CLIMATE

Climate is how hot or cold it is in a certain place over a long period of time. It differs
from weather in that weather is a measure of how hot or cold it is over a short period of
time.

Climate is affected by several factors:

• Latitude - How far a place is from the equator. The nearer a location is to the
equator, the hotter it will tend to be and vice versa.
• Altitude - How high a place is above sea level. Places high above sea level are
cooler than those near sea level.
• Oceans - Ocean waters don't change temperature as quickly as land areas do. Thus
land near oceans is warmer in winter and cooler in summers.

Climates can vary not only in temperature but in how much precipitation the place
receives. Precipitation is the amount of water in the form of rain, snow, sleet,etc. that falls
from the sky. An area with little precipitation has a dry or arid climate.

There are three basic climate zones.

• Tropical climate zone. This is an area that falls between the Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn. This area has hot climates all year long.
• Temperate Climate Zone - These areas are between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Arctic Circle and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. The
climate in these areas is warm in the summer and cold in the winter.
• Polar Climate Zone - These areas are at either pole below the Antarctic Circle and
above the Arctic Circle. The winters are very cold and the summers cool to cold.

The Sun
Some people from long ago thought of the Sun as a god. They did not want
the god to be angry with them. To keep the Sun happy, they offered it gifts
such as gold and food.

1. The Sun is our closest star. It is a member of the Milky Way galaxy.
2. The Sun is a yellow dwarf star, which means it is a medium size star.
It is believed to be over 4 billion years old.
3. The Sun spins slowly on its axis as it revolves around the galaxy.
4. The center, or core, of the Sun is very hot.
5. A process called "nuclear fusion" takes place there. Nuclear fusion
produces a lot of energy.
6. Some of this energy travels out into space as heat and light. Some of
it arrives at Earth! Streams of gas particles known as the solar wind
also flow out from the Sun.
7. On the Sun's surface, we can see storms. We call these storms
"sunspots" because they look like dark spots on the Sun's surface.
8. The Sun also produces big explosions of energy called solar flares.
These flares shoot fast moving particles off the Sun's surface.
 9. These particles can hit the Earth's atmosphere and cause a glow called
an aurora.

The Moon: Earth's Satellite

1. The Moon is the only place in our solar system, other than Earth,
where humans have visited.
2. On July 20, 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed
the Lunar Module of Apollo 11 on the Moon's surface. Neil Armstrong
was the first human to set foot on the Moon.
3. The Moon is like a desert with plains, mountains, and valleys.
4. It also has many craters, which are holes created when space objects
hit the Moon's surface at a high speed. There is no air to breathe on
the Moon..
5. The Moon travels around the Earth in an oval shaped orbit. The
collision may have caused a big chunk of rocky material to be thrown
out into space to form the Moon.
6. The Moon is a little lopsided. Its crust is thicker on one side than the
other. The Moon is much smaller than the Earth. However, the pull of
its gravity can still affect the Earth's ocean tides.

AFRICA
 Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after
Asia.
 At about 30,221,532 km² (11,668,545 sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers
6% of the Earth's total surface area, and 20.4% of the total land area.[1]
 With more than 900 million people (as of 2005)[2] in 61 territories, it accounts for
about 14% of the world's human population.
 The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Suez
Canal and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the
Atlantic Ocean to the west.
 There are 46 countries including Madagascar, and 53 including all the island
groups.
Culture of Africa

Writing systems of Africa

The Writing Systems of Africa

 refer to the current and historical practice of written language on the African
continent.
 The importance of oral culture and tradition in Africa and the recent dominance of
European languages through colonialism, among other factors, have often led to
the misconception that African languages as a whole either have no written forms,
or have been put to writing only very recently.
 In fact, Africans have made use of symbols and writing in various ways in
different parts of the continent for a long time. Indeed, since the vast majority of
writing systems around the world may be traced to origins in Egyptian
hieroglyphs, it could reasonably be argued that writing itself is originally an
African invention.
 Latin script is commonly encountered across the African continent, especially
Sub-Saharan Africa. Arabic script is dominant in North Africa and Ge'ez/Ethiopic
in the Horn of Africa. Regionally and in some localities other scripts may be of
significant importance.

2 Indigenous writing systems

• 2.1 Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

 the most famous writing system of the African continent is ancient Egyptian
hieroglyphs.
 These developed later into forms known as Hieratic and Demotic. Still later in
ancient history, this system was adapted to the Meroitic script in the upper Nile
valley.

• 2.2 Tifinagh

Tifinagh

 Tifinagh alphabet is often assumed to be derived originally from the Phoenician

alphabet.
 It is still actively used to varying degrees in traditional and modernized forms for
writing of Berber languages (Tamazight, Tamashek, etc.) of the Maghreb, Sahara,
and Sahel regions

• 2.3 Ge'ez

 Ge'ez script is an abugida that was developed in the Horn of Africa for writing the
Ge'ez language.
 The script is used today in Ethiopia and Eritrea for Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, and
several other languages.
 It sometimes called Ethiopic, and is known in Ethiopia as the fidel or abugida
(the actual origin of the 21st century linguistic term “abugida”, which western
linguists apply to scripts of India).

• 2.4 Osmanya
  Osmanya is a writing script for the Somali language invented in the early 20th
century by the Sultan of Hobyo's brother, Osman Yuusuf Keenadiid of the
Majeerteen clan.
 Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, Osmanya has experienced
a resurgence of interest in recent years, as young Somalis have lobbied to reinstate
it as the country's national writing script.

• 2.5 Other

There are various other writing systems native to West Africa and Central Africa

3 Other Indigenous Writing Systems

4 Introduced and adapted writing systems

• 4.1 Phoenician/Punic

 Phoenicians from what is now Lebanon traded with North Africans and founded
cities there, the most famous Carthage.
 The Phoenician alphabet is thought to be the origin of many others, including:
Arabic, Greek and Latin.
 The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic.[5] Today's Tifinagh is descended from
Punic.

• 4.2 Greek

 Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet and language (which
is today only a liturgical language).
 The latter alphabet was in turn adapted to what is now called the Old Nubian
alphabet, with the addition of a few letters derived from ancient Meroitic

• 4.3 Arabic

 Arabic script was introduced into Africa by the spread of Islam and by trade.
 Apart from its obvious use for the Arabic language, it has been adapted for a
number of other languages over the centuries.
 The Arabic script is still used in some of these cases, but not in others.

• 4.4 Latin

 Latin script to African languages were probably those of Christian missionaries on

the eve of European colonization (Pasch 2008).
 These however were isolated, done by people without linguistic training, and
sometimes resulted in competing systems for the same or similar languages

Religion in Africa

Religion in Africa is multifaceted. Most Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam.

Islam and Christianity contest which is larger, but many people that are adherents of both
religions also practice African traditional religions, with traditions of folk religion or
syncretism practised alongside an adherent's Christianity or Islam. [

1 Abrahamic religions
  The majority of Africans are adherents of the Abrahamic religions: Islam and
Christianity.
 Both religions are widespread throughout Africa. These religions are often
adapted to African cultural contexts and indigenous belief systems. It was
estimated in 2000 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, and Muslims
forming 40.6%.
• 1.1 Christianity
• 1.2 Islam
• 1.3 Judaism

2 Hinduism
3 Traditional religion

 Traditional African religion encompasses a wide variety traditional beliefs.

 Traditional religious customs are sometimes shared by many African societies,
but they are usually unique to specific ethnic groups.
 Many African Christians and Muslims maintain some aspects of their traditional
religions.

Below are some of the African Traditional religions practiced in West Africa, for
example: Rep. Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, amongst others.

1- There is Legba, the god of crossroads, who acts as a messenger to other gods

2- Sango, the god of thunder, who acts and protects its loyal. It is better recognized with
red and white attire for worship.

3- Orounmila/Eboh, this god is predominately worshiped in Benin Kingdom, and other

cities in Nigeria. Mode of worship includes sacrificing of hen, kola nuts, turtles, white
chalk and coconut while making chants in appealing the gods of Orounmila

Antarctica

 is Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole.

 It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely
south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
 At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area
after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America.
 About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres
(1.0 mi) in thickness.
 On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the
highest average elevation of all the continents.
 Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8
inches) along the coast and far less inland.
 There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000
people reside at the various research stations scattered across the continent
throughout the year. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there,
including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.

Climate
  Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth.
 The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F)
at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.
 For comparison, this is 11 °C colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen
desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10
centimeters (4 in) per year, on average.
 Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C and −90 °C (−112 °F and
−130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C and 15
°C (41 °F and 59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as
the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.

Australia

 Australia refers to both the continent of Australia and the Commonwealth of

Australia, the country that comprises the continent, Tasmania, and other nearby
islands.
 Australia, the world's smallest continent, is in the southern hemisphere and
borders both the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
 The Commonwealth of Australia comprises the mainland of the Australian
continent, plus the major island of Tasmania,
 The neighbouring countries are Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to
the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east,
and New Zealand to the south-east.

THE AMERICAS

North America

 North America is a continent [1] in the Earth's northern hemisphere and (chiefly)
western hemisphere.
 It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic
Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the south and west by the
North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast.
 It covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 sq mi), about
4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2007, its
population was estimated at nearly 524 million people.
 It is the third-largest continent in area, following Asia and Africa, and is fourth in
population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. North America and South America are
collectively known as the Americas.

South America

 South America is the southern part of the Americas, situated entirely in the
Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with about a quarter
in the Northern Hemisphere.
 It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the
Atlantic Ocean. North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.
 South America was named in 1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and
Matthias Ringmann after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to
suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a New World unknown to
Europeans.
 South America has an area of 17,780,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi), or
almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface.
 As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,090,000. South
America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in
population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).

EURASIA
Europe

 Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth.

 The westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, it is bounded to the north by the Arctic
Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea,
to the southeast by the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways
connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.
 To the east, Europe is generally divided from Asia by the water divide of the Ural
Mountains, the Ural River, and by the Caspian Sea.[1]
 Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, covering about
10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface.
 Of Europe's 48 countries, Russia is the largest by both area and population, while
the Vatican is the smallest.
 Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa with a
population of 710,000,000 or about 11% of the world's population.
 However, Europe's borders, and population are in dispute, as the term continent
can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic one.

Regions of Europe

• Central Europe
• Eastern Europe
• Northern Europe
• Southern Europe
• Western Europe
• United Nations geoscheme for Europe

Asia

 Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent.

 It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area (or 29.4% of its land area) and,
with almost 4 billion people, it contains more than 60% of the world's current
human population.
 Chiefly in the eastern and northern hemispheres, Asia is traditionally defined as
part of the landmass of Eurasia – with the western portion of the latter occupied
by Europe – lying east of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains, and south of
the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas.
 It is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean, to the south by the Indian Ocean,
and to the north by the Arctic Ocean.
 Given its size and diversity, Asia – a toponym dating back to classical antiquity –
is more a cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than a
homogeneous physical entity[1][2] (see Subregions of Asia, Asian people).

Regions of Asia

• Central Asia
• East Asia
• South Asia
• Southeast Asia
• Subregions of Asia
CHAPTER 2

SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE EARTH

Earth
How did life get started on Earth? Where did it come from? Looking out at
other planets may give clues to what might have happened once-upon-a-time
on Earth.

When Solar System scientists got together to discuss how Jupiter's mammoth
atmospheric storms, Martian soils and evidence of lakes on Venus relate to the
search for life's origins, they decided they have only glimpsed what may be Out
There. They wanted to do more.

Ancient inner planets. Scientists have discovered that Mars, Earth's nearest
planet neighbor, once had more atmosphere. Martian soils show that lakes and
deep rivers once covered the Red Planet. Evidence of lakes on Venus suggests
that in ancient times the Solar System's inner planets had an abundant water
supply -- probably a necessary condition for life.

Large storms seen on Jupiter suggest a natural laboratory for chemical

evolution. Scientists also have found oceans of something on Jupiter's satellite
Europa.

Such discoveries help trace the origins of Earth, the Solar System and life itself.
Interplanetary probes visiting the Sun, Venus Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and its moon
Titan may help explain the origin of life.

• Earth is the fifth largest planet in the Solar System and

the third planet from the Sun.
• Earth's atmosphere is made of 77 percent nitrogen and
21 percent oxygen, with traces of argon, carbon
dioxide, and water.
• Earth is the only planet that has liquid water on its
surface. Liquid water covers 71 percent of Earth's
surface. The other 29 percent is rock and soil.
• White clouds of water vapor hide much of Earth's
surface.
• Earth has one moon.
• Earth is 92,960,000 miles from the Sun.
• The diameter of Earth is 7,926 miles.

Solar System: The Sun

Inner System: Mercury Venus Earth Mars
Outer System: Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
Other Bodies: Moons Rings Asteroids Comets

SUN
The Sun is the most prominent feature in our solar system. It is the largest object and
contains approximately 98% of the total solar system mass. One hundred and nine Earths
would be required to fit across the Sun's disk, and its interior could hold over 1.3 million
Earths. The Sun's outer visible layer is called the photosphere and has a temperature of
6,000°C (11,000°F). This layer has a mottled appearance due to the turbulent eruptions of
energy at the surface.
 Mercury
When men are arrived at the goal, they should not turn back. - Plutarch

Mercury was named by the Romans after the fleet-footed messenger of the gods because
it seemed to move more quickly than any other planet. It is the closest planet to the Sun,
and second smallest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 40% smaller than Earth and
40% larger than the Moon. It is even smaller than Jupiter's moon Ganymede and Saturn's
moon Titan.

Venus Introduction
Advance in science comes by laying brick upon brick, not by sudden erection of fairy
palaces.
- J. S. Huxley

Venus, the jewel of the sky, was once know by ancient astronomers as the morning star
and evening star. Early astronomers once thought Venus to be two separate bodies.
Venus, which is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, is veiled by thick
swirling cloud cover. Astronomers refer to Venus as Earth's sister planet

Earth Introduction
My view of our planet was a glimpse of divinity.
-Edgar Mitchell, USA

From the perspective we get on Earth, our planet appears to be big and sturdy with an
endless ocean of air. From space, astronauts often get the impression that the Earth is
small with a thin, fragile layer of atmosphere. For a space traveler, the distinguishing
Earth features are the blue waters, brown and green land masses and white clouds set
against a black background.
Many dream of traveling in space and viewing the wonders of the universe. In reality all
of us are space travelers. Our spaceship is the planet Earth, traveling at the speed of
108,000 kilometers (67,000 miles) an hour.

Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun at a distance of about 150 million kilometers (93.2
million miles). It takes 365.256 days for the Earth to travel around the Sun and 23.9345
hours for the Earth rotate a complete revolution. It has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers
(7,973 miles), only a few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus. Our atmosphere is
composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to harbor life.

Mars Introduction
Where there is no vision, the people perish.
- Proverbs 29:18

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet.
The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by
stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god
of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the
planet Her Descher meaning the red one.
Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring
extraterrestrial life.

Jupiter
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies when a new planet swims into his ken. - John
Keats

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and is the largest one in the solar system. If Jupiter
were hollow, more than one thousand Earths could fit inside. It also contains more matter
than all of the other planets combined. It has a mass of 1.9 x 1027 kg and is 142,800
kilometers (88,736 miles) across the equator.
Unlike Saturn's intricate and complex ring patterns, Jupiter has a simple ring system that
is composed of an inner halo, a main ring and a Gossamer ring.

Saturn
It is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today
and reality of tomorrow.
- Robert Goddard

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and is the second largest in the solar system with
an equatorial diameter of 119,300 kilometers (74,130 miles). Much of what is known
about the planet is due to the Voyager explorations in 1980-81. Saturn is visibly flattened
at the poles, a result of the very fast rotation of the planet on its axis. Its day is 10 hours,
39 minutes long, and it takes 29.5 Earth years to revolve about the Sun. The atmosphere
is primarily composed of hydrogen with small amounts of helium and methane. Saturn is
the only planet less dense than water (about 30 percent less). In the unlikely event that a
large enough ocean could be found, Saturn would float in it. Saturn's hazy yellow hue is
marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to, but fainter than, that found on Jupiter.
Saturn's ring system makes the planet one of the most beautiful objects in the solar
system. The rings are split into a number of different parts, which include the bright A
and B rings and a fainter C ring. The ring system has various gaps.

Uranus
The important thing is not to stop questioning.
- Albert Einstein

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and is the third largest in the solar system. It
was discovered by William Herschel in 1781. It has an equatorial diameter of 51,800
kilometers (32,190 miles) and orbits the Sun once every 84.01 Earth years. It has a mean
distance from the Sun of 2.87 billion kilometers (1.78 billion miles). It rotates about its
axis once every 17 hours 14 minutes. Uranus has at least 22 moons. The two largest
moons, Titania and Oberon, were discovered by William Herschel in 1787.

The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2% methane and
small amounts of acetylene and other hydrocarbons. Methane in the upper atmosphere
absorbs red light, giving Uranus its blue-green color

Neptune
 In the long run men hit only what they aim at.
- Thoreau

Neptune is the outermost planet of the gas giants. It has an equatorial diameter of 49,500
kilometers (30,760 miles). If Neptune were hollow, it could contain nearly 60 Earths.
Neptune orbits the Sun every 165 years. It has eight moons, six of which were found by
Voyager. A day on Neptune is 16 hours and 6.7 minutes. Neptune was discovered on
September 23, 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, and Louis
d'Arrest, an astronomy student, through mathematical predictions made by Urbain Jean
Joseph Le Verrier.

The first two thirds of Neptune is composed of a mixture of molten rock, water, liquid
ammonia and methane. The outer third is a mixture of heated gases comprised of
hydrogen, helium, water and methane. Methane gives Neptune its blue cloud color.
Neptune is a dynamic planet with several large, dark spots reminiscent of Jupiter's
hurricane-like storms. The largest spot, known as the Great Dark Spot, is about the size
of the earth and is similar to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. Voyager revealed a small,
irregularly shaped, eastward-moving cloud scooting around Neptune every 16 hours or
so.

Dwarf Planet Pluto

Come wander with me, she said,
Into regions yet untrod;
And read what is still unread
In the manuscripts of God.
- Longfellow

Although Pluto was discovered in 1930, limited information on the distant object delayed
a realistic understanding of its characteristics. Pluto is the second largest known dwarf
planet and tenth largest orbiting the Sun. From its time of discovery in 1930 to 2006 it
was considered to be the ninth planet in the solar system, but because additional objects
have been discovered including Eris which is 27% more massive, the IAU reclassified
Pluto and the other objects as dwarf planets.
Pluto is usually farther from the Sun than any of the eight planets; however, due to the
eccentricity of its orbit, it is closer than Neptune for 20 years out of its 249 year orbit.

The astronomers have demoted Pluto so there are now only eight
planets; Pluto is no longer officially a planet. Now they're calling it a
"dwarf planet". Well, it's certainly a dwarf. But planet or not, it's
still out there and we can still try to find out what it's made of and
how it got there.

Asteroid Introduction
The future cannot be predicted, but futures can be invented. - Dennis Gabor

Asteroids are rocky and metallic objects that orbit the Sun but are too small to be
considered planets. They are known as minor planets. Asteroids range in size from Ceres,
which has a diameter of about 1000 km, down to the size of pebbles. Sixteen asteroids
have a diameter of 240 km or greater. They have been found inside Earth's orbit to
beyond Saturn's orbit. Most, however, are contained within a main belt that exists
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Some have orbits that cross Earth's path and some
have even hit the Earth in times past.

Comet Introduction
Comets are small, fragile, irregularly shaped bodies composed of a mixture of non-
volatile grains and frozen gases. They have highly elliptical orbits that bring them very
close to the Sun and swing them deeply into space, often beyond the orbit of Pluto.

Comet structures are diverse and very dynamic, but they all develop a surrounding cloud
of diffuse material, called a coma, that usually grows in size and brightness as the comet
approaches the Sun. Usually a small, bright nucleus (less than 10 km in diameter) is
visible in the middle of the coma. The coma and the nucleus together constitute the head
of the comet.

In this state comets are sometimes referred to as a "dirty iceberg" or "dirty snowball,"
since over half of their material is ice.

Meteoroids and Meteorites

The term meteor comes from the Greek meteoron, meaning phenomenon in the sky. It is
used to describe the streak of light produced as matter in the solar system falls into
Earth's atmosphere creating temporary incandescence resulting from atmospheric friction.
This typically occurs at heights of 80 to 110 kilometers (50 to 68 miles) above Earth's
surface. The term is also used loosely with the word meteroid referring to the particle
itself without relation to the phenomena it produces when entering the Earth's
atmosphere. A meteoroid is matter revolving around the sun or any object in
interplanetary space that is too small to be called an asteroid or a comet. Even smaller
particles are called micrometeoroids or cosmic dust grains, which includes any
interstellar material that should happen to enter our solar system. A meteorite is a
meteoroid that reaches the surface of the Earth without being completely vaporized.
Meteorites have proven difficult to classify, but the three broadest groupings are stony,
stony iron, and iron. The most common meteorites are chondrites, which are stony
meteorites.

The Continents
A continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth.

Seven areas are commonly regarded as continents. They are:

1. Africa
2. Antarctica
3. Australia
The Americas:
4. List of basic North America topics
5. List of basic South America topics
Eurasia:
6. Europe
7. Asia

3. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
Geographical features

Regions are further differentiated by virtue of being geographical features, or by the

geographical features in them (or both). A geographical feature is a landform, a body of
water, or an artificial creation large enough to show up on a regional map.

Natural geographical features

Features of the World that are naturally occurring:

Landforms
Main article: Landform
A landform is part of the terrain, defined by its shape and location in the landscape, and is
typically an element of topography. Landforms are characterized by aspects such as
elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Examples of
landforms:

• Arch • Isthmus
• Arroyo • Landmass
• Badlands. o Continent
• Beach o Large island
• Canyon o Supercontinent
• Cave • Lowland
• Cove • Meadow
• Cliff • Mesa
• Coast • Mountain
• Coral reef • Mountain pass
• Crater, impact • Mountain range
• Crater, volcanic • Moraine
• Cuesta • Pingo
• Dell • Plain
• Delta o Prairie
• Desert o Savanna
• Escarpment o Steppe
• Forest o Tundra
• Geyser • Plateau
• Glacier • Presque-isle
• Grassland • Promontory
• Gulch • Peninsula
• Headland • Reef
o Cape • Ridge
• Hill • Sandbar
o Dune • Spit
o Foothills • Subterranea
• Hoodoo • Valley (also vale, or
• Island dale)
o Archipelago o Cirque
o Atoll o Gully
o Islet o Ravine
o Volcanic arc • Volcano

• Highland • Watershed

Bodies of water
Main article: Body of water

A body of water is any significant accumulation of water on a geographical scale. Some

bodies of water can be man-made, but most are naturally occurring. Some bodies of water
collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such
as lakes and oceans. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways.

• Channel • River
• Geyser • Sea
• Inlet • Source of a river
o Bay • Spring
 Gulf • Strait
 Sound • Stream
o Cove • Tide pool
o Estuary • Vernal pool
o Firth • Waterfall
o Fjord • Waterway
• Lagoon • Wetland
• Lake o Bog
 o Oxbow lake o Fen
• Loch o Marsh
• Ocean o Mudflat

• Pond o Swamp

Manmade geographical features

Manmade geographical features, artificial creations large enough that they may show up
on a regional map,:

• Airport • Port
• Aqueduct • Railway
• Artificial dwelling hill • Ranch
• Artificial island • Reservoir
• Artificial reef • Road
• Breakwater o Highway
• Bridge o Race track
• Canal o Street
• Causeway • Settlement
• Dam o Village
o Dike o Town
 Levee o City
• Farm o Megalopolis
• Manmade harbor • Subsidence crater
• Marina • Ski resort
• Nation • Train station
• National park • Tree farm
• Nature reserve • Tunnel
• Orchard • Viaduct
• Park • Wharf
• Pier
• Wildlife reserve
• Pipeline
AFRICA
 Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after
Asia.
 At about 30,221,532 km² (11,668,545 sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers
6% of the Earth's total surface area, and 20.4% of the total land area.[1]
 With more than 900 million people (as of 2005)[2] in 61 territories, it accounts for
about 14% of the world's human population.
 The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Suez
Canal and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the
Atlantic Ocean to the west.
 There are 46 countries including Madagascar, and 53 including all the island
groups.

List of the largest metropolitan areas in Africa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from List of most populous cities in Africa)

Countries of Africa
Main article: List of African countries

West Africa

• Benin
• Burkina Faso
• Cape Verde
• Côte d'Ivoire
• The Gambia
• Ghana
• Guinea
• Guinea-Bissau
• Liberia
• Mali
• Mauritania
• Niger
• Nigeria
• Senegal
• Sierra Leone
• Togo

North Africa

• Algeria
• Egypt1
• Libya
 • Mauritania
• Morocco
• Sudan
• Tunisia
• Western Sahara

Central Africa

• Angola
• Burundi
• Cameroon
• Central African Republic
• Chad
• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Equatorial Guinea
• Gabon
• Republic of the Congo
• Rwanda
• São Tomé and Príncipe

East Africa

• Burundi
• Comoros
• Djibouti
• Eritrea
• Ethiopia
• Kenya
• Madagascar
• Malawi
• Mauritius
• Mozambique
• Rwanda
• Seychelles
• Somalia
• Tanzania
• Uganda
• Zambia
• Zimbabwe

Southern Africa

• Botswana
• Lesotho
• Namibia
• South Africa
• Swaziland

References
1. ^ Sayre, April Pulley. (1999) Africa, Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-
1367-2.
2. ^ "World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision" United Nations (Department
of Economic and Social Affairs, population division)

Culture of Africa
Writing systems of Africa
The Writing Systems of Africa

 refer to the current and historical practice of written language on the African
continent.
 The importance of oral culture and tradition in Africa and the recent dominance of
European languages through colonialism, among other factors, have often led to
the misconception that African languages as a whole either have no written forms,
or have been put to writing only very recently.
 In fact, Africans have made use of symbols and writing in various ways in
different parts of the continent for a long time. Indeed, since the vast majority of
writing systems around the world may be traced to origins in Egyptian
hieroglyphs, it could reasonably be argued that writing itself is originally an
African invention.
 Latin script is commonly encountered across the African continent, especially
Sub-Saharan Africa. Arabic script is dominant in North Africa and Ge'ez/Ethiopic
in the Horn of Africa. Regionally and in some localities other scripts may be of
significant importance.

2 Indigenous writing systems

• 2.1 Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

 the most famous writing system of the African continent is ancient Egyptian
hieroglyphs.
 These developed later into forms known as Hieratic and Demotic. Still later in
ancient history, this system was adapted to the Meroitic script in the upper Nile
valley.

• 2.2 Tifinagh

Tifinagh

 Tifinagh alphabet is often assumed to be derived originally from the Phoenician

alphabet.
 It is still actively used to varying degrees in traditional and modernized forms for
writing of Berber languages (Tamazight, Tamashek, etc.) of the Maghreb, Sahara,
and Sahel regions

• 2.3 Ge'ez

 Ge'ez script is an abugida that was developed in the Horn of Africa for writing the
Ge'ez language.
 The script is used today in Ethiopia and Eritrea for Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, and
several other languages.
 It sometimes called Ethiopic, and is known in Ethiopia as the fidel or abugida
(the actual origin of the 21st century linguistic term “abugida”, which western
linguists apply to scripts of India).

• 2.4 Osmanya

 Osmanya is a writing script for the Somali language invented in the early 20th
century by the Sultan of Hobyo's brother, Osman Yuusuf Keenadiid of the
Majeerteen clan.
 Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, Osmanya has experienced
a resurgence of interest in recent years, as young Somalis have lobbied to reinstate
it as the country's national writing script.
 • 2.5 Other

There are various other writing systems native to West Africa and Central Africa

3 Other Indigenous Writing Systems

4 Introduced and adapted writing systems

• 4.1 Phoenician/Punic

 Phoenicians from what is now Lebanon traded with North Africans and founded
cities there, the most famous Carthage.
 The Phoenician alphabet is thought to be the origin of many others, including:
Arabic, Greek and Latin.
 The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic.[5] Today's Tifinagh is descended from
Punic.

• 4.2 Greek

 Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet and language (which
is today only a liturgical language).
 The latter alphabet was in turn adapted to what is now called the Old Nubian
alphabet, with the addition of a few letters derived from ancient Meroitic

• 4.3 Arabic

 Arabic script was introduced into Africa by the spread of Islam and by trade.
 Apart from its obvious use for the Arabic language, it has been adapted for a
number of other languages over the centuries.
 The Arabic script is still used in some of these cases, but not in others.

• 4.4 Latin

 Latin script to African languages were probably those of Christian missionaries on

the eve of European colonization (Pasch 2008).
 These however were isolated, done by people without linguistic training, and
sometimes resulted in competing systems for the same or similar languages

Religion in Africa
Religion in Africa is multifaceted. Most Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam.
Islam and Christianity contest which is larger, but many people that are adherents of both
religions also practice African traditional religions, with traditions of folk religion or
syncretism practised alongside an adherent's Christianity or Islam. [

1 Abrahamic religions

 The majority of Africans are adherents of the Abrahamic religions: Islam and
Christianity.
 Both religions are widespread throughout Africa. These religions are often
adapted to African cultural contexts and indigenous belief systems. It was
estimated in 2000 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, and Muslims
forming 40.6%.
• 1.1 Christianity
• 1.2 Islam
• 1.3 Judaism

2 Hinduism
3 Traditional religion

 Traditional African religion encompasses a wide variety traditional beliefs.

  Traditional religious customs are sometimes shared by many African societies,
but they are usually unique to specific ethnic groups.
 Many African Christians and Muslims maintain some aspects of their traditional
religions.

Below are some of the African Traditional religions practiced in West Africa, for
example: Rep. Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, amongst others.

1- There is Legba, the god of crossroads, who acts as a messenger to other gods

2- Sango, the god of thunder, who acts and protects its loyal. It is better recognized with
red and white attire for worship.

3- Orounmila/Eboh, this god is predominately worshiped in Benin Kingdom, and other

cities in Nigeria. Mode of worship includes sacrificing of hen, kola nuts, turtles, white
chalk and coconut while making chants in appealing the gods of Orounmila

Antarctica
 is Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole.
 It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely
south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
 At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area
after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America.
 About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres
(1.0 mi) in thickness.
 On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the
highest average elevation of all the continents.
 Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8
inches) along the coast and far less inland.
 There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000
people reside at the various research stations scattered across the continent
throughout the year. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there,
including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.

Climate
 Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth.
 The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F)
at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.
 For comparison, this is 11 °C colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen
desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10
centimeters (4 in) per year, on average.
 Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C and −90 °C (−112 °F and
−130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C and 15
°C (41 °F and 59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as
the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.

Australia
 Australia refers to both the continent of Australia and the Commonwealth of
Australia, the country that comprises the continent, Tasmania, and other nearby
islands.
 Australia, the world's smallest continent, is in the southern hemisphere and
borders both the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
 The Commonwealth of Australia comprises the mainland of the Australian
continent, plus the major island of Tasmania,
  The neighbouring countries are Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to
the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east,
and New Zealand to the south-east.

THE AMERICAS

North America
 North America is a continent [1] in the Earth's northern hemisphere and (chiefly)
western hemisphere.
 It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic
Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the south and west by the
North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast.
 It covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 sq mi), about
4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2007, its
population was estimated at nearly 524 million people.
 It is the third-largest continent in area, following Asia and Africa, and is fourth in
population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. North America and South America are
collectively known as the Americas.

South America
 South America is the southern part of the Americas, situated entirely in the
Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with about a quarter
in the Northern Hemisphere.
 It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the
Atlantic Ocean. North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.
 South America was named in 1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and
Matthias Ringmann after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to
suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a New World unknown to
Europeans.
 South America has an area of 17,780,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi), or
almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface.
 As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,090,000. South
America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in
population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).

EURASIA

Europe
 Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth.
 The westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, it is bounded to the north by the Arctic
Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea,
to the southeast by the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways
connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.
 To the east, Europe is generally divided from Asia by the water divide of the Ural
Mountains, the Ural River, and by the Caspian Sea.[1]
 Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, covering about
10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface.
 Of Europe's 48 countries, Russia is the largest by both area and population, while
the Vatican is the smallest.
 Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa with a
population of 710,000,000 or about 11% of the world's population.
 However, Europe's borders, and population are in dispute, as the term continent
can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic one.
Regions of Europe

• Central Europe
• Eastern Europe
• Northern Europe
• Southern Europe
• Western Europe
• United Nations geoscheme for Europe

Asia
 Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent.
 It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area (or 29.4% of its land area) and,
with almost 4 billion people, it contains more than 60% of the world's current
human population.
 Chiefly in the eastern and northern hemispheres, Asia is traditionally defined as
part of the landmass of Eurasia – with the western portion of the latter occupied
by Europe – lying east of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains, and south of
the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas.
 It is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean, to the south by the Indian Ocean,
and to the north by the Arctic Ocean.
 Given its size and diversity, Asia – a toponym dating back to classical antiquity –
is more a cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than a
homogeneous physical entity[1][2] (see Subregions of Asia, Asian people).

Regions of Asia

• Central Asia
• East Asia
• South Asia
• Southeast Asia
• Subregions of Asia
CONTINENTS:

Asia: Located in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. Largest

continent with 17,400 square miles.

Africa: Located in the Eastern and Northern & Southern

Hemispheres. Second largest continent with 11,700 square miles.

North America: Located in the Western and Northern Hemispheres

with 9,400 square miles.

South America: Located in the Western and Southern Hemispheres

with 6,900 square miles.

Europe: Located in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres with 3,800

square miles.

Australia: Located in the Eastern and Southern Hemispheres with

3,300 square miles.

Antarctica: Located in the Eastern, Western and Southern

Hemispheres with 5,400 square miles.

CLIMATE

Climate is how hot or cold it is in a certain place over a long period of time.
It differs from weather in that weather is a measure of how hot or cold it is
over a short period of time.

Climate is affected by several factors:

• Latitude - How far a place is from the equator. The nearer a location
is to the equator, the hotter it will tend to be and vice versa.
• Altitude - How high a place is above sea level. Places high above sea
level are cooler than those near sea level.
 • Oceans - Ocean waters don't change temperature as quickly as land
areas do. Thus land near oceans is warmer in winter and cooler in
summers.

Climates can vary not only in temperature but in how much precipitation
the place receives. Precipitation is the amount of water in the form of rain,
snow, sleet,etc. that falls from the sky. An area with little precipitation has a
dry or arid climate.

There are three basic climate zones.

• Tropical climate zone. This is an area that falls between the Tropic of
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. This area has hot climates all year
long.
• Temperate Climate Zone - These areas are between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Arctic Circle and between the Tropic of Capricorn
and the Antarctic Circle. The climate in these areas is warm in the
summer and cold in the winter.
• Polar Climate Zone - These areas are at either pole below the
Antarctic Circle and above the Arctic Circle. The winters are very
cold and the summers cool to cold.

Climate Quiz
Pick out the correct answer to the following questions:

1. Climate is:

How hot or cold it is in a place over a long period of time.

How hot or cold it is in a place over a short period of time.

How high a place is above sea level.

2. All of these affect climate except:

Latitude

Altitude

Population

3. Precipitation is

How hot or cold it is in a place over a short period of time

The amount of water that falls from the sky in the form of rain, snow, etc..

How high a place is above sea level.

4. A tropical climate is:

Very cold

Very hot

Cold in winter and warm in summer

5. A polar climate is

Very cold
Very hot

Cold in winter and warm in summer

6. A temperate climate is

Very cold

Very hot

Cold in winter and warm in summer

7. The word arid means

Extra dry

Extra hot

Extra cold

Latitude
Latitude is the measure of how far north or south a location is from the
equator. Latitude is measure in degrees. Each half of the earth or
hemisphere is 180 degrees. Dividing that number in half, locations are
between 0 and 90 degrees north or south of the equator. The equator is at 0
degrees latitude and is stretches the diameter of the earth. Latitude lines
are imaginary lines that are marked every twenty degrees north and south
of the equator.

The latitude of an area is one factor in the kind of climate the area might
have. If an area is located close to the equator, the climate will be very hot,
or tropical.

As one gets above the Tropic of Cancer or Capricorn, the climate becomes
milder, with hot summers and cold winters This is defined as temperate
climate.

At the points furthest away from the equator, the climate is cold and is
called polar.

Longitude
Longitude is a measure of how far east or west a place is from the Prime
Meridian. The Prime Meridian is in Greenwich England and is an arbitrary
place from which longitude is measured. The longitude lines or meridians
as they are sometimes called are imaginary lines every 20 degrees east or
west of the Prime Meridian.

While the latitude of a particular location affects its climate, the longitude
can determine the time zone a particular location is in.

When latitude and longitude lines are overlaid on each other, they form a
grid. If one knows the latitude and longitude of a place, it is possible to
locate that place on a globe or map.

Latitude and Longitude Quiz

1.The measure of how far north or south a place is from the equator is
Latitude

Longitude

Prime Meridian

2. The measure of how far east or west of the Prime Meridian a place is
located is

Latitude

Longitude

Equator

3.The latitude line at 0 degrees latitude is

The equator

The Prime Meridian

The Tropic of Cancer

4. The line at 0 degrees longitude is

The equator

The Prime Meridian

The Tropic of Capricorn

5. How far a location is from the equator effects

The time zone the place is in

The climate of the area

When it is day and when it is night

6. The longitude of a place or how far it is from the Prime Meridian effects

The time zone a place is in

How much rainfall a place receives

The climate of the area

7 The closer to the equator a place is

The colder it is

The hotter it is

The more money people have

8. Latitude and longitude are measured in

Degrees

Pounds

Acres
 Earth
How the Earth Formed
The earth was formed in the same way as the sun, planets, stars. At first
the earth was a hot glowing ball of white hot gases with a temperature that
was millions of degrees Fahrenheit. This was caused by particles of gases
being drawn together and compressed, giving off a lot of heat. This
happened millions of years ago.

Finally the earth cooled down. The ball of gas slowed down from spinning
and the color changed from white to yellow to red to not giving off any light
at all.

The earth contracted, getting smaller and the gases changed to liquid as
they cooled. Heavier materials drew to the center of the earth. The heavier
liquid settled at the middle of the earth. As the earth cooled more, a solid
crust formed over the over the liquid material. As the crust cooled, it got
wrinkled and burst open in spots. Gradually cracks formed in the crust.
Water that formed under the earth's crust escaped from the cracks in the
earth and soon water vapor formed above the earth. This lead to cloud
formation. Larger droplets formed in the clouds and as they were pulled to
the earth by gravity came the first rainfalls. The rain at first evaporated as
soon as it hit the earth. Later, as the earth continued to cool, the rain
stayed on to form lakes and oceans. At first the water was all fresh water,
but as it had chemicals from the earth's crust mix in, the water of the
oceans became salty. At one time the earth was all water on its surface.

Later pressure and heat in its center pushed up solid portions of the earth
that became land forms. Sometimes the land would sink back down and
other portions arise.

About three million years ago, the earth cooled a great deal and great
sheets of ice called glaciers covered its surface. As the ice spread over the
land, it gouged great valleys, rivers and lakes into the earth. About 8000
years ago the last glaciers melted, with the earth more as it is today.

Layers of the Earth

The part of the earth we live on is a very thin layer relative to the inner
earth. Looking at the cutaway earth below, the earth has several layers.

The innermost layer is the core of the earth. It is about 4000 miles thick. It
has two parts, the inner core which is red on the diagram below and the
outer core which is melon colored. The inner core is very hot is very hot
and made of heavy metals, mostly iron.

The next layer which is yellowish in color is the mantle. It is made up of a

rock called peridodite which is heavier than the earth's rocks.

The layer that we live on is called the crust and is the thin brown layer on
the diagram. It is thickest under the continents and thinner under the
oceans. It is about 50 miles down at its thickest. The crust is actually not as
solid as it feels to us and shifts, sometimes abruptly during earthquakes,
and very slowly as when continents drift. The different pieces of the earth's
crust are referred to as plates, and their movements towards and away
from each other are called plate tectonics.

The earth's age has been estimated to be between 4 and 5 billion years old.
Earth Quiz

Choose the radio button in front of the correct answer

1. An earthquake is formed when

A meteor strikes the earth

Huge blocks or rocks along a fault sometimes have a sudden movement

and assume a new position.

A hurricane or other weather disturbance occurs.

2. A fault is

A huge boulder

A crack in the earth

A tidal wave caused by an earthquake

3. Which of these is not an area where earthquakes regularly occur.

Antarctica

Along the Mediterranean

In a circle around the Pacific Ocean

4. A tsunami is

A crack in the earth

An earthquake that occurs under water

An instrument that measures how severe an earthquake is

5. A seismograph is

An instrument that measures how severe an earthquake is

A crack in the earth

A tidal wave

MAPS
A map is literally a picture or drawing of a place. Just like photos or
drawings of animals, people and other things, a map can be a picture of a
place really up close or really far away, but almost always from above the
area shown. Pictures can be of different types - photos, watercolors, digital
or computer art, 3D, etc.. There are also many types of maps that like a
picture, highlight certain features of a place.

All maps have certain characteristics in common. Every map uses

symbols. A symbol is a graphic, color dot, line, etc. that stands for
something else on a map. The symbols are explained in a map key or map
legend.

To learn some of the different types of maps and map features, click on the
following:
 • Directions
• Political Maps
• Physical/Elevation Maps
• Historical Map
• Aerial Maps
• Weather Maps
• Road Maps
• Grids
• Latitude and Longitude
• Globes

Directions & Distance

In order to find where you are going and how far away it is, you need to
know what direction you are going and need to be able to figure the
distance between the place you are and the place you are going. One
important device that can help you with that is a compass. A compass, as
pictured below, is a device that helps the user know what direction one is
headed.

The earth actually behaves as a giant magnet with a north magnetic pole
and a south magnetic pole. If a magnet is allowed to swing freely on a
string, it will eventually line up in a north-south position in alignment with
the north and south poles of the earth, although slightly to one side of the
poles.

The needle on a compass is magnetized to point to the earth's north

magnetic pole. Thus with a compass, a person can roughly tell which
direction they are headed.

There are four major or cardinal directions on a compass- north, south,

east & west. In between are the directions northeast, northwest, southeast,
southwest.

Below is a model of a compass and the cardinal directions indicated.

Northwest (NW) North (N) Northeast (NE)

East (E)
West(W)
Southwest (SW) South (S) Southeast (SE)

Measuring distance on a map is done with a map scale. Since a map is

basically a drawing of a place, it is much, much smaller than that actual
place. In order to know how far distances on a map are equal to on the
ground, it is necessary to use a map scale. The map scale shows for
example, how many miles an inch is equal to on a map. On the map below,
the mainland United States would be about 3000 miles across from coast to
coast since the United States measures 3 inches across and 3 inches
equals 1000 miles.

Directions - Compass Quiz

Directions and Distance Quiz
1. The earth behaves as a giant magnet and has a magnetic field.

True

False

2. A device that helps a user determine direction is a

Compass

Ruler

Map scale

3. In order to find out what distances on the map are equal to on the
ground, one should use a

Compass

Magnet

Map scale

Political Maps
Political maps are maps that have to do with government. They show where
the boundaries and locations of countries, states, cities, towns and
counties are. These boundaries and locations are generally determined by
people rather than nature.

Countries are parts of continents with their own central government,

sometimes referred to as nations.

States are a unit or part of a country, such as the United States, that have a
federal government. Federal means that powers are shared between the
states and national government. Capitals are the seats of government for
states or where the government of a state takes place.

Counties are the parts in which a state is divided for purposes of

government. In some states such as Louisiana these divisions are referred
to as parishes. The county seat is the city or town in which the governing
of the county takes place.

Cities are the parts of states with great concentrations of people living
and/or working there.

Physical Maps
Physical/Elevation/Topographic/Relief Maps show how high or low places
are, generally in relation to sea level. They are of value not only for this, but
also to help determine the climate of an area. Below is a shaded relief map
of the United States. There are several important terms that relate to these
kinds of maps:

Historical Maps
Historical maps are maps from the past that are valuable for learning how
events unfolded many years ago relative to a place's geography and allow
us to compare the changes in an area over time. For example, the map
below shows the United States in 1783. Besides noticing how much
different the size and shape of the country is, one can notice how the map
is not as colorful as maps today, with fewer graphics.

Aerial Maps
Aerial maps, as their name would suggest, are photo maps taken from up
in the air. Many times they can be satellite maps. By looking at aerial maps
over time, one can see changes that took place in an area. Unfortunately,
aerial maps have a much shorter history than other maps as the history of
aviation and photography is much shorter than that of cartography or the
making of maps.

One great source of aerial maps is the Microsoft Terra Server that was
created in partnership with the USGS. It is one of the world's largest
servers containing digitized images. Many of the images were declassified
spy satellite pictures from the Cold War!

Weather Maps
Weather maps are maps that show predictions of coming weather or report
on weather that is actually happening. Weather is how hot or cold or how
wet or dry it is in a location over a short period of time.

There are a number of factors that affect weather. These factors are similar
to those that affect climate. They are:

• How far a place is from the equator.

• How high a place is above sea level
• Which side of a mountain a place is located
• If a place is inland or near water

A weather map will show the viewer on the map and in the map key and
legend:

• The high and low temperatures

• Cloud cover in an area
• The precipitation - how much rain, snow, other water forms that fall
from the sky
• The wind speed, wind direction and wind chill (the temperature with
the wind factored in)
• The humidity of an area - how much water vapor is in the air or how
damp it is
• Oncoming weather conditions

Road Maps
Road maps show where roads, highways, routes, etc. are. The more a user
zooms in on a map the more detailed the map is as to local roads, routes,
etc.. Below is a map of major interstate highways in the United States.

Grids
One way to find the exact location of a place is to use a grid. A grid
generally resembles graph paper with lines going horizontally and
vertically forming little boxes. The row going across and the column going
down generally contain letters and or numbers. These help to locate or
pinpoint where a place is located.

On a map or globe, these horizontal and vertical lines are called latitude
and longitude lines. The lines of latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 and are
either north or south, depending if they are north or south of the equator.
The lines of longitude are numbered 0 to 180 and are either east or west,
depending how far they are from the prime meridian.

A globe is a round model of the earth. A globe is in the shape of a sphere

which is a three dimensional round space figure.

Half of the globe is a hemisphere. There are four hemispheres on the earth.
They are the Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western Hemisphere. Most
places are located in two out of the four hemispheres, and if they cross the
equator, three hemispheres. A continent such as Africa would be such a
place.

Northern Hemisphere:
The top two quarters
The Western The Eastern
Hemisphere: Hemisphere:
The left two The right
quarters two quarters

The Southern Hemisphere:

The bottom two quarters

The dividing point for the Northern and Southern hemispheres is the
equator which runs through the middle of the sphere at 0 degrees latitude.

A globe demonstrates the earth rotating on its axis which is an imaginary

line through the middle of the earth. Rotation is what causes day and night
as the earth shows a different part of its surface to the sun as it turns on its
axis.

Globes Quiz
Click on the radio button in front of the correct answer

1. A round model of the earth is

A hemisphere

A globe

A rotation

2. A round, three dimensional space figure is a

Hemisphere

Rotation

Sphere
3. The dividing line for the Northern and Southern hemispheres is

The equator

The Prime Meridian

The Arctic Circle

4. The imaginary line that the earth spins around is

A sphere

A globe

An axis

5. Rotation of the earth on its axis causes

The seasons

Day and night

Meteor showers

GLOBE

Well, the other way of portraying graphical spatial information is using a

globe. You can't fold up globes. They are hard to put in your pocket. Plus,
what do if you want to know the location of a street in a city. Make the
globe, really big or have like a section of the globe. You get my point.
Globes are the most accurate depiction of things on the surface of the earth.
However, they are not practical for transportation purposes and other
purposes.

Therefore, the idea of putting spatial information on a flat surface was

developed. But, you know what happens when you represent a sphere on a
plane? You get distortion. It is like putting
"a square peg in a round hole". So maps take the aspects of sphere and
portray spatial information to minimize certain aspects of distortion
depending upon the type of the map. There is not one map, at least to my
knowledge, that does not have some type of distortion.