution graphically.
(i) 1

x[n] = u[n] − u[n − 6]

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

h[n] = u[n − 2] − u[n − 5]

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

3
(ii) y[n] = x[n]*h[n] 2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
 CONVOLUTION TABLE
CONVOLUTION TABLE

Index 0 + 0 = 0
Start of convolution
sequence, y[0]
Σ
y[0]
Σ
y[1]
y[2] Σ

y[3] Σ Σ
y[4]
 CONVOLUTION TABLE
CONVOLUTION TABLE

§ Note that the top entry and left entry does

not necessary start with h[0] or f[0].
§ The rule is that, we start the entries using
the first nonzero value of h[n] or f[n].
§ For instance: if we start with h[1] and f[0],
then y[1+0] = y[1] is the first nonzero value
of the convolution. If h[1] and f[1], then it is
y[1+1] = y[2].
 Example 5.6:
Example 5.6:
Convolution Table
Convolution Table
§ Repeat Example 5.1 using convolution table.

Index 0 + 1 = 1

Start of convolution
sequence, y[1]
For n = 3, compute y[3]

y[3]
Σ(3, 2/3, 1/9) = 34/9 = 3.777
 Example 5.7:
Example 5.7:
Convolution Table
Convolution Table
§ Repeat Example 5.3 using convolution table.
h[0]=3 h[1]=5 h[2]=-2
ΣIndex(0,0) = 0
f[0]=2 f[0]h[0]=6 f[0]h[1]=10 f[0]h[2]=-4
Start of f[1]=1 f[1]h[0]=3 f[1]h[1]=5 f[1]h[2]=-2
convolution f[2]=3 f[2]h[0]=9 f[2]h[1]=15 f[2]h[2]=-6
sequence, y[0] f[3]=-1 f[3]h[0]=-3 f[3]h[1]=-5 f[3]h[2]=2

y[0]=6 y[3]=-3+15+(-2)=10
y[1]=3+10=13 y[4]=-5+(-6)=-11
y[2]=9+5+(-4)=10 y[5]=2
 Summary
Summary
§ At the end of this chapter, you should understand:
– Concept of signals and its common classifications
• Able to define, draw, compare, compute and give examples
– Mathematical model of ideal signals (continuous) and discrete-time
signals
• Able to formulate signal functions as well as graphically drawn the
signals, perform signal operations mathematically and graphically, able
to differentiate continuous- and discrete-time signals
– Linear convolution (continuous) and discrete-time convolution
• Able to perform convolution operations mathematically and graphically,
able to differentiate continuous- and discrete-time convolutions

§ Next Chapter: Application of Fourier Series